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Tisha Slagle Pipes
University of North Texas
School of Library and Information Sciences P.O. Box 311068 Denton, Texas 76203-1068
HYPERLINK "mailto:tpipes@lis.admin.unt.edu" tpipes@lis.admin.unt.edu
Abstract
Information moves societyand with the flow of electronic information, the interfaces for information sharing are continuously becoming more diverse. Information Science offers systems and technologies to connect people worldwide while Emergency Management proffers methods to secure information that has become increasingly more vulnerable to destruction. This exacerbated vulnerability of information to disasters, combined with societys dependence on information, warrants the integration of the disciplines of Information Science and Emergency Management. Together these disciplines can improve existing practices to prevent and mitigate information disasters. They can also ensure the usefulness of the information that flows among victims, responders, and members of emergency management organizations before, during, and after disasters.
Introduction
Information flows across space and time in unpredictable ways, creating new structures and forms as the situation requires ADDIN EN.CITE McDaniel199774774717R. McDanielStrategic leadership: a view from quantum and chaos theoriesHealth Care Management ReviewHealth Care Management Review21-372211997McDaniel199774774717R. McDanielStrategic leadership: a view from quantum and chaos theoriesHealth Care Management ReviewHealth Care Management Review21-372211997(McDaniel, 1997).
Unprocessed information is intangible and non-consumable, yet a plentiful resource that can be refined and used as a public or private good. Information is inherently more abundant than most resources because it is found in every person, place, and thingit is the entirety of known data, facts and ideas. Information, in my opinion, is any meme, message, or meaning that influences, directly or indirectly, how persons understand their situations. It is the principle element of omniscience, and therefore the resource from which all knowledge is extracted. Knowledge includes units of systematic subjects, noted for their oneness, objectivity, respected social implications, usefulness, and resistance to obsolescence. Knowledge is mined and refined into the integrated disciplines the world calls wisdomvalued public goods like anthropology, information technology (IT), medical research, and universal religion ADDIN EN.CITE Cleveland1982252517Harlan ClevelandInformation as a resourceThe FuturistThe Futurist34-3916December1982(Cleveland, 1982).
As unprocessed public goods, information flows between and among people and groups in the form of verbal, non-verbal, or written interactionswhether memes, messages, or meaningsthat serve as precursors to problem-solving and decision-making. Interactions instigated directly or indirectly by a disaster could be deemed disaster information.
Table 1
Categories of Hazards to InformationTechnologicalNatural Civilchemical, electrical, nuclearearthquake, flood, hurricanecold war, cyberterrorism, information warfare, terrorism, warAs processed public goods, informationwhether a meme, message, or meaninginfluences the lives of those who experience it. When life-sustaining or life-fulfilling information is absent, inaccessible, or useless because it is inaccurate or interrupted as the result of a hazardnatural, civil, or technological (Table 1), the persons affected may be said to be experiencing an information disaster. An information disaster hinders the access to or effective use of disaster information.
Information is a vital public good whether processed or unprocessed. How people encounter information, a phenomenon called information-seeking behavior or information behavior by information scientists, is the subject of extensive research ADDIN EN.CITE Case20025635636Donald O. CaseLooking for informaton: A survey of research on information seeking, needs, and behavior2002LondonAcademic Press(Case, 2002). The study of disaster information behaviorthe actions or attitudes that affect encountering, needing, finding, choosing, or using disaster informationappears to be scant or absent in the literature.
This deficiency in the study of disaster information behavior may exist because studying information behavior involves field studyan option not always available to researchers in times of disaster. In addition, many researchers cannot afford the time and expense demanded by qualitative research, the preferred approach to effective information behavior studies. A further challenge for researchers is the inherent elusiveness of information itself. The form it assumes or the direction it will flow is not always apparent ADDIN EN.CITE Burlando199474874817T. BurlandoChaos and risk managementRisk ManagementRisk Management54-6141994Burlando199474874817T. BurlandoChaos and risk managementRisk ManagementRisk Management54-6141994(Burlando, 1994). What is apparent, however, is that information, as the essence of all knowledge, and subsequently the essence all wisdomis the basis for all disciplines of study, including information science and emergency management. Its pervasiveness alone demands interdisciplinary observation.
Information Disasters and Disaster Information
The Study of Information Disasters
Table 2
Common representations of informationartifact
code
calculation
datum
diagram
email
film
fingerprintfootprint
hyperlink
maps
model
photo/image
recording
replica
secretsign
signal
summary
synonym
text
thoughts
title/name
voiceUnprocessed information is impervious. It does not deplete with use or corrode with time. However, people can forget it or disregard it, and representations (Table 2) of it can be easily lost or destroyed. These intangible or tangible surrogates that hold and/or display information are quite vulnerable to disaster. Hazardsin the form of terrorism, vandalism, heating/air conditioning failure, user error, computer viruses, hackers, power failures, cyberterrorism, information warfare, cultural power struggles, or even careless or impulsive law-making/enforcementall threaten the security and effectiveness of information. Because all organizations house information, it is imperative that all organizations implement disaster recovery plans that include recovery of information vital to the existence of the organization.
Studies that focus on the disruption and destruction of information have become more prevalent, especially in the management fields where chronicled information is vital to management operations. Useful human and/or artificially transmitted messages were recorded as early as 3000 B.C.E. when the Sumerians created and stored common cuneiform symbols by inscribing them into soft clay with a stylus. The Sumerians, as have societies since, used common symbols with technology to transfer information ADDIN EN.CITE Drucker199567967910Johanna DruckerThe alphabetic labyrinth: The letters in history and imagination1995LondonThames and Hudson Ltd(Drucker, 1995). Information Science (IS) studies have shown that for information to be managed effectively, people must employ a premise from sociologyfor example, culturally accepted standards and symbolswith technologyfor example, stylus and clay or keyboard and computer. Otherwise, information cannot be physically or electronically organized, stored, processed, recorded, disseminated, preserved, or retrieved. Because of the urgency to preserve and retrieve informational records, organizations are incorporating information preservation into their business continuity plans ADDIN EN.CITE Shaw200567675Gregory L. ShawDavid A. McEntireBusiness crisis and continuity managementDisciplines and Disasters2005Emmitsburg, MDEmergency Management Institutehttp://training.fema.gov/emiweb/downloads/ShawTextbook011105.pdfShaw200567675Gregory L. ShawDavid A. McEntireBusiness crisis and continuity managementDisciplines and Disasters2005Emmitsburg, MDEmergency Management Institutehttp://training.fema.gov/emiweb/downloads/ShawTextbook011105.pdf(Shaw, 2005). A sub-discipline of IS, librarianship, has long implemented these disaster recovery plans, ADDIN EN.CITE Ruyle1997686817Ruyle, C. J.Schobernd, E. M.Anonymous,Disaster recovery without the disasterTechnical Services QuarterlyTechnical Services Quarterly13144Library staffTrainingDisaster planningUniversity librariesIllinois State UniversityMilner Library1997DiMattia2001696917DiMattia, S. S.Anonymous,Planning for continuityLibrary JournalLibrary Journal3212619Library managementDisaster recoveryTerrorismCompany librariesSpecial librariesWashingtonNew York2001Muir2002707017Muir, A.Shenton, S.Anonymous,If the worst happens: the use and effectiveness of disaster plans in libraries and archivesLibrary ManagementLibrary Management115233Library managementDisaster recoveryPlanning2002Tennant2001717117Tennant, R.Anonymous,Coping with disastersLibrary JournalLibrary Journal12619Library materialsElectronic mediaPreservationDisaster recoveryDisaster preventionDigital libraries2001Ruyle1997686817Ruyle, C. J.Schobernd, E. M.Anonymous,Disaster recovery without the disasterTechnical Services QuarterlyTechnical Services Quarterly13144Library staffTrainingDisaster planningUniversity librariesIllinois State UniversityMilner Library1997DiMattia2001696917DiMattia, S. S.Anonymous,Planning for continuityLibrary JournalLibrary Journal3212619Library managementDisaster recoveryTerrorismCompany librariesSpecial librariesWashingtonNew York2001Muir2002707017Muir, A.Shenton, S.Anonymous,If the worst happens: the use and effectiveness of disaster plans in libraries and archivesLibrary ManagementLibrary Management115233Library managementDisaster recoveryPlanning2002Tennant2001717117Tennant, R.Anonymous,Coping with disastersLibrary JournalLibrary Journal12619Library materialsElectronic mediaPreservationDisaster recoveryDisaster preventionDigital libraries2001(DiMattia, 2001; Muir and Shenton, 2002; Ruyle and Schobernd, 1997; Tennant, 2001) to protect and preserve the physical and electronic representations of information in library holdings.
The Study of Disaster Information Flow
Determining how information flows among organizations before, during, and after disasters can lead to new models of sound practice for Emergency Management (EM) practice to adopt. The continued omission of the study of information flow may allow the implementation of unsound practices and hastily enacted policies and decisions. IS methods from information flow research, including systems theory and small group interaction, may hold particular application for further study of information flow in EM.
