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[ ) bjbj / ΐ ΐ + o o o o o T [ L iv [$ 3 33 33 33 :4 :4 :4 t t t t t t t $ Kx z f :t o M5 :4 :4 M5 M5 :t o o 33 33 #v H H H M5 o 33 o 33 bo H M5 t H H R Fe &h 33 C i> :f No 9v 0 iv Xf S{ > z S{ < &h S{ o &h ( :4 0 j4 " H 4 4 :4 :4 :4 :t :t kG B :4 :4 :4 iv M5 M5 M5 M5 S{ :4 :4 :4 :4 :4 :4 :4 :4 :4 5 : SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
Table S1. Classification of NPSLE manifestations ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 1-2
Central NPSLE Peripheral NPSLEFocal NPSLEDiffuse NPSLEAseptic meningitisGuillain Barr syndromeCerebrovascular diseaseAseptic meningitisCerebrovascular diseaseAutonomic neuropathySeizuresDemyelinating syndromeDemyelinating syndromeMononeuropathyMovement disorderHeadacheHeadacheMyasthenia gravisMyelopathyAcute confusional stateMovement disorderCranial neuropathyCranial neuropathyAnxiety disorderMyelopathyPlexopathyPolyneuropathyCognitive dysfunctionSeizure disordersPolyneuropathyMononeuropathyMood disorderAcute confusional stateMyasthenia gravisPsychosisAnxiety disorderAutonomic neuropathyCognitive dysfunctionPlexopathyMood disorderGuillain-Barr syndromePsychosis
Table S2. Frequency of neuropsychiatric syndromes in SLE cohorts ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 3-14
NP syndromeCICommentsReferencesCerebrovascular disease510%710% in Caucasians/African-Americans, 48% in Hispanics, 25% in Asians
Type: ischemic stroke/TIA (>80%), multifocal disease (712%), intra-cerebral hemorrhage (35%), sinus thrombosis (2%)
Increased risk compared to general population (RR for stroke 7.9; PMR 1.8 in individuals aged <45 years) not explained by traditional cardiovascular risk factors
5060% occur within 24 years after diagnosis in presence of high disease activity or damage ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 5-6, 15-29 S e i z u r e d i s o r d e r s 7 1 0 % I n c r e a s e d r i s k c o m p a r e d t o g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n ( O R 4 . 0 )
T y p e : g e n e r a l i z e d t o n i c - c l o n i c ( 6 7 8 8 % ) , p a r t i a l ( c o m p l e x )
M o s t s i n g l e s e i z u r e s ; r e c u r r e n t ( e"2 ) e p i s o d e s ( e p i l e p s y ) i n 1 2 2 2 %
5 4 6 3 % w i t h i n t h e f i r s t y e a r a f t e r d i a g n o s i s i n presence of generalized disease activity (6075%) ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 30-35Cognitive dysfunction1020%More common in Caucasians (1020%) than in Asians (12%)
Most cases mild-to-moderate degree; severe cognitive dysfunction uncommon (35%)
Higher rates (average 36%) when neuropsychological tests are used (42% moderate-to-severe)
Increased risk compared to matched healthy individuals and RA patients (3946% versus 1618%)
Affected domains: attention, visual/verbal memory, psychomotor speed ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 36-47Movement disorders0.6%Often (6070%) the earliest signs of CNS involvement; mean age of presentation 2030 years
Chorea is the most frequent; hemiballism and parkinsonian disorders rare
Most commonly (5565%) bilateral and symmetrical ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 48-49Acute confusional state2.9%Rates ranging 1.84.7% (including organic brain syndrome cases)
Often in presence of generalized disease activity
Type: hypo- or hyper-aroused states, ranging from delirium to coma ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 50-53Myelopathy1.01.5%4050% as initial presentation or within the first 24 years after diagnosis
Type: acute transverse myelopathy (most common), longitudinal myelopathy (>4 spinal cord segments affected, continuous or separate) ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 54-57Cranial neuropathy1% M o s t c o m m o n : o p t i c n e u r o p a t h y ( d"1 % ) ; c r a n i a l n e r v e V I I I a n d o c u l o - m o t o r n e r v e s ( I I I , I V , V I ) p a l s y
C o - e x i s t w i t h o t h e r N P S L E s y n d r o m e s ( e s p e c i a l l y i s c h e m i c C V D a n d p e r i p h e r a l n e u r o p a t h y )
O p t i c n e u r o p a t h y i s o f t e n ( 5 0 6 0 % ) b i l a t e r a l a n d m a y c o - e x i s t w i t h t r ansverse myelitis and/or seizure disorder ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 33, 58-61Peripheral nervous system disorders23%Higher rates when EMG studies performed (1628% versus 611% in healthy individuals)
Often co-exists with other NPSLE syndromes
Type: polyneuropathy (23%), mononeuropathy (single, multiplex) (0.51%), acute or chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (0.1%), myasthenia gravis (0.1%), plexopathy (<0.1%) ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 30, 33, 62-67Psychosis2.53.5%6080% of episodes at onset or within the first year after diagnosis
Characteristics: delusions (false beliefs refuted by objective evidence), hallucinations (perceptions in the absence of external stimuli) ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 68-74Mood disorders612%More frequent in Caucasians (1020%) than in Asians (12%)
Higher rates reported in some case-control studies (2540% versus 022% in healthy individuals or RA patients)
Type: major depressionlike episodes, mood disorder with depressive and/or manic features ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 47, 73, 75-79Anxiety disorder46%More frequent in Caucasians (48%) than in Asians (0.51%) ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 43, 47, 73-74, 79-81Headache1020%Increased frequency in Caucasians (2040%) than in Asians (35%)
Higher rates (3295%) reported in studies specifically studying headache
Increased frequency compared to healthy individuals or RA patients (3261% versus 1744%) reported by some studies; not confirmed by a meta-analysis
Type: migraine, tension, cluster, associated with intracranial hypertension, non-specific intractable headache ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 82-92
CI, cumulative incidence, TIA, transient ischemic attack, NPSLE, neuropsychiatric SLE, RR, relative risk, OR, odds ratio, PMR, proportionate mortality ratio, RA, rheumatoid arthritis
Table S3. Risk factors for NPSLE
NPSLE syndromeRisk factorEffect sizeEvidenceReferencesCVDSLE spec i f i c S L E d i s e a s e a c t i v i t y B a s e l i n e S L E D A I e"6 a s s o c i a t e d w i t h H R 2 . 1 ; 9 5 % C I 1 . 0 4 . 6 2 A D D I N E N . C I T E A D D I N E N . C I T E . D A T A 2 3 a P L a n t i b o d i e s 1 O R s r a n g i n g 4 . 3 2 2 . 2 ( a C L I g G / I g M ) , 3 . 3 1 2 . 9 ( L A C ) 1 A D D I N E N . C I T E A D D I N E N . C I T E . D A T A 2 2 , 9 3 - 1 0 0Heart valve disease2ORs ranging 7.18.3; associated with aPL2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 27, 95, 101Previous CVDOR 16.32 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 31, 93Non-SLE specificHypertensionHR 3.2; 95% CI 1.47.3 for severe stroke2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 21, 23, 102DyslipidemiaHR 1.09 per 10 mg/dL increase in serum total cholesterol2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 23AgeHR 1.07 per 1-year2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 103-105Male genderOR 3.8; 95% CI 1.410.3 (versus female gender)2 ADDIN EN.CITE Petri199617217217217Petri, M.Roubenoff, R.Dallal, G. E.Nadeau, M. R.Selhub, J.Rosenberg, I. H.Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.Plasma homocysteine as a risk factor for atherothrombotic events in systemic lupus erythematosusLancetLancet1120-43489035AdultCerebrovascular Disorders/*etiologyFemaleHomocysteine/*bloodHumansLupus Erythematosus, Systemic/*blood/complicationsMaleMultivariate AnalysisProspective StudiesResearch Support, Non-U.S. Gov'tResearch Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S.Research Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S.Risk FactorsThrombosis/*etiology1996Oct 268888164http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=8888164 102HyperhomocysteinemiaORs ranging 1.14.82 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 102, 106Seizure disorderSLE disease activityHR 1.10 per 1-unit SLAM-R; SLEDAI >15 associated with OR 3.2; 95% CI 1.111.2 for epilepsy; ACR manifestations (serositis [HR 1.8], hemolytic anemia [OR 3.0], nephritis [HRs 2.14.2]); increased dose of corticosteroids or immunosuppressive therapy (cyclophosphamide use associated with HR 2.55.3)1 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 30-31, 107-110SLE damage S D I e"1 . 5 a s s o c i a t e d w i t h O R 1 0 . 2 ; 9 5 % C I 2 . 5 3 9 . 2 1 A D D I N E N . C I T E A D D I N E N . C I T E . D A T A 1 1 0 a P L a n t i b o d i e s 1 O R s 3 . 7 6 . 1 ( a C L - I g G ) , 2 . 9 ; 9 5 % C I 1 . 0 8 . 5 ( a C L - I g M ) , 6 . 2 ; 9 5 % C I 1 . 7 2 2 . 5 ( L A C ) 1 A D D I N E N . C I T E A D D I N E N . C I T E . D A T A 6 , 3 0 - 3 1 , 3 5 , 1 0 8 , 110-111Major NPSLE3Seizure disorder (ORs 8.311.0), CVD (ORs 3.05.6), psychosis (ORs 3.37.7)1 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 22, 30 , 31, 93, 109-110Anti-Sm antibodiesORs ranging 3.37.52 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 110, 112Younger ageHR 1.04 per 1-year2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 30, 109EthnicityAfrican-American (HR 5.4; 95% CI 1.322.9), Hispanic (HR 2.6; 95% CI 1.35.1) versus White/Caucasian2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 30, 109Co g n i t i v e d y s f u n c t i o n S L E s p e c i f i c S L E d i s e a s e a c t i v i t y O R f o r s e v e r e c o g n i t i v e d y s f u n c t i o n 1 3 . 4 ; 9 5 % C I 4 . 0 - 3 6 . 6 f o r b a s e l i n e S L E D A I e"1 6 2 A D D I N E N . C I T E A D D I N E N . C I T E . D A T A 2 2 , 4 2 , 4 6 , 1 1 3 - 1 1 4 S L E d a m a g e O R f o r s e v e r e c o g n i t i v e d y s f u n c t i o n 6 . 8 ; 9 5 % C I 2 . 0 2 3 . 6 f o r b a s e l i n e S L I C C D a m a g e I n d e x e"1 . 0 2 A D D I N E N . C I T E A D D I N E N . C I T E . D A T A 1 2 , 4 7 M a j o r N P S L E 3 5 2 % o f N P S L E v e r s u s 2 7 % o f n o n - N P S L E 2 A D D I N E N . C I T E A D D I N E N . C I T E . D A T A 6 , 4 3 , 1 1 5 - 1 1 8 a P L a n t i b o d i e s 1 O R s r a n g i n g 1 . 9 4 . 9 ( for severe cognitive dysfunction)2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 6, 47, 119-121Heart valve disease2OR 8.3; 95% CI 1.352 (mitral valve vegetations)2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 27, 122Non-SLE specific AgeCorrelation coefficient ( r ) ranging 0.310.38 for various neuropsychological tests1 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 10, 22, 39, 47, 123-124Education levelr ranging 0.28 to 0.39 for various neuropsychological tests2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 10, 120, 123HypertensionOR 4.7; 95% CI 1.317.1 for severe cognitive dysfunction2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 47Psychiatric diseaseDepression (r = 0.24), psychological distress (r = 0.27)2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 10, 120, 125-127Movement disordersaPL antibodies1OR 10.5; 95% CI 1.1102 (aCL-IgG); also associated with APS/APSrelated features2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 6, 48, 128-130Acute confusional stateSLE disease activityOR 1.2; 95% CI 1.01.4 per 1-unit non-neuroSLEDAI3 ADDIN EN.CITE Roldan200732323217Roldan, C. A.Gelgand, E. A.Qualls, C. R.Sibbitt, W. L., Jr.Veterans Affairs Medical Center and University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM 87108, USA. carlos.roldan2@med.va.govValvular heart disease by transthoracic echocardiography is associated with focal brain injury and central neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosusCardiologyCardiology331-710842007/02/15AdolescentAdultBrain Injuries/*diagnosis/etiologyChildEchocardiographyFemaleHeart Valve Diseases/etiology/*ultrasonographyHumansLupus Vasculitis, Central Nervous System/*complicationsMagnetic Resonance ImagingMaleMiddle Aged20071421-9751 (Electronic)17299260http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=17299260000099104 [pii]
10.1159/000099104eng27, ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 93Major NPSLECVD prevalence 43% versus 10% in SLE with normal alertness3 ADDIN EN.CITE Futrell199223723723717Futrell, N.Schultz, L. R.Millikan, C.Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health Sciences Center, Detroit, MI 48202.Central nervous system disease in patients with systemic lupus erythematosusNeurologyNeurology1649-57429BehaviorCause of DeathCentral Nervous System Diseases/*etiology/physiopathology/psychologyConsciousnessFemaleHumansLupus Erythematosus, Systemic/*complications/physiopathology/psychologyMaleProspective StudiesRetrospective Studies1992Sep1513450http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=1513450 131Psychiatric disord e r s S L E d i s e a s e a c t i v i t y M o s t a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h p a t i e n t p e r c e i v e d d i s e a s e a c t i v i t y ; b a s e l i n e S L E D A I e"1 6 a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p s y c h o s i s w i t h a d j u s t e d O R 9 . 7 ; 9 5 % C I 3 . 5 - 2 6 . 3 2 A D D I N E N . C I T E A D D I N E N . C I T E . D A T A 2 2 , 6 9 - 7 0 , 7 4 , 1 3 2 - 1 3 3 M a j o r N P S L E O R f o r major depression 3.4; 95% CI 1.86.42 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 115, 134-135Psychological distress4r = 0.30 with psychiatric manifestations, particularly depression2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 70, 73-74, 76, 132Anti-ENAAnti-Sm [RR 11.3], anti-RNP [RR 5.5], anti-Ro (association with psychosis)2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 112, 136-137MyelopathyaPL antibodies1OR 9.6; 95% CI 1.850.7 (LAC)2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 55, 138-140Cranial neuropathyaPL antibodies1OR 1.07; 95% CI 1.001.14 (aCL-IgG)3 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 6Peripheral neuropathyAnti-ENAAnti-dsDNA (OR 2.3; 95% CI 1.05.6), anti-Sm (33% versus 3%), anti-RNP (OR 4.6)2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 22, 63, 112Major NPSLE38% in patients with seizure disorder versus 3% in non-seizure SLE2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 30, 33, ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 93
CVD, cerebrovascular disease, SLEDAI, SLE disease activity index, HR, hazard ratio, 95% CI, 95% confidence interval, aPL, antiphospholipid, OR, odds ratio, SLAM, Systemic Lupus Activity Measure, SDI, SLE International Collaborating Clinics Damage Index, APS, antiphospholipid syndrome.
