ࡱ> 584y bjbj 4*{{ V&&&&&$N&&.&&&`|B/^&0V (V : Research Methods of Psychologists Critical Thinking thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions examines assumptions; discerns hidden values; evaluates evidence Limits to critical thinking Hindsight Bias -- tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon) Overconfidence -- we tend to think we know more than we do Research Strategies Theory -- an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations Hypothesis -- a testable prediction (often implied by a theory) Replication -- repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding generalizes to other subjects and circumstances; usually with different subjects in different situations False Consensus Effect -- tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors Confirmation bias Researchers look for results that confirm their hypothesis Types of Research Studies Case Study -- an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles Survey -- technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them Naturalistic Observation -- observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation Correlation -- a statistical measure that indicates the extent to which two factors vary together and thus how well either factor predicts the other Problem: Illusory Correlation -- the perception of a relationship where none exists Experiment -- a research method in which the investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe their effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable) while controlling other relevant factors by random assignment of subjects Experimental Condition -- the condition of an experiment that exposes subjects to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable Control Condition -- the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental treatment serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment Random Selection a method of choosing participants for the study from the population. Can pick out of a hat, or generate a list of random numbers and have a computer choose the subjects. Random Assignment -- assigning subjects to experimental and control conditions by chance (minimizes pre-existing differences between those assigned to the different groups) Independent Variable -- the experimental factor that is manipulated (the variable whose effect is being studied) Dependent Variable -- the experimental factor that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable (in psychology it is usually a behavior or mental process) Confounding Variable any variable that is not controlled that can interfere with the reliability of the study Operational Definition -- a statement of the procedures (operations) -- used to define research variables Placebo a substance or condition that may be administered instead of a presumed active agent, such as a drug, to see if it triggers the effects believed to characterize the active agent Double-blind procedure -- an experimental procedure in which both the subject and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the subject has received the treatment or a placebo **commonly used in drug-evaluation studies Descriptive Statistics Measures of central tendency Mean average score Mode most frequent score Median middle score Measures of relationships Correlation coefficient ranges from -1.00 to 1.00 Positive correlation both measures go in same direction (ex. As height increases, weight increases) Negative correlation measures go in opposite direction (ex. As caffeine levels rise, calmness falls) Plotting data Normal curve Bell-shaped curve - typical distribution of any set of scores Skewed distribution unusual distribution of scores with a spike of scores on one end of the distribution (skewed right spike is at left, skewed left spike is at right) Measures of variability Range difference between high and low scores in the distribution Standard deviation based on normal curve, measure of the average distance of each score from the mean score. If S.D. is small, scores will be close together (the average distance from the mean is very small). 68% of the scores fall between one standard deviation on each side of the mean; 95% fall within two standard deviations on each side of the mean; 99.7% fall within three standard deviations on each side of the mean. Variance = standard deviation squared Inferential statistics Statistical significance chance that results would occur randomly commonly must meet 5% threshold (Alpha level or p<.05) Sampling Random sample must choose participants in a study at random from a given population Stratified sample must choose from representative groups of the population (e.g. study on correlating hair color to intelligence) "$7xe s ! + : D a l ( >     7 9ANcwZ[\k lovwx h1R\h1Rh1R\ hg5\ h1R5\h1Rh1Rh`y56hg h1Rh`yh1Rh`y5\L"$xe ! a (     M$a$MNxZlo,24Rlgd1R^gd1Rxy{,B124RTVZlnpt6abg{-@9KS   h1Rh1R5h`y h1R\h1Rh1R56\hghghg56\ h1R5\h1Rh`y56\h1Rh`y5CJ \aJ h1Rh1R5CJ \aJ h1Rh`y5\h1R h1Rh`y6b-9  #$a$gd1R^gd1R^gdg  "#;¸h1Rh1R5\h1Rh`y5CJ \aJ h1Rh`yh1Rh`y5\h`y5CJ aJ h1Rh1R5CJ aJ hg5CJ aJ 21h:pg/ =!8"#$% ^ 666666666vvvvvvvvv666666>6666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666hH6666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666662 0@P`p2( 0@P`p 0@P`p 0@P`p 0@P`p 0@P`p 0@P`p8XV~_HmH nH sH tH @`@ NormalCJ_HaJmH sH tH DA D Default Paragraph FontViV 0 Table Normal :V 44 la (k ( 0No List PK![Content_Types].xmlN0EH-J@%ǎǢ|ș$زULTB l,3;rØJB+$G]7O٭V$ !)O^rC$y@/yH*񄴽)޵߻UDb`}"qۋJחX^)I`nEp)liV[]1M<OP6r=zgbIguSebORD۫qu gZo~ٺlAplxpT0+[}`jzAV2Fi@qv֬5\|ʜ̭NleXdsjcs7f W+Ն7`g ȘJj|h(KD- dXiJ؇(x$( :;˹! 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