The study of disaster information flow has been virtually ignored by IS researchers, despite its importance in EM and society. Research regarding information flowthe human and/or artificial information transactions that affect decisionsis of especial interest to EM where decisions affect the well-being of whole communities. EM decision-makers determine who is heard or not heard and what is done or not done regarding disaster planning and responsea vital public service that impacts communities socially, economically, and legally. People reach decisions through the processes of information flow during formal or informal meetings. Information flow in meetings of EM organizations may or may not be conducive to optimal disaster management; and researchers have not provided conclusive evidence either way. It is imperative that EM researchers know if methods employed in decision-makingthe result of the information floware increasing or decreasing the vulnerability of a community to disasters.
EM concentrates on the preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation of disasters. McEntire ADDIN EN.CITE McEntire2004636310McEntire, D. A.The status of emergency management theory: Issues, barriers, and recommendations for improved scholarshipFEMA Higher Education ConferenceEmmitsburg, MDMcEntire2004636310McEntire, D. A.The status of emergency management theory: Issues, barriers, and recommendations for improved scholarshipFEMA Higher Education ConferenceEmmitsburg, MD(2004b) defines disasters as the disruptive and/or deadly and destructive outcome or result of physical or human-induced triggering agents when they interact with and are exacerbated by vulnerabilities from diverse but overlapping environments. Teams within EM organizations may struggle for long periodsor be forced to decide quickly how best to approach disasters. During these times of decision-making, the members of a team participate, either consciously or unconsciously, in creating and modifying information flow. Productive information flow is vital to ensure that EM teams reach sensible decisions. Sensible decisions aid in the prevention and mitigation of disasters.
History of IS
Information scientists historically seek solutions to problems regarding information in the broad disciplines of technology and sociology. The birth of this blend of technology and sociology in IS can be attributed to inspiration from As We May Think, an article written by Vannevar Bush at the close of the second World War. Bush, a respected MIT scientist and director of the United States (U.S.) Wartime Office of Scientific Research and Development, believed that the scientists who had been busy devising methods to defeat U.S. enemies would now have time to devise methods to mitigate the chaos already evidenced by the explosion of information. He predicted scientific and social disaster if scientists did not address the massive task of making more accessible a bewildering store of knowledge ADDIN EN.CITE Bush1945424217Vannevar BushAs we may thinkAtlantic MonthlyAtlantic Monthly101-108176July1945Bush1945424217Vannevar BushAs we may thinkAtlantic MonthlyAtlantic Monthly101-108176July1945(Bush, V., 1945a).
Bush had a suggestiona technological knowledge management system in the form of a machine that would emulate human thought using association of ideas. The Memex would link thoughts in accordance with some intricate web of trails carried by the cells of the braina concept remarkably similar to contemporary hypertext ADDIN EN.CITE Bush1945424217Vannevar BushAs we may thinkAtlantic MonthlyAtlantic Monthly101-108176July1945Bush1945424217Vannevar BushAs we may thinkAtlantic MonthlyAtlantic Monthly101-108176July1945(1945a)! The postwar scientists were unsurprisingly fascinated with Bushs proposal and accepted the technological challenge.
Fortunately, Congress funded the scientists, with incentive from President Theodore Roosevelt who enlisted Bush to write a report to justify the financial support. Bushs report to Roosevelt, Science the Endless Frontier ADDIN EN.CITE Bush1945585846Vannevar BushScience the endless frontier1945http://www.nsf.gov/about/history/vbush1945.htmBush1945585846Vannevar BushScience the endless frontier1945http://www.nsf.gov/about/history/vbush1945.htm(1945b), provided the basis for the creation of the National Science Foundation (NSF) by means of the NSF Act of 1950. One of the Acts mandates was to further the full dissemination of information of scientific value consistent with the national interest (P.L. 81-507), a plan that eventually led to the study of information flow that generates important decisions.
IS: Technology and Sociology
NSF scientists quickly developed two major IS directionstechnologically-based information retrieval and sociologically-based human information behaviorand by the 1960s, a few researchers were defining the term IS. When the American Documentation Institute, founded in 1937, decided to change its name to the American Society for Information Science, definitions abounded. Borko ADDIN EN.CITE Borko1968262617Harold BorkoInformation Science: What Is It?American Documentation (pre-1986)American Documentation (pre-1986)31911968http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=640632731&Fmt=7&clientId=87&RQT=309&VName=PQD Borko1968262617Harold BorkoInformation Science: What Is It?American Documentation (pre-1986)American Documentation (pre-1986)31911968http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=640632731&Fmt=7&clientId=87&RQT=309&VName=PQD (1968) wrote one of the most enduring definitions, one that roots IS firmly in technology by stating that it is an interdisciplinary science that investigates the properties and behavior of information, the forces that govern the flow and use of information, and the techniques, both manual and mechanical, of processing information for optimal storage, retrieval and dissemination ADDIN EN.CITE Borko1968262617Harold BorkoInformation Science: What Is It?American Documentation (pre-1986)American Documentation (pre-1986)31911968http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=640632731&Fmt=7&clientId=87&RQT=309&VName=PQD Borko1968262617Harold BorkoInformation Science: What Is It?American Documentation (pre-1986)American Documentation (pre-1986)31911968http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=640632731&Fmt=7&clientId=87&RQT=309&VName=PQD (Borko, 1968).
Researchers gradually revised the more technologically-based definitions to reflect IS roots in sociology. The IS scope would be defined by Wersig and Nevelling who wrote that transmitting knowledge to those who need it is a social responsibility ADDIN EN.CITE Wersig1975474717G WersigU NevellingThe phenomena of interest to information scienceInformation ScientistInformation Scientist127-14091975Wersig1975474717G WersigU NevellingThe phenomena of interest to information scienceInformation ScientistInformation Scientist127-14091975(1975). Belkin and Robertson would continue the technology-sociology theme by stating that the purpose of IS is to facilitate communication of information between humans ADDIN EN.CITE Belkin1976353517Nicholas J. BelkinStephen E. RobertsonInformation science and the phenomenon of informationJournal of the American Society for Information Science (pre-1986)Journal of the American Society for Information Science (pre-1986)197-2042741976http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=639243451&Fmt=7&clientId=87&RQT=309&VName=PQD Belkin1976353517Nicholas J. BelkinStephen E. RobertsonInformation science and the phenomenon of informationJournal of the American Society for Information Science (pre-1986)Journal of the American Society for Information Science (pre-1986)197-2042741976http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=639243451&Fmt=7&clientId=87&RQT=309&VName=PQD (Belkin and Robertson, 1976). Eleven years later, Vickery and Vickery ADDIN EN.CITE Vickery198741416B.C. VickeryA. VickeryInformation Science in Theory and Practice1987LondonButterworthsVickery198741416B.C. VickeryA. VickeryInformation Science in Theory and Practice1987LondonButterworths(1987) emphasized the role of sociology in IS by identifying IS as the study of the communication of information in society. Buckland and Liu would once again combine technology and sociology when they asserted that IS is centered on the representation, storage, transmission, selection (filtering, retrieval), and the use of documents and messages, where documents and messages are created for use by humans ADDIN EN.CITE Buckland199840405Michael BucklandZiming LiuTrudi Bellardo HahnMichael K. BucklandAmerican Society for Information ScienceHistory of Information ScienceHistorical Studies in Information ScienceASIS Monograph272-2951998Medford, NJInformation Today, Inc.Buckland199840405Michael BucklandZiming LiuTrudi Bellardo HahnMichael K. BucklandAmerican Society for Information ScienceHistory of Information ScienceHistorical Studies in Information ScienceASIS Monograph272-2951998Medford, NJInformation Today, Inc.(1998). Bates clarified, however, by writing that IS is primarily, but not solely focused, on recorded information and peoples relationship to it ADDIN EN.CITE Bates1999242417Bates, Marcia J.The invisible substrate of information scienceJournal of the American Society for Information ScienceJournal of the American Society for Information Science10435012Library scienceStudies1999http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=45497400&Fmt=7&clientId=87&RQT=309&VName=PQD Bates1999242417Bates, Marcia J.The invisible substrate of information scienceJournal of the American Society for Information ScienceJournal of the American Society for Information Science10435012Library scienceStudies1999http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=45497400&Fmt=7&clientId=87&RQT=309&VName=PQD (Bates, 1999). With all the progress in determining the definition of IS, however, the definition of informationthe focus of ISremained somewhat elusive.
What is information?
Information theorists Shannon and Weaver ADDIN EN.CITE Shannon194823236Claude ShannonWarren WeaverThe mathematical theory of communication1948ChicagoUniversity of Illinois Press(1948) believed that information is the reduction of uncertainty, and yet, ironically, finding a clear definition of information still seems to stump both researchers and readers of IS. Information has been defined within many disciplines by those who sometimes over-simplify or over-complicate its meaningnevertheless, IS researchers agree that information is fundamental to all disciplines for communication, and it must therefore be preserved, organized, and easily retrieved ADDIN EN.CITE Ratzan200424246Lee RatzanUnderstanding information systems: what they do and why we need them2004ChicagoAmerican Library AssociationRatzan200424246Lee RatzanUnderstanding information systems: what they do and why we need them2004ChicagoAmerican Library AssociationBuckland1991282817Michael BucklandInformation as ThingJournal of the American Society for Information Science (1986-1998)Journal of the American Society for Information Science (1986-1998)3514251991http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=639272681&Fmt=7&clientId=87&RQT=309&VName=PQD (Buckland, 1991; Ratzan, 2004). Information may be described as a representation of a message that is processed into something valuable so that it may be applied in a practical context. This description, however, suggests that the value of information has somehow been previously established. So, how, then, is the value of information determined?