1 Persistently positive, moderate-to-high titers of aPL antibodies
2 Moderate-to-severe mitral valve regurgitation and/or valve vegetations
3 Refers to past or concurrent major NPSLE syndrome
4 Including also stressful life event, lack of social support
Table S4. Diagnostic work-up in SLE patients who present with neuropsychiatric signs or symptoms
NPSLEDiagnostic work-up and interpretation of testsEvidenceReferencesGeneral NPSLEH&P1Determine the neuropsychiatric syndrome(s) present and the extent of neurological deficitExclude mimicking conditions (hypertensive encephalopathy, syncope, panic attack, migraine)Identify secondary causes or aggravating factors: infections (including CNS infections, levodopa), hypoxia or hypercarbia, head trauma, adverse drug reactions (anticholinergics, narcotic analgesics), alcohol or illicit drug use, withdrawal syndromesCBC, biochemistry2Exclude secondary causes: metabolic disturbances (hypo- or hyperglycemia, uremia, electrolyte abnormalities), vitamin deficiencies, liver or thyroid diseaseSerological testsAnti-ribosomal P antibodies: limited utility (sensitivity 2527%, specificity 7580%)1 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 141-146Anti-neuronal antibodies: limited utility (sensitivity 77%, specificity 96%, LR+ 20.7 in headache/seizure with abnormal MRI)3 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 147Anti-ganglioside antibody: not confirmed utility (RR 3.74.0 for NPSLE)3 ADDIN EN.CITE Schenatto200650505017Schenatto, C. B.Xavier, R. M.Bredemeier, M.Portela, L. V.Tort, A. B.Dedavid e Silva, T. L.Souza, D. O.Brenol, J. C.Division of Rheumatology, Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.Raised serum S100B protein levels in neuropsychiatric lupusAnn Rheum DisAnn Rheum Dis829-31656AdultAntibodies, Anticardiolipin/bloodAntibodies, Antinuclear/bloodBiological Markers/bloodCase-Control StudiesFemaleHumansLupus Coagulation Inhibitor/bloodLupus Erythematosus, Systemic/*bloodLupus Vasculitis, Central Nervous System/*blood/diagnosisMaleMiddle AgedNerve Growth Factors/*bloodProspective StudiesROC CurveS100 Proteins/*bloodSensitivity and Specificity2006Jun16699054http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.f c g i ? c m d = R e t r i e v e & a m p ; d b = P u b M e d & a m p ; d o p t = C i t a t i o n & a m p ; l i s t _ u i d s = 1 6 6 9 9 0 5 4 < / u r l > < / r e l a t e d - u r l s > < / u r l s > < / r e c o r d > < / C i t e > < / E n d N o t e > 1 4 8 S e r u m S 1 0 0 B : n o t c o n f i r m e d u t i l i t y ( l e v e l s e"0 . 1 2 5 n g / m L h a v e 7 8 % s e n s i t i v i t y a n d 8 0 % s p e c i f i c i t y t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e a c t i v e NPSLE from active non-NPSLE)3 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 149-150Other tests (autoantibodies, cytokines, other biomarkers) have limited diagnostic utilityCSF examination3Indicated to exclude CNS infectionMild abnormalities: common in active NPSLE ( p l e o c y t o s i s : 2 2 3 6 % [ u s u a l l y 2 0 1 0 0 c e l l s / h p f ] , ! p r o t e i n : 3 0 6 6 % [ u s u a l l y 7 0 1 1 0 m g / d L ] , ! g l u c o s e : 8 4 2 % [ u s u a l l y 3 0 4 0 m g / d L ]
C a n n o t a c c u r a t e l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e S L E f r o m n o n - S L E a t t r i b u t e d e v e n t s
N o t s p e c i f i c t o t h e t y p e o f N P S L E 2 A D D I N E N . C I T E A D D IN EN.CITE.DATA 151-152IL6: increased in active NPSLE but their diagnostic utility remains to be established2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 153-155IgG index: sensitivity 75%, specificity 100% for diffuse/complex NPSLE2 ADDIN EN.CITE West199554545417West, S. G.Emlen, W.Wener, M. H.Kotzin, B. L.Rheumatology Service, Fitzsimons Army Medical Center, Aurora, Colorado 80045-5001, USA.Neuropsychiatric lupus erythematosus: a 10-year prospective study on the value of diagnostic testsAm J MedAm J Med153-63992AdolescentAdultAgedAntibodies, Anticardiolipin/bloodAutoantibodies/blood/cerebrospinal fluidBrain/pathologyCase-Control StudiesCerebrospinal Fluid Proteins/cerebrospinal fluidFemaleHumansLupus Coagulation Inhibitor/bloodLupus Erythematosus, Systemic/cerebrospinalfluid/*diagnosis/*immunology/psychologyMagnetic Resonance ImagingMaleMiddle AgedNeurons/immunologyPredictive Value of TestsProspective StudiesRibosomal Proteins/bloodSensitivity and SpecificityTomography, X-Ray Computed1995Aug7625420http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=7625420 156Oligo-clonal bands: sensitivity 55%, specificity 92% for diffuse/complex NPSLE2 ADDIN EN.CITE West199554545417West, S. G.Emlen, W.Wener, M. H.Kotzin, B. L.Rheumatology Service, Fitzsimons Army Medical Center, Aurora, Colorado 80045-5001, USA.Neuropsychiatric lupus erythematosus: a 10-year prospective study on the value of diagnostic testsAm J MedAm J Med153-63992AdolescentAdultAgedAntibodies, Anticardiolipin/bloodAutoantibodies/blood/cerebrospinal fluidBrain/pathologyCase-Control StudiesCerebrospinal Fluid Proteins/cerebrospinal fluidFemaleHumansLupus Coagulation Inhibitor/bloodLupus Erythematosus, Systemic/cerebrospinalfluid/*diagnosis/*immunology/psychologyMagnetic Resonance ImagingMaleMiddle AgedNeurons/immunologyPredictive Value of TestsProspective StudiesRibosomal Proteins/bloodSensitivity and SpecificityTomography, X-Ray Computed1995Aug7625420http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=7625420 156Anti-neuronal antibodies (high titers): limited utility (sensitivity 58%, specificity 89%, PPV 88%, NPV 61%)2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 147, 157-158EEGModest sensitivity (4284%, usually 60%) and specificity (50%) in active NPSLE; unspecific theta (slowing) activity in 5080%, focal or lateral abnormalities in 2040%2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 8, 33, 156, 159-166Neurometric quantitative EEG: no additional benefitIndicated to diagnose underlying seizure disorder (80% sensitive in the acute phase: epileptic-form discharges in 5070% and diffuse slow waves in 3050%)Visual evoked potentialsUseful to determine optic nerve involvement3 ADDIN EN.CITE Giorgi199927827827817Giorgi, D.Balacco Gabrieli, C.Institute of Ophthalmology, School of Medicine, La Sapienza University, Rome, Italy.Optic neuropathy in systemic lupus erythematosus