The Value of Information
The value of information is best determined by what Repo calls value-in-usea benefit the user obtains from the use and the effect of the use ADDIN EN.CITE Repo19832EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>The dual approach to the value of information: An appraisal of use and exchange values</style>(1983). Value-in-use is subjective and specific to a userso the value of information could be defined simply as contingent upon its usefulness to an individual. The value of information therefore is relative to the level of satisfaction directly or indirectly received from an information good, service, or resource.
Consider, for instance, contrasting views of those who receive a stack of 1820s newspapers from a ghost town. The litterbug casually tosses the papers outsideto the litterbug, the papers are trash to be burned. The recycler carefully collects the papers in a bagto the recycler, the papers are cash to be earned. The librarian gladly accepts the papers from the recycle shopto the librarian, the papers are documents that must be sorted. The professor delightedly inquires about the papers from the libraryto the professor, the papers are history to be reported. The value of information is therefore determined by its user and its intended application.
The Sciences of Information
How, why, what, and where information is applied are questions investigated within the framework of several information studies a truth that often identifies information science as information sciences. Whether it is appropriate to label the field of IS as singular or plural is another argument ADDIN EN.CITE Webber2003292917Webber, SheilaInformation Science in 2003: A CritiqueJournal of Information ScienceJournal of Information Science311-3302942003016555150165-5515(20030101)29:4L.311_1-7 Provider: OCLCView Full Text in PDF format (ECO)Availability: FirstSearch indicates your institution subscribes to this publication. Libraries worldwide that own item: 229 UNIV OF N TEXAS Search the catalog at UNT LibrariesLocal HoldingsInformation: vol: 1- 1979- Webber2003292917Webber, SheilaInformation Science in 2003: A CritiqueJournal of Information ScienceJournal of Information Science311-3302942003016555150165-5515(20030101)29:4L.311_1-7 Provider: OCLCView Full Text in PDF format (ECO)Availability: FirstSearch indicates your institution subscribes to this publication. Libraries worldwide that own item: 229 UNIV OF N TEXAS Search the catalog at UNT LibrariesLocal HoldingsInformation: vol: 1- 1979- (Webber, 2003), however; IS is undeniably interdisciplinary ADDIN EN.CITE Machlup198331316Fritz MachlupUna MansfieldThe Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages1983New YorkJohn Wiley & SonsMachlup198331316Fritz MachlupUna MansfieldThe Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages1983New YorkJohn Wiley & Sons(Machlup and Mansfield, 1983) with problems studied through four major interdisciplinary relations including: cognitive science, communications. computer science, and librarianship (Appendix A) ADDIN EN.CITE Saracevic1999 333317Tefko SaracevicInformation scienceJournal of the American Society for Information ScienceJournal of the American Society for Information Science1051-10635012information scienceinformation science historyinformation science educationinformation retrievaltrendsinformation explosion1999 Saracevic1999 333317Tefko SaracevicInformation scienceJournal of the American Society for Information ScienceJournal of the American Society for Information Science1051-10635012information scienceinformation science historyinformation science educationinformation retrievaltrendsinformation explosion1999 (Saracevic, 1999).
IS as a Meta-discipline
IS enables people to find informationa need based on psychological needs for survival and fulfillment. Finding sought-after information can change human perception by relieving anxiety, fulfilling a goal, realizing a need, or actualizing a concept. IS has dedicated years of research to training people how to find information and thereby enhance problem-solving and decision-makinghelping to reduce uncertainty and change an individuals image of reality ADDIN EN.CITE Case20025635636Donald O. CaseLooking for informaton: A survey of research on information seeking, needs, and behavior2002LondonAcademic PressCase20025635636Donald O. CaseLooking for informaton: A survey of research on information seeking, needs, and behavior2002LondonAcademic Press(Case, 2002).
Education, mass communications, and philosophy/theology also have distinctive relationships with information. Education is the teaching and learning of information; mass communications is the discovery and transmission of information; philosophy/theology is the search for true information. In fact, IS has application to all disciplines and is therefore more appropriately defined as a meta-disciplinary science ADDIN EN.CITE Bates1999242417Bates, Marcia J.The invisible substrate of information scienceJournal of the American Society for Information ScienceJournal of the American Society for Information Science10435012Library scienceStudies1999http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=45497400&Fmt=7&clientId=87&RQT=309&VName=PQD Bates1999242417Bates, Marcia J.The invisible substrate of information scienceJournal of the American Society for Information ScienceJournal of the American Society for Information Science10435012Library scienceStudies1999http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=45497400&Fmt=7&clientId=87&RQT=309&VName=PQD (Bates, 1999). After all, IS is concerned with information, a resource ADDIN EN.CITE Cleveland1982252517Harlan ClevelandInformation as a resourceThe FuturistThe Futurist34-3916December1982Cleveland1982252517Harlan ClevelandInformation as a resourceThe FuturistThe Futurist34-3916December1982(Cleveland, 1982) common to all disciplines and coincidentally, responsible for the creation of bibliometrics, the major quantitative method used to analyze interdisciplinarity among fields ADDIN EN.CITE Morillo2003373717Fernanda MorilloMara Bordons Isabel GmezCentro de Informacin y Documentacin Cientfica (CINDOC), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientficas (CSIC), Joaqun Costa, 22, 28002 Madrid, SpainInterdisciplinarity in science: A tentative typology of disciplines and research areasJournal of the American Society for Information Science and TechnologyJournal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology1237-1249541320031532-2890http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/asi.10326 Morillo2003373717Fernanda MorilloMara Bordons Isabel GmezCentro de Informacin y Documentacin Cientfica (CINDOC), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientficas (CSIC), Joaqun Costa, 22, 28002 Madrid, SpainInterdisciplinarity in science: A tentative typology of disciplines and research areasJournal of the American Society for Information Science and TechnologyJournal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology1237-1249541320031532-2890http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/asi.10326 (Morillo and Gmez, 2003).
Bibliometrics uses content analysis, a method that includes comparing the frequency (F) of terms between disciplines, for example IS and EM. Content analysis, in this case, becomes a preliminary survey to determine whether researchers have initiated integration within disciplines ADDIN EN.CITE Ruben1992222217Brent D. RubenThe communication-information relationship in system-theoretic perspectiveJournal of the American Society for Information Science (1986-1998)Journal of the American Society for Information Science (1986-1998)154311992http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=640588371&Fmt=7&clientId=87&RQT=309&VName=PQD Ruben1992222217Brent D. RubenThe communication-information relationship in system-theoretic perspectiveJournal of the American Society for Information Science (1986-1998)Journal of the American Society for Information Science (1986-1998)154311992http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=640588371&Fmt=7&clientId=87&RQT=309&VName=PQD (Ruben, 1992). A cursory examination of IS and EM journals identifies major terms commonly found in titles of articles in IS and EM from 2002 through July 2005. The IS journals are African Journal of Library, Archives and Information Science, Journal of Human-Computer Studies, Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, Journal of the Society of Archivists, Library & Information Science Research, and International Journal of Human-Computer Studies. The EM journals are Disaster Prevention and Management, Disasters, International Journal of Emergency Management, Journal of Contingencies & Crisis Management, and Natural Hazards Review (Table 3).
Table 3
Frequency (F) of IS/EM Terms in EM/IS Journal Titles 2002-2005IS terms found in EM Journal TitlesFEM Terms found in IS Journal TitlesFinformation (sharing, system, technology)11disaster5communication (or coordination or collaboration or interaction)4emergency or hazard(s)2Total15Total7
The infrequency of terms within journal titles indicates that studies of IS and EM have experienced little integration. IS and EM do however, share a substantial interest in the study of disasters in at least two distinct aspects: information disasters and disaster information flow. EM theories may be used to frame information disasters and vulnerabilities while IS theories may be used to study collaborative decisions by identifying patterns of information flow during the phases of a disaster.
EM Theory, Information, and Disasters
The purpose of EM is to minimize vulnerabilities to hazards that cause disasters. Vulnerabilities, according to McEntire, are high levels of risk and susceptibility coupled with a low degree of resistance and resilience that exacerbate potential hazardstriggering agents that cause disasters ADDIN EN.CITE McEntire2004636310McEntire, D. A.The status of emergency management theory: Issues, barriers, and recommendations for improved scholarshipFEMA Higher Education ConferenceEmmitsburg, MD(2004b). Although it may be impossible to prevent or diminish hazards, it is possible to reduce the vulnerability to hazards that lead to technological, natural, or civil disasters (Table 3). For example, government officials may be able to reduce the vulnerability to terrorism through heightened protection of borders and infrastructures or improvement in the prevention of weapons of mass destruction ADDIN EN.CITE McEntire2004636310McEntire, D. A.The status of emergency management theory: Issues, barriers, and recommendations for improved scholarshipFEMA Higher Education ConferenceEmmitsburg, MD(McEntire, 2004b).
Information and Technological Disasters
Disasters caused by technology are the most difficult to predict and are largely unforeseeable ADDIN EN.CITE Chapman2005742096535620965-3562(20050301)14:3L.343_1-2 Provider: OCLC74217Chapman, JudithPredicting technological disasters: mission impossible?Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal 14, no. 3Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal 14, no. 32005096535620965-3562(20050301)14:3L.343_1-2 Provider: OCLC(Chapman, 2005). Tragically, many technological disasters result from seldom-inspected or outdated technology. A faulty computer surge protector is blamed for a fire that swept through Minnesotas Hastings County Library in 1993, destroying 80% of the librarys hard-copy and electronic documents. The flames demolished the building and left the remaining documents damaged by soot, smoke, and water ADDIN EN.CITE Bolger200374474417Bolger, LaurieScared or prepared? Disaster planning makes the differenceInformation OutlookInformation Outlook25-31772003(Bolger, 2003). Since then, Hastings County has implemented disaster recovery plans to prevent and/or prepare for disasters.
Information and Natural Disasters
Reducing vulnerability to natural disasters may be more challenging. During the 1997 renovation of the Colorado State University Library (CSUL), library administrators stored approximately 462,000 volumes in the basement. During this temporary storage period, a flash flood enveloped the 77,000 square foot basement with 10 feet of water. Approximately 450,000 itemsone-fourth of the librarys holdingswere damaged or destroyed, including the librarys vast newspaper collection. Although the flood was the worlds fourth largest library disaster in the 20th century, there was at least one positive consequence. Camila Alire, CSUL librarian, and other CSUL staff wrote Library Disaster Planning and Recovery Handbook, considered by critics to be a valuable disaster practitioners guide ADDIN EN.CITE Dugan200174574517Dugan, Robert E.Book ReviewsJournal of Academic LibrarianshipJournal of Academic Librarianship61271BOOKSLIBRARY Disaster Planning & Recovery Handbook (Book)2001Elsevier Science Publishing Company, Inc.http://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&an=4112974 Williams200074674617Williams, Wilda W.Library Disaster Planning and Recovery Handbook (Book Review)Library JournalLibrary Journal12312511BOOKSLIBRARY Disaster Planning & Recovery Handbook (Book)2000Reed Business Information / Reviewshttp://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&an=3218137 (Dugan, 2001; Williams, 2000).
Information and Civil Disasters
Unfortunately, civil disasters are prevalent throughout human history. At least three versions of the destruction of the ancient Library of Alexandria may be found in Egyptian history, however all versions attribute the great Librarys demise to civil disaster ADDIN EN.CITE Chesser200575275212Preston Chesser<style face="normal" font="Times New Roman" size="100%">eHistory.com</style>2005July 312005Ohio State University Web sitehttp://ehistory.osu.edu/world/articles/ArticleView.cfm?AID=9(Chesser, 2005). Ptolomy II Soter, successor to Alexandria the Great, built the Library in 283 B.C. and vowed to use any means to amass all the books of the world ADDIN EN.CITE Heller-Roazen200275075017Heller-Roazen, DanielTradition's Destruction: On the Library of AlexandriaOctoberOctober133100LIBRARIESMUSEUMSALEXANDRIA Library (Alexandria, Egypt)EGYPTALEXANDRIA (Egypt)2002MIT Presshttp://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&an=6759299 (Heller-Roazen, 2002). The Library did acquire nearly one-half million booksan unequaled collection for its erabefore its ruin in the 1st century ADDIN EN.CITE Erskine199575175117Andrew ErskineCulture and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt: The Museum and Library of AlexandriaGreece & RomeGreece & Rome38-484211995Erskine199575175117Andrew ErskineCulture and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt: The Museum and Library of AlexandriaGreece & RomeGreece & Rome38-484211995(Erskine, 1995).
The threat of modern civil disasters has increased since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks (9/11)a fact that makes tangible and intangible (electronic or human) information and information issues considerably more vulnerable to disaster ADDIN EN.CITE Comfort200568968917Comfort, Louise K.Risk, Security, and Disaster ManagementAnnual Review of Political ScienceAnnual Review of Political Science335-35681disaster managementnetwork anaylsis2005http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/loi/polisci Dory2003-0469369317Dory, Amanda J.American Civil Society: The U.S. Public and Homeland SecurityThe Washington QuarterlyThe Washington Quarterly37-52271Civil defense -- United StatesTerrorism -- United States -- PreventionNational security -- United States2003-04The 9/11 Commission200473873827The 9/11 Commission,Final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United StatesExecutive Summary5852004August 21, 2004Washington, D.C.US Governmenthttp://a257.g.akamaitech.net/7/257/2422/22jul20041147/www.gpoaccess.gov/911/pdf/execsummary.pdf(Comfort, 2005; Dory, 2003-04; The 9/11 Commission, 2004). Lawmakers have since enacted grave changes to the tenets of the U.S. Constitution (USA PATRIOT Act) regarding access to information ADDIN EN.CITE Jaeger200367867817Jaeger, Paul T.Bertot, John CarloMcClure, Charles R.The impact of the USA PATRIOT Act on collection and analysis of personal information under the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance ActGovernment Information QuarterlyGovernment Information Quarterly2952032003http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W4G-48TK9F4-3/2/30777dce1317d4b7bb3b9ea60cf7bb8e (Jaeger, Bertot and McClure, 2003). Both lawmakers and private citizens have made public information less accessibleso terrorists cannot access itand private information more accessiblein case the information belongs to terrorists. The threat to public information and information privacy is an ongoing hazard, one that librarianship has struggled to mitigate (Appendix B).
Information in the Equation for Disasters
Librarians and library educators hold the preservation of information sacred and consider librariesthe primary keepers of recorded informationto be the last visage of a free public education for all citizens ADDIN EN.CITE Totten200556256226Herman L. TottenTisha PipesLibraries and Education2005March 5, 2004Denton, TXTotten200556256226Herman L. TottenTisha PipesLibraries and Education2005March 5, 2004Denton, TX(Totten, 2005). Clearly, all disciplines benefit from the preservation and access to information, a sound reason for investigating information disasters. The study of vulnerability provides an excellent basis for future research in information disasters (as well as information flow regarding disasters). Information disasters may be portrayed using McEntires equation for disasters: vulnerability + hazard (triggering agent) = disaster ADDIN EN.CITE McEntire2004197096535620965-3562(20040301)13:3L.193_1-1 Provider: OCLC19717McEntire, D. A.Development, disasters and vulnerability: a discussion of divergent theories and the need for their integrationDisaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal 13, no. 3Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal 13, no. 32004096535620965-3562(20040301)13:3L.193_1-1 Provider: OCLCView Full Text on remote site (ECO)Availability: FirstSearch indicates your institution subscribes to this publication. Libraries worldwide that own item: 42 UNIV OF N TEXAS Search the catalog at UNT LibrariesLocal HoldingsInformation: vol: 1- 1992- McEntire2004197096535620965-3562(20040301)13:3L.193_1-1 Provider: OCLC19717McEntire, D. A.Development, disasters and vulnerability: a discussion of divergent theories and the need for their integrationDisaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal 13, no. 3Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal 13, no. 32004096535620965-3562(20040301)13:3L.193_1-1 Provider: OCLCView Full Text on remote site (ECO)Availability: FirstSearch indicates your institution subscribes to this publication. Libraries worldwide that own item: 42 UNIV OF N TEXAS Search the catalog at UNT LibrariesLocal HoldingsInformation: vol: 1- 1992- (2004a) (Appendix C).
IS Theory, Information, and Disasters
The flow of information within the management of disasters can be investigated using several methods found in the interdisciplinary domains of IS. Many theories have evolved including theories of individual and collective information behavior (information seeking and processing). Collective information behavior has been studied in the context of group research (information flow in both task and emergent groups). Task groupsindividuals who accept a collective charge to form decisions and/or solve problemsdominate research of information flow in groups. Emergent groupsindividuals that meet incidentally and collaboratehave appeared in recent IS research with an emphasis on conversational problem-solving ADDIN EN.CITE O'Connor200365656Brian O'ConnorJud CopelandJodi KearnsHunting and gathering on the information savanna: Conversations on modeling human search abilities2003Lanham, MDScarecrow Press, Inc.O'Connor200365656Brian O'ConnorJud CopelandJodi KearnsHunting and gathering on the information savanna: Conversations on modeling human search abilities2003Lanham, MDScarecrow Press, Inc.(O'Connor, Copeland and Kearns, 2003). Emergent behaviora more intense form of problem-solvinghas been the subject of some EM studies within the context of disaster scenes ADDIN EN.CITE Drabek2003177096535620965-3562(2003)12:2L.97_1-3 Provider: OCLC17717Drabek, Thomas E.McEntire, D. A.Emergent phenomena and the sociology of disaster: lessons, trends and opportunities from the research literatureDisaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal 12, no. 2Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal 12, no. 22003096535620965-3562(2003)12:2L.97_1-3 Provider: OCLCView Full Text on remote site (ECO)Availability: FirstSearch indicates your institution subscribes to this publication. Libraries worldwide that own item: 42 UNIV OF N TEXAS Search the catalog at UNT LibrariesLocal HoldingsInformation: vol: 1- 1992- Drabek2003177096535620965-3562(2003)12:2L.97_1-3 Provider: OCLC17717Drabek, Thomas E.McEntire, D. A.Emergent phenomena and the sociology of disaster: lessons, trends and opportunities from the research literatureDisaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal 12, no. 2Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal 12, no. 22003096535620965-3562(2003)12:2L.97_1-3 Provider: OCLCView Full Text on remote site (ECO)Availability: FirstSearch indicates your institution subscribes to this publication. Libraries worldwide that own item: 42 UNIV OF N TEXAS Search the catalog at UNT LibrariesLocal HoldingsInformation: vol: 1- 1992- (Drabek and McEntire, 2003).