and antiphospholipid syndrome (APS): clinical features, pathogenesis, review of the literature and proposed ophthalmological criteria for APS diagnosisClin RheumatolClin Rheumatol124-31182AdultAntibodies, Antinuclear/analysisAntibodies, Antiphospholipid/analysisAntiphospholipid Syndrome/*complications/diagnosis/drug therapyAzathioprine/therapeutic useCyclosporine/therapeutic useDiagnosis, DifferentialDrug Therapy, CombinationFemaleHumansLupus Erythematosus, Systemic/*complications/diagnosis/drug therapyMiddle AgedOptic Nerve Diseases/diagnosis/drug therapy/*etiologyPrednisolone/therapeutic useVisual Acuity199910357117http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=10357117 167No utility in the diagnostic work-up of other NPSLE syndromesTranscranial doppler USDetection of micro-embolic signals in patients with history of CVD (PPV 93%, NPV 94%)2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 168-169High blood flow velocities in middle cerebral arteries and/or detection of micro-embolic signals: modest correlation with acute seizures or stroke (sensitivity 67%, specificity 83%)Brain MRI (conventional)Test of choice in imaging of NPSLE; more sensitive than CT1 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 27, 47, 104, 170-177Recommended protocol: conventional T1/T2, FLAIR, DWI, and Gd-enhanced T1 sequencesUseful to exclude brain mass or abscess; may rule out CNS infection (meningeal enhancement)Moderate sensitivity (5560%) in acute NPSLE (specificity 5070%); increased sensitivity in major versus minor (64% versus 30%) and in focal versus diffuse (76% versus 51%) NPSLESmall punctuate hyperintense focal lesions in subcortical and periventricular WM on T2-weighted and FLAIR images, without contrast enhancement; T1weighted signals are usually normal
Sensitivity 51% for acute NPSLE (54% in major, 30% in minor NPSLE); increased in focal than diffuse major NPSLE (79% versus 48%)
Located in the frontal-parietal regions (7080%) and in the basal ganglia or infratentorial region (cerebellum) (810%); no correlation with the type of NP syndrome
Moderate specificity (also present in 1840% of non-NPSLE); improved specifici t y ( 7 0 9 0 % ) i f m u l t i p l e ( e"5 ) , m e d i u m - s i z e d ( e"6 8 m m ) , b i - h e m i s p h e r i c l e s i o n s
P o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h a g e , S L E d u r a t i o n , h y p e r t e n s i o n , a P L , h e a r t v a l v e d i s e a s e C e r e b r a l a t r o p h y
U s u a l l y m i l d - t o - m o d e r a t e ( 3 0 % i n m a j o r N P S L E , 3 0 4 0 % i n f o c a l v e r s u s 1 5 2 0 % in diffuse NPSLE)
Low specificity (4060%); positive correlation with age, SLE duration, cumulative dose of steroids, SLE damage, aPLDWI: improved sensitivity (including cases of diffuse NPSLE with normal-appearing conventional MRI)
Early (first 7-10 days) detection of acute ischemic CVD lesions
Discrimination between recent (restricted diffusion) and old (no diffusion restriction) hyperintense ischemic lesions1 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 178-185Volumetric MRI: diagnostic utility no t d e t e r m i n e d ( ! T 2 w e i g h t e d l e s i o n s , c e r e b r a l o r r e g i o n a l ( c o r p u s c a l l o s u m , h i p p o c a m p u s ) a t r o p h y i n p a t i e n t s w i t h p a s t N P S L E ) 2 A D D I N E N . C I T E A D D I N E N . C I T E . D A T A 1 1 , 1 7 1 , 1 7 5 , 1 8 6 - 1 9 1 A d v a n c e d M R I M a g n e t i z a t i o n t r a n s f e r i m a g i n g L i m i t e d u s e i n r o u t i n e c l i n i c a l p r a c t i c e d u e t o l a c k o f s t a n d a r d i z e d n o r m a l M T R v a l u e s 2 A D D I N E N . C I T E A D D I N E N . C I T E . D A T A 1 9 2 - 1 9 8 U s e f u l i n t h e d i a g n o s i s o f p a s t v e r s u s a c u t e N P S L E : ! M T R p e a k h e i g h t ( w h o l e b r a i n ) ; ! M T R m e a n ( v a l u e s < 3 5 . 5 h a v e s e n s i t i v i t y 1 0 0 % a n d s p e c i f i c i t y 9 0 % ) U s e f u l i n t h e d i a g n o s i s o f d i f f u s e N P S L E : M T R c h a n g e s i n G M ( m o r e s e n s i t i v e t h a n M R I ) ; ! M T R p e a k h e i g h t ( v a l u e s < 1 0 4 . 0 h a v e s e n s i t i v i t y a n d s p e c i f i c i t y 1 0 0 % a g a i n s t n o n - N P S L E ) D i f f u s i o n t e n s o r M R I L i m i t e d u s e i n r o u t i n e c l i n i cal practice2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 178, 182, 189, 191Detects alterations in normal-appearing GM and WM brain parenchyma in NPSLEMR spectroscopyMore sensitive than conventional MRI and allows for quantification of the observed changes1 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 190, 199-208 ! N A A / C r r a t i o i n m a j o r N P S L E a t t h e l e v e l o f M R I f o c a l l e s i o n s b u t a l s o i n n o r m a l - a p p e a r i n g G M / W M
C o r r e l a t i o n w i t h M R I a b n o r m a l i t i e s , a P L , d i s e a s e a c t i v i t y b u t n o t w i t h s p e c i f i c N P s y n d r o m e s
M i n o r N P S L E h a v e ! N A A / C r i n b a s a l g a n g l i a ( b u t n o t i n n o r m a l - a p p e a r i n g W M ) ! C h o / C r r a t i o s i n a c t i v e N P S L E
P r e d i c t s f u t u r e ( a f t e r 1 8 2 4 m o n t h s ) a p p e a r a n c e o f M R I h y p e r i n t e n s e f o c a l l e s i o n s F u n c t i o n a l M R I L i m i t e d u s e i n N P S L E 3 A D D I N E N . C I T E A D D I N E N . C I T E . D A T A 1 9 1 , 2 0 9 D e t e c t s i n c r e a s e d m o v e m e n t a n d m emory taskassociated activation in frontal and parietal lobesPerfusion weighted imagingLimited use in NPSLE3 ADDIN EN.CITE Borrelli200313813813817Borrelli, M.Tamarozzi, R.Colamussi, P.Govoni, M.Trotta, F.Lappi, S.U. O. di Neuroradiologia, Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria di Ferrara, Italy. massimo.borrelli@yahoo.comEvaluation with MR, perfusion MR and cerebral flowSPECT in NPSLE patientsRadiol Med (Torino)Radiol Med (Torino)482-91055-6AdultAged*Cerebrovascular CirculationComparative StudyFemaleHumansLupus Vasculitis, Central Nervous System/*physiopathology*Magnetic Resonance ImagingMaleMiddle Aged*Tomography, Emission-Computed, Single-Photon2003May-Jun12949459http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=12949459 210Identifies perfusion abnormalities in minor and major NPSLE (including normal MRI cases)Functional imagingSPECTPerfusion deficits (focal, diffuse) at the frontal, temporal, or parietal regions1 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 211-216More sensitive than MRI for both major (83% versus 63%) and minor (65% versus 33%) NPSLE