Information Flow and Small Group Studies
Knowing and testing the varying properties of information flow in groups may be vital to the success of EM teams at the local, state, and national level, within all the disaster phases (preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation) identified by Drabek ADDIN EN.CITE Drabek198664646Thomas E. DrabekRobert S. DeSantoHuman system responses to disaster: An inventory of sociological findingsSpringer Series on Environmental Management1986New YorkSpringer-VerlagDrabek198664646Thomas E. DrabekRobert S. DeSantoHuman system responses to disaster: An inventory of sociological findingsSpringer Series on Environmental Management1986New YorkSpringer-Verlag(1986). Emergent groups that exist at disaster scenes warrant study, as do EM decision-making groups that contribute to the future health and survival of our governments, communities, and citizens. Within the last decade, the Communications discipline has introduced several ethnographic studies of group information flow, although the study of groups has traditionally been performed in laboratory settings. These contrived experiments cannot reveal the properties of real group information flow.
Although the small group remains the oldest and most prevalent of the concepts in all social organization ADDIN EN.CITE Fisher197445EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Small Group Decision Making</style>(Fisher, A., 1974), the disciplines that study information flow in small groups are diverse and disconnected. Research of information flow in groups has matured despite independent studies by scholars in psychology, sociology, management, communication, education, social work, political science, public policy, urban planning, and IS. The absence of convergence within the fields, however, has not prevented small group research from accumulating enough solid theory in the past 50 years to establish its own discipline of study ADDIN EN.CITE Poole200463863817M. PooleInterdisciplinary perspectives on small groupsSmall Group ResearchSmall Group Research3-163512004Poole200463863817M. PooleInterdisciplinary perspectives on small groupsSmall Group ResearchSmall Group Research3-163512004Poole200463863817M. PooleInterdisciplinary perspectives on small groupsSmall Group ResearchSmall Group Research3-163512004(Poole, M., 2004)
The formal study of information flow in groups can be traced to 1898 when psychologist Norman Triplett tested the hypothesis that the presence of others in a group would facilitate the problem solving of an individual ADDIN EN.CITE Hare196238EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Handbook of Small Group Research</style>(Hare, A. Paul, 1962). By studying group behavior, educators and politicians believe people can collectively solve common problems in the communities ADDIN EN.CITE Gouran20036016015Dennis GouranJohn O. GreeneBrant R. BurlesonJennings BryantDoolf ZillmanCommunication Skills for Group Decision MakingHandbook of Communication and Social Interaction SkillsLEA's Communication Series2003Mahwah, NJLawrence Erlbaum Associates(Gouran, D., 2003a).
Group Decision-Making
A major influence in 1910 on the study of group discussion and decision-making was the well-known book How We Think by the distinguished philosopher, John Dewey. Deweys model is still the most widely-used model for directing the information flow toward problem solving and decision-making in IS studies of groups (Table 4).
Table 4
Deweys Reflective Thinking ModelDetermine what information is needed for understanding the issue at hand.
Access and gather the available information.
Gather the opinions of reliable sources in related fields.
Synthesize the information and opinions.
Consider the synthesis from all perspectives and frames of reference.
Finally, create some plausible temporary meaning that may be reconsidered and modified as more relevant information and opinions are learned. ADDIN EN.CITE Dewey191066666John DeweyHow We Think1910BostonHoughton Miflin CompanyDewey191066666John DeweyHow We Think1910BostonHoughton Miflin Company(Dewey, 1910)Group Properties
Small group research became recognized in the late 1940s and early 1950s by an increasing number of references in the social science literature ADDIN EN.CITE Ellis19948EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Small Group Decision Making: Communication and the Group Process</style>Fisher197445EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Small Group Decision Making</style>Gouran199936EndNote05<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Communication in Groups: The Emergence and Evolution of a Field of Study</style>Hare196238EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Handbook of Small Group Research</style>Hartley19977EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Group Communication</style>Harris200234EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Small Group and Team Communication</style>(Ellis and Fisher, 1994; Fisher, A., 1974; Gouran, D., 1999; Hare, A. Paul, 1962; Harris and Sherblom, 2002; Hartley, 1997). Although there are many more, 13 major properties, identified through theoretical studies and worthy of further study, may be depicted as an acronym, G.R.O.U.P. D.Y.N.A.M.I.C.S. (Appendix D) Understanding these properties of real groups in action provides descriptive and prescriptive methods that may enhance decision-making capabilities in EM organizations.
The G.R.O.U.P. D.Y.N.A.M.I.C.S. properties emerged because of studying the information flow in groups as a process. The group as a process led to groups being studied from the systems approach ADDIN EN.CITE Harris200234EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Small Group and Team Communication</style>Gouran20039EndNote05<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Communication Skills for Group Decision Making</style>Bales199946EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Social interaction systems : Theory and measurement</style>(Bales, 1999; Gouran, D. S., 2003b; Harris and Sherblom, 2002).
Information Flow and Systems Theory
Open systems of interaction, originally applied to biological systems, provides a compelling symbolic foundation for an IS study of EM decision-making. Many IS studies found basis for systems of information flow using Shannon and Weavers 1947 communications / information systems model (Figure 1) to describe group communication systems.
Figure 1Lewin, Lippitt, and White ADDIN EN.CITE Lewin193966666617Kurt LewinR. LippittR. WhitePatterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created "social climates"Journal of Social PsychologyJournal of Social Psychology271-299101939Lewin193966666617Kurt LewinR. LippittR. WhitePatterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created "social climates"Journal of Social PsychologyJournal of Social Psychology271-299101939(1939) introduced the systems approach to studying the group information process; however, scholars did not embrace the theory until Bales ADDIN EN.CITE Bales195055EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Interaction process analysis: A method for the study of small groups</style>(1950) enhanced it. Bales compared groupslike those found in EMto an open system that is, from inception to outcome, a cyclical processdynamic, continuous, and evolving ADDIN EN.CITE Hare196238EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Handbook of Small Group Research</style>Harris200234EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Small Group and Team Communication</style>(Hare, A. Paul, 1962; Harris and Sherblom, 2002). EM organizations can be viewed as a subsystem within the larger social systeman open system. An open system is a set of interrelated components that operate together as a whole with three major elements: input, process, and output. Multiple subsystems of transactions, called processes, characterize a system of interaction, called information flow. These processes are between and among people, components who continually and simultaneously send output and receive input. The purpose of these transactions is to achieve a mutual goal, a successful outcome ADDIN EN.CITE Bales195055EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Interaction process analysis: A method for the study of small groups</style>(Bales, 1950) (Table 5).
Table 5
Information Flow Systems System elementsExample in EMprocesspreparation, response, recovery, mitigation componentpolice, firefighters, emergency medical technicians, meteorologists, volunteer groups, building inspectors, politicians. local/state/federal officials, businesses, nearby jurisdictionsoutcomedisaster prevention, disaster mitigation The Communications discipline investigates face-to-face and virtual systems of information flow and decisions. It has provided group information flow with a respectable position in formal research ADDIN EN.CITE Poole200463863817M. PooleInterdisciplinary perspectives on small groupsSmall Group ResearchSmall Group Research3-163512004(Poole, M., 2004). Studies include groups as systems ADDIN EN.CITE Hare20031EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Roles, relationships, and groups in organizations: Some conclusions and recommendations</style>Lester200311EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>The Human Side of Group Support Systems: Influences on Satisfaction and Effectiveness</style>Mabry199912EndNote05<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>The systems metaphor in group communication</style>McGrath20007EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>The Study of Groups: Past, Present, and Future</style>Moon200313EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Group decision process and incrementalism in organizational decision making</style>Prekop200214EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>A Qualitative Study of Collaborative Information Seeking</style>Hare20031EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Roles, relationships, and groups in organizations: Some conclusions and recommendations</style>Lester200311EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>The Human Side of Group Support Systems: Influences on Satisfaction and Effectiveness</style>Mabry199912EndNote05<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>The systems metaphor in group communication</style>McGrath20007EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>The Study of Groups: Past, Present, and Future</style>Moon200313EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Group decision process and incrementalism in organizational decision making</style>Prekop200214EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>A Qualitative Study of Collaborative Information Seeking</style>(Hare, A Paul, 2003; Lester, Ready, Hostager and Bergmann, 2003; Mabry, 1999; McGrath, Arrow and Berdahl, 2000; Moon et al., 2003; Prekop, 2002), group interaction (information flow) ADDIN EN.CITE Wittenbaum20047EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>The functional perspective as a lens for understanding groups</style>Chernyshenko20034EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>The impact of information distribution, ownership, and discussion on group member judgment: The differential cue weighting model</style>Kelly20046EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Time pressure and group performance: Exploring underlying processes in the Attentional Focus Model</style>Wilkinson20021EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Small-group composition and peer effects</style>(Chernyshenko, Miner, Baumann and Sniezek, 2003; Kelly and Loving, 2004; Wilkinson and Fung, 2002; Wittenbaum et al., 2004), virtual group interaction ADDIN EN.CITE Dasgupta20033EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>The role of controlled and dynamic process environments in group decision making: An exploratory study</style>Balthazard20042EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Expertise, extraversion and group interaction styles as performance indicators in virtual teams: how do perceptions of IT's performance get formed?</style>Benbunan-Ficha20031EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>A comparative content analysis of face-to-face vs. asynchronous group decision making</style>(Balthazard, Potter and Warren, 2004; Benbunan-Ficha, Hiltz and Turoff, 2003; Dasgupta, 2003), group decisions ADDIN EN.CITE Condon20032EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Visualizing Group Decisions in the Analytic Hierarchy Process</style>Ellis199413EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Small Group Decision Making: Communication and the Group Process</style>Poole19857EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Group decision-making as a structurational process</style>Slezak20009EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>The Effect of Organizational Form on Information Flow and Decision Quality: Informational Cascades in Group Decision Making</style>Sunwolf199910EndNote05<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>The impact of formal procedures on group processes, members, and task outcomes</style>(Condon, Golden and Wasil, 2003; Ellis and Fisher, 1994; Poole, Marshall, 1985; Slezak, 2000; Sunwolf and Seibold, 1999), and virtual group decisions ADDIN EN.CITE Burkhalter20025EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>A Conceptual Definition and Theoretical Model of Public Deliberation in Small Face-to-Face Groups</style>Alge20031EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>When does the medium matter? Knowledge-building experiences and opportunities in decision-making teams</style>Benbunan-Ficha20034EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>A comparative content analysis of face-to-face vs. asynchronous group decision making</style>Burkhalter20025EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>A Conceptual Definition and Theoretical Model of Public Deliberation in Small Face-to-Face Groups</style>Alge20031EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>When does the medium matter? Knowledge-building experiences and opportunities in decision-making teams</style>Benbunan-Ficha20034EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>A comparative content analysis of face-to-face vs. asynchronous group decision making</style>(Alge, Wiethoff and Klein, 2003; Benbunan-Ficha, Hiltz and Turoff, 2003; Burkhalter, Gastil and Kelshaw, 2002).
IS studies of information behavior, flow, and processes as systems could contribute to the success of EM organizations, who interact by consulting and researching national organizationsfor example, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)to gain information (input), and then make suggestions (output) to local EM members and EM researchers to solicit feedback. The feedback then becomes further input and shapes the subsequent suggestions made by all EM information contributors until a decision is reached. Systems theory is also the framework for a newer theory, the Bona Fide Group Perspective (BFGP) that can be used to demonstrate the relationship of EM as a whole to information flow. BFGP is one of four contemporary theories that describe information flow (Table 6).
Table 6
Four Major Contemporary Theories Of Information Flow In GroupsFunctionalFunctional Theory is a normative approach to explaining group information flow. The focus of functional theory are inputs and processes, elements grounded in systems theory ADDIN EN.CITE Wittenbaum200473EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>The functional perspective as a lens for understanding groups</style>(Wittenbaum et al., 2004) and Deweys reflective thinking model. StructurationStructuration Theory is a way to explain the pattern of relationship between the group system of information flow and the group structure, the rules and resources members use to maintain the group system ADDIN EN.CITE Poole198563EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Group decision-making as a structurational process</style>(Poole, Marshall, 1985). Symbolic Convergence Theory (SCT)Symbolic Convergence Theory (SCT) explains the information flow process of group members as they form group identity. The group assuming its own identity significantly improves decision-making ADDIN EN.CITE Bormann198264EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>The symbolic convergence theory of communication: Applications and implications for teachers and consultants</style>(Bormann, 1982).BFGPBFGP is a theory created by Putnam and Stohl ADDIN EN.CITE Putnam1990636317Putnam, L.Stohl, C.Bona fide groups: A reconceptualization of groups in contextCommunication StudiesCommunication Studies248-265411990(1990) that embraces the relationship between groups and their larger social systems. BFGP proposes two major ideas: 1) groups have permeable and fluid boundaries with shifting borders and 2) groups are embedded in and interdependent with their environment, their larger system.
The systems metaphor (Appendix E), however, remains the basis for textbook study of group information flow ADDIN EN.CITE Arrow200457057017Holly ArrowMarshall PooleKelly Bouas HenrySusan WheelanRichard MorelandTime, change, and development the temporal perspective on groupsSmall Group ResearchSmall Group Research73-105351small groupsgroup developmentcomplex systemstimechangeGROUP DECISION - MAKINGADAPTIVE STRUCTURATION THEORYCOMMUNICATIONPERFORMANCEWORKPERCEPTIONSCOMPLEXITYSTABILITYEMERGENCEEFFICACY2004Bales19995745746Robert BalesSocial interaction systems : Theory and measurement1999New Brunswick, NJTransaction PublishersArrow200457057017Holly ArrowMarshall PooleKelly Bouas HenrySusan WheelanRichard MorelandTime, change, and development the temporal perspective on groupsSmall Group ResearchSmall Group Research73-105351small groupsgroup developmentcomplex systemstimechangeGROUP DECISION - MAKINGADAPTIVE STRUCTURATION THEORYCOMMUNICATIONPERFORMANCEWORKPERCEPTIONSCOMPLEXITYSTABILITYEMERGENCEEFFICACY2004Bales19995745746Robert BalesSocial interaction systems : Theory and measurement1999New Brunswick, NJTransaction Publishers(Arrow, Poole, Henry, Wheelan and Moreland, 2004; Bales, 1999). The IS application of systems theory overlaps with communications, cognition, small group research, management, and therefore demonstrates the potential for integration into EM research.
Current Research
Interestingly, the very nature of information prompts integration among ALL disciplinesespecially information management and technologyto produce knowledge using libraries, computers, email, and software for statistical analysis, database creation, and all information systems. The events of the September, 2001 terrorist attacks, however, have initiated current research in IT to improve information sharing among governmental organizations and enable efficient communications interoperability among emergency response organizations.
Decision Aids
Several decision aids (Appendix A) have been developed for the management of disasters including:
CAMEO (Computer-Aided Management of Emergency Operations),
ALOHA (Area Location of Hazardous Atmospheres),
E Team (created to manage every phase of a crisis),
GIS (geographic information systems).
However, there is the need for new or the extension of existing theories that might enable information technologists to anticipate more fully the needs addressed by disaster management software.
Information Sharing
The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 was intended to mobilize IT for counterterrorism information sharing ADDIN EN.CITE Dizard2004464641Dizard, Wilson P.Final intelligence reform bill stresses data sharingGovernment Computer News23April 14, 2005200412/13/04http://www.gcn.com/23_34/news/28097-1.html(Dizard, 2004). The law created two influential positions: Director of National Intelligence and Director of the National Counterterrorism Centerboth entrusted with the task of increasing information sharing ADDIN EN.CITE Office of the Press Secretary2004454540Office of the Press Secretary,The White HousePresident Signs Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention ActApril 10, 200520042004 December 17http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/12/20041217-1.html(Office of the Press Secretary, 2004). Senator Susan Collins introduced the final version of the bill. She said the Commission found that "various agencies had pieces of the puzzle that [if assembled] might have allowed them to prevent the attacks the bill will foster a new culture of information sharing in the intelligence community ADDIN EN.CITE Dizard2004464641Dizard, Wilson P.Final intelligence reform bill stresses data sharingGovernment Computer News23April 14, 2005200412/13/04http://www.gcn.com/23_34/news/28097-1.html(Dizard, 2004).
Information sharing is also being addressed by a few individual efforts including the March 2004 introduction of OSIS (Open Specification for Sensitive Information Sharing) by RAINS (Regional Alliances for Infrastructure and Network Security). RAINS, a not-for-profit public/private partnership that has promised to advance ground-breaking technology for homeland security, created OSIS for the safe sharing of sensitive information across state, local and national security systems (Appendix F). Unfortunately, the nation has not introduced a consistent strategy to address information sharing nation-wide.
The U.S. National Commission on Libraries and Information Science (NCLIS), however, has proposed an unusual solution to President George W. Bush and Congress. Trust and Terror is an NCLIS proposal that envisions public libraries as an information center for crisis information dissemination and management. NCLIS claims that public libraries provide an appropriate forum for crisis information dissemination because the public considers libraries trustworthy sources that are already efficiently structured, aware of cultural diversity, many times employ multi-lingual staff, and accessible to local communities. Although libraries also can offer the information from anywhere in the world in real time in numerous formats ADDIN EN.CITE NCLIS200256456446NCLISTrust and Terror: A proposal of the National Commission on Libraries and Information Science (NCLIS) to expand the role of U.S. libraries in crisis Information dissemination and management 2002http://www.nclis.gov/info/trust/TrustandTerror.brochure.English.IFLA.pdfJuly 29, 2005NCLIS200256456446NCLISTrust and Terror: A proposal of the National Commission on Libraries and Information Science (NCLIS) to expand the role of U.S. libraries in crisis Information dissemination and management 2002http://www.nclis.gov/info/trust/TrustandTerror.brochure.English.IFLA.pdfJuly 29, 2005(NCLIS, 2002), new law would be needed to authorize and equip libraries for access to secure information related to terrorismthe most prominent civil hazard currently threatening the security of information.