Superior to MRI in diffuse (sensitivity 73% versus 54%) but not in focal (90% versus 86%) NPSLEModerate specificity (5070%); improved if moderate-to-severe perfusion deficits, at multiple brain regions, and involvement of the basal gangliaDoes not provide anatomical details; co-registration of MRI reduces the false positive readings and improves specificity (from 4051% to 7393%)FDGPET Limited availability, excessive cost, high radiation dose2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 118, 217-221Detects hypometabolism in the parieto-occipital and parietal regions; may reveal GM lesionsMore sensitive than MRI (90100% for major, 8090% for minor NPSLE); may detect perfusion abnormalities in normal-appearing GM/WMModerate specificityCerebrovascular diseaseBrain MRIAssess for hemorrhage, brain injury, or vascular lesion
MRI (conventional T1/T2 sequences with DWI): preferred test (sensitivity 80100%)
Non-contrast CT is acceptable in the acute setting to assess for hemorrhage1(see General NPSLE)MRA, CTA, DSAIdentification of vascular lesions or brain vasculature aneurysms (subarachnoid hemorrhage)CSF examinationExclude CNS infection or subarachnoid hemorrhage (if brain CT is negative for blood)12-lead ECG readingDetection of heart rhythm abnormalities or myocardial ischemia (consider cardiac monitoring for initial 24h)Heart echocardiographyDetection of structural heart abnormalities as source of emboliCarotid artery duplexDetection of atherosclerotic lesions and guide endarterectomySeizure disorderH&PConfirm diagnosis: high-yield features (tongue biting, aura, epigastric fullness, postictal confusion, focal neurologic signs), consider witness accountsEEGAbnormal in 6070% (typical epileptiform patterns [spikes, sharp waves] in 2450%)
Epileptiform EEG predicts seizure recurrence (PPV 73%, NPV 79%)
Monitoring of anti-epileptic drug therapy2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 8, 31-32, 166Brain MRIMay detect structural lesions causally related to seizure disorder (more sensitive than CT)
WM focal hyper-intensities (5055%) or cerebral atrophy (40%); specificity 3252%1(see General NPSLE)Brain SPECTLimited use (increased sensitivity 6083%)2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 222-223Cognitive dysfunctionBrief screening tests4Screening for cognitive dysfunction ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 135, 224Neuropsychological testsDiagnosis of cognitive dysfunction 5
ACR (1-hour) battery of neuropsychological tests: validated against a comprehensive 4-hour assessment (sensitivity 80%, specificity 81% in NPSLE)
The computer-based Automated Neuropsychological Assessment Metrics (ANAM) system may also be used (sensitivity 76%, diagnostic accuracy 80%)1 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 1, 10, 12, 44, 46-47, 120, 127, 225-228Brain MRIIndications:
General: age <60 years, rapid unexplained cognitive decline, moderate-to-severe cognitive impairment, recent and significant head trauma, new-onset neurological symptoms or signs (focal neurological signs, gait disturbance, urinary incontinence), use of anti-coagulants
SLEspecific: aPL antibodies 6, past/concurrent other NPSLE, immunosuppressive therapy1 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 45, 47, 171, 175, 229Exclusion of brain lesions (tumor, subdural hematoma, hydrocephalus) or diagnosis of CVDAbnormalities (cerebral atrophy, WM hyper-intensities or infarcts) in 55% (mild-to-moderate) to 80% (severe cognitive dysfunction); more sensitive than CTCorrelation of abnormalities with performance in neuropsychological tests (72% agreement)Volumetric MRI protocols detect increased intracranial CSF space, decreased cerebral, corpus callosum and hippocampus volume (correlation with degree of cognitive dysfunction)2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 11, 175, 187-188Advanced MRINo established utility in routine assessment of cognitive dysfunction2 ADD I N E N . C I T E A D D I N E N . C I T E . D A T A 4 5 , 2 0 0 , 2 3 0 - 2 3 1 M R S : ! N A A / C h o r a t i o ( G M , W M , r = 0 . 6 7 0 . 7 7 w i t h n e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l t e s t s ) ; ! C h o / C r r a t i o i n s e v e r e d y s f u n c t i o n ( W M , d o r s o l a t e r a l p r e f r o n t a l c o r t e x , = 0 . 5 7 w i t h n e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l t e s t s ) M T I : M T R p eak height (WM, GM, brain parenchyma) inversely related to cognitive dysfunction (r = 0.31 to 0.45)Brain SPECTNo established utility in routine assessment of cognitive dysfunction2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 229, 232-233Cerebral hypoperfusion: 3344% in mild, 86% in moderate-to-severe cognitive dysfunctionPerfusion deficits correspond to specific impairments in neuropsychological tests or cognitive domainsMovement disorderH&PFamily history important for inherited causes (Huntingtons disease, spinocerebellar ataxia, Wilsons disease)Brain MRIIndicated when other focal neurological signs are present or to rule in CVD as a secondary cause (lesions in basal ganglia)2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 48, 128, 234May reveal abnormalities (WM hyperintensities 63%, infarcts 38%); more sensitive than CTAcute confusional stateScreening tools 7Prompt Identification of acute confusionH&PDistinguish from acute psychiatric disorder:
ACS: acute onset, fluctuating level of consciousness, decreased attention, visual hallucinations
Psychiatric disorder: slow onset, deficits in reality testing, auditory hallucinationsCSF examinationExclude CNS infection (especially if fever, immunosuppressive therapy)3 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 155No confirmed utility of IL-6(>31.8 pg/mL has PPV 80%, NPV 85%), IgG index, Q-albuminEEGIndicated to diagnose underlying seizure disorder (non-convulsive status epilepticus)3 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 212, 235Limited diagnostic utility for ACS (sensitivity and specificity 5055%)Brain MRIIndications: focal neurological signs, head trauma or malignancy, fever, absence of secondary cause of ACS, failure to improve despite appropriate treatment of the underlying medical problem2(see General NPSLE)Abnormal in 65% of SLErelated ACS (WM hyper-intensities 45%, cerebral atrophy 33%); more sensitive than CTBrain SPECTSensitive (93%) for detection of perfusion deficits (specificity 8190% versus non-NPSLE)2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 212-213, 236-237Monitoring of response to therapy (80% correlation with clinical improvement)Psychiatric diseaseSerum autoantibodiesAnti-neuronal antibodies: no utility1 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 145-146, 238-239Anti-ribosomal P antibodies: limited utility (sensitivity 2527%, specificity 7580%)CSF examinationIndicated to exclude CNS infection2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 240No co n f i r m e d u t i l i t y o f a n t i - r i b o s o m a l P / a n t i - n e u r o n a l a n t i b o d i e s I L - 6 : n o c o n f i r m e d u t i l i t y ( ! i n S L E v e r s u s c o r t i c o s t e r o i d i n d u c e d p s y c h i a t r i c d i s e a s e ) E E G I n d i c a t e d t o d i a g n o s e c o - e x i s t i n g s e i z u r e d i s o r d e r 2 A D D I N E N . C I T E A D D I N E N . C I T E . D A T A 240-241Non-specific abnormalities in 50% (versus 7% in corticosteroidinduced psychiatric disease)Brain MRILow/moderate sensitivity (13% in mild, 5070% in major event); specificity 4067%2Should be considered when additional neurologic signs or symptoms are presentBrain SPECTSensitivity 5080% in mild, 80100% in major events; specificity 33% against non-psychiatric NPSLE, 7080% against non-NPSLE2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 222-223, 236, 238, 242-243Monitoring psychiatric disease; prognostic value (residual perfusion deficits during clinical remission correlates with future relapse of psychiatric symptoms after 16 months)FDGPET Sensitive but diagnostic utility has not been established2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 217, 220MyelopathyH&PExclude peripheral nerve disease, plexopathy, neuromuscular junction disease, motor neuropathy, hydrocephalus, PMLConsider infectious myelitis, acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, postvaccine myelitisDetermine the spinal cord level of neurological damage to guide MRI Spinal cord MRIExclude spinal cord compression1 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 54, 56, 140, 244-245Inflammatory lesions (T2weighted hyper-intense with contrast enhancement): 7093%; if normal initial MRI but high clinical suspicion consider repeating after 27 daysMonitor response to therapyBrain MRIIndicated when other NPSLE symptoms or focal neurological signs co-exist or for the diagnosis of demyelinating disordersCSF examinationExclude infectious causes of myelitis 2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 54, 56, 140, 244-246Mild CSF abnormalities (pleocytosis, protein elevation, low glucose): 5080%Serum NMO-IgG Diagnosis of co-existing NMO; consider if longitudinal myelitis, co-existing optic neuritis or vigorous CSF cellular response (501000 cells/hpf) with neutrophil predominance2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 247Optic neuropathyOphthalmologic examinationExclude other causes of vision loss2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 167, 248-249Optic disc edema (fundoscopy): 3040%Visual field defects (central, arcuate)Visual-evoked potentialsReduced amplitude and/or increased latency2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 167, 250May reveal bilateral optic nerve damage before it is clinically apparentFluoro-angiographyIndicated when vasoocclusive retinopathy is suspected ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 250Brain MRIOptic nerve enhancement (6070%); monitoring of therapy2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 249, 251-252Brain abnormalities (67%)Peripheral neuropathyH&PExclude non-neuropathic causes (arthritis) of sensory symptoms and signs, myopathies, neuromuscular transmission disorders, motor neuron diseaseConsider non-SLErelated causes of peripheral neuropathyBrain MRIExclude CNS involvement when focal neurological signs, gait disturbance, visual or urinary disorder, increased tendon reflexes and/or muscle tone are presentElectrodiagnostic testingIdentification of mononeuropathy2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 63, 65, 253-254 (NCS/EMG)Differentiation between multiple mononeuropathy and polyneuropathyDistinguish axonal from demyelinating neuropathiesMonitor response to therapy CSF examinationRule in infectious causeElevated protein with normal cell count in acute/chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathyNerve biopsyRarely indicated2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 253, 255-256Skin biopsyIndicated when electrodiagnostic studies are normal to diagnose small-fiber neuropathy (loss of intra-epidermal nerve fibers)2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 66, 256
H&P, history and physical examination, CBC, complete blood cell count, CSF, cerebrospinal fluid, RR, relative risk, EEG, electroencephalogram, PPV, positive predictive value, NPV, negative predictive value, US, ultrasound, aPL, antiphospholipid, DWI, diffusion-weighted imaging, MTR, magnetization transfer ratio, NAA, N-acetyl-aspartate, Cho, choline, Cr, creatine, GM, grey matter, WM, white matter, SPECT, single photon emission computed tomography, FDG-PET, 2-18F-fluoro-2-deoxyglucose positron emission tomography, MRA, magnetic resonance angiogram, CTA, computed tomography angiogram, DSA, digital subtractive angiogram, NCS, nerve conduction studies, EMG, needle electromyography
1 Medical history (including family history, drug or substance use history) and physical examination (including a complete neurologic examination)
2 Basic tests Include serum glucose, electrolytes (Na+, K+, Ca+2), urea/creatinine, and liver function tests. Tests for thyroid function, vitamin B12, paraproteinemia in selected cases
3 CSF tests include glucose, total protein, cell count and differential, gram stain and culture, PCR for herpes simplex virus and/or JC virus, cryptococcal antigen. Other CSF tests as indicated.