Communications Interoperability
Failed communications interoperability contributed to Americas complacency during the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Consequently, thousands of civilians died alongside hundreds of first responders: emergency personnel including police, emergency medical technicians, and firefighters, who were trained and willing to save lives.
Don Eddington, chief of the Center for IT Integration at the Defense Information Systems Agency admitted that "DOD (the Department of Defense) couldn't talk to state officials; state officials couldn't talk to city officials" ADDIN EN.CITE Onley2002323241Dawn S. OnleyBetter communications could have saved lives, homeland official says,Government Computer NewsApril 3, 200220022002 September 11http://www.gcn.com/vol1_no1/daily-updates/19977-1.html(Onley, 2002). Unfortunately, first and second responder organizations had adopted many different information systems for their specific information sharing needsand some that were ready to use were never implemented. Firefighters, police, and other emergency personnel at the Pentagon and in New York City could not find common radio frequencies to communicatecell phone networks flooded frequencies and further hindered information flow in the hours following the attacks ADDIN EN.CITE Riley2003363641Benjamin RileyInformation Sharing in Homeland Security and Homeland Defense: How the Department of Defense Is HelpingJournal of Homeland SecurityApril 4, 200520039/10/2003http://www.homelandsecurity.org/journal/articles/displayArticle.asp?article=97Riley2003363641Benjamin RileyInformation Sharing in Homeland Security and Homeland Defense: How the Department of Defense Is HelpingJournal of Homeland SecurityApril 4, 200520039/10/2003http://www.homelandsecurity.org/journal/articles/displayArticle.asp?article=97(Riley, 2003).
The 9/11 Commission was enlisted to research and report the situations and events surrounding the attacks. The Commission found that civilians, firefighters, police officers, emergency medical technicians, and emergency management professionals demonstrated steady determination and resolve under horrifying, overwhelming conditions Their actions saved lives and inspired a nation ... However, the Commission also found that the Port Authority's response was hampered by the lack of standard operating procedures and radios capable of enabling multiple commands to respond to an incident in unified fashion. The Commission made the following recommendation:
Make homeland security funding contingent on the adoption of an incident command system to strengthen teamwork in a crisis, including a regional approach. Allocate more radio spectrum and improve connectivity for public safety communications, and encourage widespread adoption of newly developed standards for private-sector emergency preparednesssince the private sector controls 85 percent of the nation's critical infrastructure ADDIN EN.CITE The 9/11 Commission2004333327The 9/11 Commission,Final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United StatesExecutive Summary5852004August 21, 2004Washington, D.C.US Governmenthttp://a257.g.akamaitech.net/7/257/2422/22jul20041147/www.gpoaccess.gov/911/pdf/execsummary.pdfThe 9/11 Commission2004333327The 9/11 Commission,Final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United StatesExecutive Summary5852004August 21, 2004Washington, D.C.US Governmenthttp://a257.g.akamaitech.net/7/257/2422/22jul20041147/www.gpoaccess.gov/911/pdf/execsummary.pdf(The 9/11 Commission, 2004).
Communications interoperability among officials from community first responders to high-level information security officers within the federal government is a major concern with the growing threats of terrorism and cyberterrorism. Recommendations for the development of shareable information systems have emerged from both public and private institutions. Creative solutions for integrating information technologies provide U.S. leaders with choices and challengesfor instance, what do they choose and how do they choose it? Congress passed the Homeland Security Act in November 2002 specifically to address these and other questions about shareable information (Appendix G). Private and public sectors are busy introducing a mishmash of information sharing products including software for:
three-dimensional mapping of cities;
disaster management simulations
analysis of phone calls and other communications to help first responders make better decisions in emergencies;
interpretation of garbled speech recordings;
extraction of unstructured text;
discovery of non-obvious relationships (background checks deluxe); and
disparate systems queries (police, courthouse, homegrown databases, etc.) ADDIN EN.CITE Mena2004262613Mena, JesúsHOMELAND SECURITY AS CATALYST.Intelligent Enterprise28-33711COMPUTER softwareHOMELAND securityKNOWLEDGE Computing Corp.INFOGLIDE Corp.SEARCHSPACE Corp.ATTENSITY Corp.LANGUAGE Analysis Systems Inc.20042004/07/10/CMP Media LLC15243621Articlehttp://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&an=13723545Batzler2002373741Batzler, LloydIndustry's Emerging Role in Homeland DefenseGovernment Computer NewsApril 10, 200520022002 November 3http://www.gcn.com/vol1_no1/daily-updates/20485-1.html(Batzler, 2002; Mena, 2004).
Serious submissions are subject to SAFETY (Support Anti-Terrorism by Fostering Effective Technologies Act of 2002) guidelines ADDIN EN.CITE DHS Press Office2003474740DHS Press Office,Department of Homeland SecurityFact Sheet: Safety Act - Partnering With American Entrepreneurs in Developing New Technologies to Protect the HomelandApril 15, 200520032003 October 10http://www.dhs.gov/dhspublic/interapp/press_release/press_release_0439.xml(DHS Press Office, 2003). IS should collaborate with EM to further these goals.
Recommendations for Future Research
IS researchers should consider studying disasters in the light of information and communication systems theory, collective information processing (Appendix D), knowledge management, decision-making and chaos theory. Chaos theory would provide a fitting foundation for the study of information flow in disasters. Disasters appear chaotic, yet chaos theory argues that there is order in chaosthe order is just not apparent because it is so complex.
Researchers might also consider more ethnographic studies of disaster information flow at the scene of real disasters. Field studies could greatly enhance the information behavior theory of emergent groups, information sharing among first, second and third responders, and governmental agencies at all levels.
Developing and testing information sharing network structures for disaster management would be instrumental in helping all involved in EM understand the routes of disaster information. EM could learn from whom, to whom, and how members can change those routes to enhance and expedite their important interactions. A sensitive information exchange technology that allows the display of information on heterogeneous networks across the world could eventually enable EM to send disaster information to all personal digital assistants or cell phones. Information sharing technology has the potential to make people safer, healthier, and more knowledgeablechief rationales for expanding IT.
More technology, however, would bring more work to EM teams. Learning new systems and software and being better connected means more communicationall time-consuming activities to implement programs that may or may not be more efficient. The vulnerability of complex networked systems, together with potential ways of using data resources to speed up recovery almost certainly will increasingly preoccupy emergency planning staff in some areas." ADDIN EN.CITE Stephenson199745803613666065 Provider: OCLC45817Stephenson, RobinAnderson, Peter S.Independent Consultant; Simon Fraser UniversityDisasters and the Information Technology RevolutionDisastersDisasters305-334214199703613666065 Provider: OCLCView Full Text in PDF format (ECO)Availability: FirstSearch indicates your institution subscribes to this publication. Libraries worldwide that own item: 190 UNIV OF N TEXAS Search the catalog at UNT LibrariesLocal HoldingsInformation: vol: 1- 1977- Stephenson199745803613666065 Provider: OCLC45817Stephenson, RobinAnderson, Peter S.Independent Consultant; Simon Fraser UniversityDisasters and the Information Technology RevolutionDisastersDisasters305-334214199703613666065 Provider: OCLCView Full Text in PDF format (ECO)Availability: FirstSearch indicates your institution subscribes to this publication. Libraries worldwide that own item: 190 UNIV OF N TEXAS Search the catalog at UNT LibrariesLocal HoldingsInformation: vol: 1- 1977- (Stephenson and Anderson, 1997).
IS should therefore more aggressively address the possible negative impacts of the IT on disaster planning and research. Joys speculations that humans may fall victim to their own technology ADDIN EN.CITE Joy200066766717Joy, BillWhy the future doesn't need usWiredWired842000Joy200066766717Joy, BillWhy the future doesn't need usWiredWired842000(2000) is worthy of deeper investigation, as is Mesthenes opinion that humans technical prowess always seems to run ahead of his ability to deal with and profit from it. EM researcher, Quarantelli ADDIN EN.CITE Quarantelli19977250965356207306bc1 Provider: OCLC72517E. L. QuarantelliResearch Professor in the Disaster Research Center, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USAProblematical aspects of the information\ communication revolution for disaster planning and research: ten non-technical issues and questionsDisaster Prevention and ManagementDisaster Prevention and Management9462Computer disastersDisaster managementInformation systemsInformation technologycoordination19970965356207306bc1 Provider: OCLCView Full Text in PDF format (ECO)Availability: FirstSearch indicates your institution subscribes to this publication. Libraries worldwide that own item: 42 UNIV OF N TEXAS Search the catalog at UNT LibrariesLocal HoldingsInformation: vol: 1- 1992-Quarantelli19977250965356207306bc1 Provider: OCLC72517E. L. QuarantelliResearch Professor in the Disaster Research Center, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USAProblematical aspects of the information\ communication revolution for disaster planning and research: ten non-technical issues and questionsDisaster Prevention and ManagementDisaster Prevention and Management9462Computer disastersDisaster managementInformation systemsInformation technologycoordination19970965356207306bc1 Provider: OCLCView Full Text in PDF format (ECO)Availability: FirstSearch indicates your institution subscribes to this publication. Libraries worldwide that own item: 42 UNIV OF N TEXAS Search the catalog at UNT LibrariesLocal HoldingsInformation: vol: 1- 1992-(1997) raises provocative questions addressing the implementation of IT without preliminary, robust testing. He asserts that the information/communication revolution has at least ten inadvertent liabilities for disaster planning and management. These areas warrant intensive attention. How can we claim to mitigate disasters if the very methods we use exacerbate them? Quarantelli inspires many information-related suspicions.