4 The Cognitive Symptoms Inventory (CSI), a self-administered 21-item questionnaire, has been used to screen for difficulties in daily activities involving intermediate memory, concentration, attention, and executive function in SLE patients. Other sensitive instruments (not validated in SLE patients) are the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (90% sensitive, 87% specific), the DemTect (80% sensitive, 92% specific), the 7-Minute Screen (92% sensitive, 96% specific), and the General Practitioner Assessment of Cognition (82% sensitive, 86% specific)
5 Severe cognitive dysfunction is defined i f t h e s c o r e i s e"2 s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n ( S D ) b e l o w t h e m e a n i n d o m a i n s o f a t t e n t i o n , m e m o r y , a n d p s y c h o m o t o r s p e e d , c o m p a r e d t o n o r m a t i v e d a t a ; s c o r e s 1 . 0 2 . 0 S D b e l o w t h e m e a n i n d i c a t e m i l d - t o - m o d e r a t e d e g r e e o f c o g n i t i v e d y s f u n c t i o n
6 P e r s i s t e n t l y p o s i t i v e , moderate-to-high titers of aPL antibodies
7 Several screening tools are available to aid in identifying ACS, such as the Confusion Assessment Method (CAM), the Delirium Rating Scale (DRS), and the Memorial Delirium Assessment Scale (MDAS). The MMSE is not sensitive for the diagnosis but it helps follow the course of ACS.
Table S5. Management of neuropsychiatric manifestations in SLE patients
NPSLEGeneral managementSpecific management in SLEEvidenceReferencesCVDThombolytic (ischemic stroke) or surgical (hemorrhagic stroke) therapy according to indicationsIn patients with persistent aPL antibodies1, oral anti-coagulation therapy may be more effective than aspirin for secondary prevention of ischemic/thrombotic CVD1 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 257-258In ischemic stroke/TIA, anti-platelet agents should be initiated within 2448 hoursIn patients ischemic/thrombotic CVD who fulfill the criteria for APS:2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 257-264Anticoagulation therapy when a t r i a l f i b r i l l a t i o n o r c a r d i o - e m b o l i c s o u r c e i s p r e s e n t
C o n s i d e r e n d a r t e r e c t o m y i f i p s i l a t e r a l s e v e r e ( e"7 0 % ) c a r o t i d a r t e r y s t e n o s i s H i g h - i n t e n s i t y w a r f a r i n ( t a r g e t I N R 3 . 1 "4 . 0 ) m a y b e p r e f e r r e d o v e r m o d e r a t e - i n t e n s i t y w a r f a r i n ( t a r g e t I N R 2 . 0 "3 . 0 ) a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s i n c r e a s e d r i s k f o r m i n o r b l e e d i n g e v e n t s
L o n g - t e r m a n t i - c o a g u l a t i o n t h e r a p y i s r e c o m m e n d e d S e c o n d a r y p r e v e n t i o n m e a s u r e s : m o d i f y c a r d i o - v a s c u l a r r i s k f a c t o r s ( h y p e r t e n s i o n , d y s l i p i d e m i a , h y p e r g l y c e m i a , s m o k i n g ) , w e i g h t c o n t r o l , a d e q u a t e p h ysical activityGeneralized disease activity should be controlled with corticosteroids alone or in combination with immunosuppressive agents (azathioprine, cyclophosphamide)3 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 33, 265Seizure disorderAnti-epileptic therapy when high-risk features are present: second seizure (>24 hours after first event), serious brain injury, brain structural abnormalities (MRI), focal neurological signs, partial seizure as the first seizure, epileptic-form EEG dischargesConsider anti-epileptic therapy if SLEspecific high-risk features for seizure recurrence are present: uncontrolled disease activity, aPL antibodies, prior or concurrent CVD, severe renal involvement3 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 32Consult a specialist for initiation and/or titration of anti-epileptic therapy (generalized seizures usually managed with phenytoin, barbiturates; partial complex seizures with carbamazepine, clonazepam, valproic acid, gabapentin) C o r t i c o s t e r o i d s ( d"1 m g / k g / d a y ) a l o n e o r i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h i m m u n o s u p p r e s s i v e t h e r a p y ( a z a t h i o p r i n e , c y c l o p h o s p h a m i d e ) s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d t o c o n t r o l g e n e r a l S L E a c t i v i t y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s e i z u r e s o r r e c u r r e n t s e i z u r e s 1 A D D I N E N . C I T E A D D I N E N . C I T E . D A TA 8, 32, 250, 266Adjunct anti-coagulation therapy may be considered in aPL-positive patients with persistent seizure activity despite adequate control of disease activity with immunosuppressive therapy3Cognitive dysfunctionTreat any secondary or exacerbating factors (anxiety, depression)Aspirin in aPL-positive or older diabetic patients3 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 120Aggressive control of cardiovascular risk factors (tobacco use, hypertension, dyslipidemia, diabetes mellitus), regular physical exercisePsycho-educational group intervention may result in improvement in memory self-efficacy, memory function, and ability to perform daily activities2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 225, 267Psychosocial interventionsCorticosteroids and/or immunosuppressive therapy may be considered to control concurrent SLE or major NPSLE activity2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 268-269Acetyl-cholinesterase inhibitors (donepezil) and memantine (noncompetitive inhibitor of NMDA NR2 receptors) for mild cognitive dysfunction and dementiaAnti-coagulation therapy in APS patients3 ADDIN EN.CITE Hughes200123123123117G. R. V. HughesM-J CuadradoM. A. KhamashtaG. SannaHeadache and memory loss: rapid response to heparin in the antiphospholipid syndromeLupusLupus778102001270Movement disorderSymptomatic therapy (dopamine antagonists)Corticosteroids in combination with immunosuppressive therapy (azathioprine, cyclophosphamide) to control SLE disease activity3 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 48-49Anti-platelet and/or anti-coagulation therapy in aPL-positive patients especially when other aPL/APSrelated manifestations are present3 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 48-49, 271-272Acute confusional stateSupportive measures (adequate hydration, early mobilization, physical restraints removal, avoid under-/over- stimulating environment)Combination of corticosteroids with immunosuppressive agents (azathioprine, cyclophosphamide) is effective in most patients with SLEassociated ACS (response rates up to 70%)3 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 250, 273-274Correct underlying cause or exacerbating factorsIn refractory or relapsing cases, rituximab (anti-CD20 mAb) or plasma exchange therapy (synchronized with IV CY) could be considered3 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 237, 241Control agitation with haloperidol and atypical antipsychotics (when an underlying cause has been identified)Psychiatric disordersAnti-depressive and/or anti-psychotic agents according to standard indicationsShort-term corticosteroids (0.5 mg/kg) results in improvement in depression but effects are modest and variable2 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 268, 275Biofeedback-assisted cognitive-behavioral treatment has favourable impact on depressive symptoms2 ADDIN EN.CITE Greco200431831831817Greco, C. M.Rudy, T. E.Manzi, S.University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15232, USA. grecocm@upmc.eduEffects of a stress-reduction program on psychological function, pain, and physical function of systemic lupus erythematosus patients: a randomized controlled trialArthritis RheumArthritis Rheum625-34514Adaptation, PsychologicalAdult*Biofeedback (Psychology)FemaleFollow-Up StudiesHumansLupus Erythematosus, Systemic/*psychology/*therapyMaleMiddle AgedPain/*psychology/*therapyPatient ComplianceResearch Support, Non-U.S. Gov'tResearch Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S.Stress, Psychological/*therapyTreatment Outcome2004Aug 1515334437http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=15334437 276In acute psychosis and generalized or NPSLE activity the combination of corticosteroids (1 mg/kg) and immuno-suppressive therapy (cyclophosphamide followed by maintenance with azathioprine) is effective (6080% response)3 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 8, 68, 274, 277-279In refractory to standard immunosuppressive therapy NPSLE, rituximab results in rapid, significant improvement in psychiatric manifestations (psychosis, mood disorder)3 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 237MyelopathyInduction therapy: combination IV MP and IV CY more effective than IV MP alone or low-dose corticosteroids1 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 54, 56, 250, 280Maintenance therapy with less intensive immunosuppressive regimens to prevent relapses which are common (5060%)3 ADDIN EN.CITE Chan199625325325317Chan, K. F.Boey, M. L.Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Tan Tock Seng Hospital, Singapore.Transverse myelopathy in SLE: clinical features and functional outcomesLupusLupus294-954AdultAutoimmune Diseases/*complicationsAzathioprine/therapeutic useBladder, Neurogenic/etiology/physiopathologyCyclophosphamide/therapeutic useFemaleHumansImmunosuppressive Agents/therapeutic useLupus Erythematosus, Systemic/*complicationsMethylprednisolone/therapeutic useMiddle AgedMyelitis, Transverse/drug therapy/*etiology/rehabilitationParaplegia/etiologyPrednisone/therapeutic useQuadriplegia/etiologyTreatment OutcomeUrodynamics1996Aug8869901http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=8869901 54In severe myelitis not responding to standard immunosuppressive therapy, rituximab (anti-CD20 mAb) could be considered3 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 237, 281Anti-coagulation therapy could be considered in aPL-positive or APS patients not responding to immunosuppressive therapy3 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 140, 282-283Cranial neuropathy (optic neuropathy)High-dose corticosteroids (IV MP) alone or in combination with immunosuppressive therapy (cyclophosphamide) is effective1 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 250, ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 167, 284-286Relapses may occur and require chronic immunosuppressive therapy3 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 249-250Anti-coagulation therapy could be considered in aPL-positive patients who have not responded to immunosuppressive therapy3 ADDIN EN.CITE Au200438438438417Au, A.O'Day, J.St Vincent's Hospital Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. aliciaau@hotmail.comReview of severe vaso-occlusive retinopathy in systemic lupus erythematosus and the antiphospholipid syndrome: associations, visual outcomes, complications and treatmentClin Experiment OphthalmolClin Experiment Ophthalmol87-100321AdultAntibodies, Antiphospholipid/analysisAnticoagulants/therapeutic useAntiphospholipid Syndrome/*complications/diagnosis/drug therapyAspirin/therapeutic useCombined Modality TherapyFemaleFluorescein AngiographyHumansImmunosuppressive Agents/therapeutic useLupus Erythematosus, Systemic/*complications/diagnosis/drug therapyRetinal Artery Occlusion/diagnosis/drug therapy/*etiologyRetinal Neovascularization/diagnosis/etiologyThrombolytic TherapyVisual Acuity2004Feb14746601http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=14746601 287Peripheral neuropathyCorticosteroids alone or in combination with immunosuppressive therapy (azathioprine, cyclophosphamide) are effective (6080% response) in moderate-to-severe cases1 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 33, 250, 283In severe NPSLE refractory to immunosuppressive therapy, rituximab (anti-CD20 mAb) therapy results in improvement 3 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 237, 281IV IG or plasma exchange could be considered in severe cases not responding to immunosuppressive therapy3 ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 241, 256, 288aPL, antiphospholipid, APS, antiphospholipid syndrome, CVD, cerebrovascular disease, TIA, transient ischemic attack, IV CY, intravenous cyclophosphamide, IV MP, intravenous methylprednisolone, IV IG, intravenous immunoglobulin
1 Persistently positive, moderate-to-high titers of aPL antibodies
Table S6. Differential diagnosis of NPSLE versus multiple sclerosis (MS) ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 194-195, 289-299
Clinical presentationFavours NPSLEFav o u r s M S M y e l o p a t h y I n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y o f m o t o r i m p a i r m e n t s p h i n c t e r d y s f u n c t i o n I n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y o f s e n s o r y i m p a i r m e n t A N A ( a l s o i n 2 0 3 0 % o f M S , u s u a l l y d"1 : 3 2 0 ) I n c r e a s e d C S F I g G i n d e x ( 8 0 8 7 % v e r s u s 1 6 4 1 % ) a n d / o r o l i g o c l o n a l b a n d s ( 8 8 % v e r s u s 4 2 % ) E a r l i e r c l i n i c a l l y e v i d e n t d e m y e l i n a t i n g e p i s o d e B r a i n o r s p i n a l c o r d M R I l e s i o n s d i s s e m i n a t e d i n s p a c e a n d t i m e S p i n a l c o r d M R I l e s i o n s o c c u p y i n g d"2 s e g m e n t s a n d < 5 0 % o f i t s d i a m e t e r B r a i n M R I : i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y o f T 2 w e i g h t e d h y p e r - i n t e n se deep WM lesions, especially in brainstem (64% versus 14%), basal ganglia (59% versus 29%), and cerebellum (36% versus 14%)Patys MRI criteria for MS (fulfilled by 68% of MS versus 31% of NPSLE)General NP symptomsBarkhofs MRI criteria for MS (sensitivity 80%, specificity 98%, diagnostic accuracy 88%)Spinal cord MRI lesion(s) (9092% of definite MS versus 8% of NPSLE)
ANA, antinuclear antibodies, CSF, cerebrospinal fluid
Supplementary references
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