If IT provides all persons possible with IT that connects them to disasters, will they be helpful or, as untrained professionals, become additional hazards preventing the trained professionals from doing their jobs?
Will the new IT provide too many choices for technology? or
too much information? or
lose information or be so dynamic that the information is outdated the second it is transferred?
Will the hackers and cyber-terrorists be as updated as the legitimate IT providers?
Will messages lose the richness only found in face-to-face communication?
Will the addition of Web-like platforms impede typically hierarchical information flow?
Will fad-like methods for dealing with disasters spread across the Internet before they can be tested?
Will safety and ergonomic guidelines be realized before possibly hazardous IT is implemented?
Will the increase of IT, and its computer representations, increase the likelihood of even more computer-system related disasters?
These questions emphasize the need for more research regarding new technology use with information disasters and disaster information. Studies should focus on disaster warning communication systems, disaster mitigation for information systems, and knowledge management for information disaster preparedness.
9/11 left many businesses devoid of information that was critical to their daily operations. Massive destruction obliterated electronic and hard copy client lists, sales records, billing information, and contracts. Neither sophisticated IT nor well-developed disaster recovery plans could prepare organizations for the permanent loss of knowledgeknowledge recorded on paper, electronically, and in the minds of the victims who lost their lives. IS/EM collaboration should thus focus on several aspects of disaster information flow including EM team problem-solving and decision-making; communications interoperabilityboth humanly and artificially produced at the local, state, national, and international levels; sensitive and/or vital information sharing among governmental entities, and the problematic aspects of the information/communication revolution as introduced by Quarantelli ADDIN EN.CITE Quarantelli19977250965356207306bc1 Provider: OCLC72517E. L. QuarantelliResearch Professor in the Disaster Research Center, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USAProblematical aspects of the information\ communication revolution for disaster planning and research: ten non-technical issues and questionsDisaster Prevention and ManagementDisaster Prevention and Management9462Computer disastersDisaster managementInformation systemsInformation technologycoordination19970965356207306bc1 Provider: OCLCView Full Text in PDF format (ECO)Availability: FirstSearch indicates your institution subscribes to this publication. Libraries worldwide that own item: 42 UNIV OF N TEXAS Search the catalog at UNT LibrariesLocal HoldingsInformation: vol: 1- 1992-Quarantelli19977250965356207306bc1 Provider: OCLC72517E. L. QuarantelliResearch Professor in the Disaster Research Center, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USAProblematical aspects of the information\ communication revolution for disaster planning and research: ten non-technical issues and questionsDisaster Prevention and ManagementDisaster Prevention and Management9462Computer disastersDisaster managementInformation systemsInformation technologycoordination19970965356207306bc1 Provider: OCLCView Full Text in PDF format (ECO)Availability: FirstSearch indicates your institution subscribes to this publication. Libraries worldwide that own item: 42 UNIV OF N TEXAS Search the catalog at UNT LibrariesLocal HoldingsInformation: vol: 1- 1992-(1997). Also imperative is the convergence of disciplines in the research of the elusive concept of vulnerability (McEntire, David A., 2004). Theoretical integration of IS and EM in these and other areas can only serve to improve all phases of disaster management from preparedness to response to recovery to mitigation.
Conclusion
Two distinct problems are evident in both IS and EM researchinformation disasters and the flow of disaster information. The impact of these problems demands extensive studies, however, the duality of the problemsinformation and disastersdemands integrated studies.
Vannevar Bush emphasized the need for integration among disciplines when he bemoaned the growing mountain of research as studies became more diverse. He also felt that investigators were staggered by the findings and conclusions of thousands of other workers with no time to grasp, much less to remember other researchers contributions.
The events of 9/11 instigated a revival of Vannevar Bushs challenge to launch the massive task of making more accessible a bewildering store of knowledge ADDIN EN.CITE Bush1945424217Vannevar BushAs we may thinkAtlantic MonthlyAtlantic Monthly101-108176July1945(Bush, V., 1945a). Bushs 60-year-old recommendation is surprisingly similar to a recommendation by the 9/11 Commission in its 2004 report to the nation.
The U.S. government has access to a vast amount of information. But it has a weak system for processing and using what it has. The system of need to know should be replaced by a system of need to share" ADDIN EN.CITE The 9/11 Commission200473873827The 9/11 Commission,Final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United StatesExecutive Summary5852004August 21, 2004Washington, D.C.US Governmenthttp://a257.g.akamaitech.net/7/257/2422/22jul20041147/www.gpoaccess.gov/911/pdf/execsummary.pdfThe 9/11 Commission200473873827The 9/11 Commission,Final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United StatesExecutive Summary5852004August 21, 2004Washington, D.C.US Governmenthttp://a257.g.akamaitech.net/7/257/2422/22jul20041147/www.gpoaccess.gov/911/pdf/execsummary.pdf(The 9/11 Commission, 2004).
The need to share information among disciplines and governments cannot be met by IS or EM alone. Integrated research is vital to minimize the vulnerabilities to information disasters and consequently diminish disasters inherent disruptions to life. Integrated research is also vital to maximize the effectiveness of disaster information flow among EM organizations and thereby facilitate the preservation of life. Possible repercussions from information disasters and ineffective disaster information flow necessitate the integration of IS and EM. The stability and survival of lives may depend on it.
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Appendix A
Some Problems Studied Within Information SciencesSubject Area and ProblemsContributions to Research with Applications to EMCognitive Science: expert systems; knowledge bases; hypertext; human-computer interaction
Artificial Intelligence: software to emulate human intelligence
Semiotics: Signs, both individually and grouped in sign systems, and includes the study of how meaning is transmitted and understoodhuman factors (ergonomics); robot studies
vulnerability analysis
intelligence agency communications interoperability; cyber-terrorism; information warfareCommunications: Information flow (information sending, receiving), and information sharing
Cybernetics: communication, feedback, and control mechanisms in living systems and machines
Telecommunications: Distance electronic information exchange
Systemics: Relationships of systemstransactions, processes, inputs, outputs, especially information/communication systemsdefense simulation; telemedicine
decision systems; online database systems and related telecommunications and networking technologies; specialized search functionalities; large machine-readable databases for the dissemination and graphic representation of disaster-related information; GIS (Geographical Information Systems); CAMEO (Computer-Aided Management of Emergency Operations) ALOHA (Area Location of Hazardous Atmospheres); E Team (manages every phase of a crisis) Computer Science: manipulation and storage of document records in electronic information storage, processing, and retrieval systems; information management; databasescomputer hardware and software to manipulate documents and document records for emergency, disaster, and crisis information storage and retrieval systemsInformation Science: information behavior, information processing, information retrieval, information storage, information dissemination user information seeking, needs, preferencesrelevance and utility assessment
development of standards for processing and communication of information; monitoring of the national information infrastructure (human, technological, materials and financial) to ensure maintenance of information systems and services related to the public interest
protocols (procedures) for informationLibrary Science: Acquisition, cataloging, classification, and preservation of information
Bibliometrics: All quantitative aspects and models of communication, storage, dissemination and retrieval of scientific information
Citation analysis: Citation frequency and patterns in scientific journals article citations; implications for how and where an authors work is subsequently cited
Co-citation analysis: Literature coherence and changes over a period of time; maps oeuvres and their authors relationship to other oeuvres and authors
Content analysis: Thesauri and frequency of terms, co-word/co-authorship/co-citation analysis for interdisciplinarity purposes
Cybermetrics: Quantitative aspects of the construction and use of information resources, structures and technologies on the whole Internet drawing on bibliometric and informetric approaches
Informetrics: Quantitative aspects of information in any form, not just records or bibliographies, and in any social group, not just scientists
Webometrics: Quantitative aspects of the construction and use of information resources, structures and technologies on the Web draws on bibliometric and informetric approaches holdings of past research
study of all published literature and its usage in all disciplines to ensure scholarly productivity and communication in disaster research
indexing, citation indexing, keyword indexing, text analysis and natural language searching systems to aid researchers and practitioners in the finding of information vital to disaster situations
extensive development of these sub-disciplines and specialties to aid researchers interested in investigating interdisciplinarity
formal logic (Boolean operators AND, OR, and NOT) to improve database searching
formulation of national information policies related to issues of privacy, security, regulating dissemination, access, intellectual property, acceptable use
concept of library as an unbiased holder of all information regardless of content, political or moral implications
Appendix B
Librarianship and Information
Librarianship typically protects and preserves recorded information, as well as advocates the rights and privacy of the information of American citizens. Public libraries and universities lobby for changes in law to benefit personal information rights of individuals. Librarians and educatorsmany who consider the violation of privacy of information rights to be disastroushave been at the forefront of the fight for information privacy for a couple of centuries. Many support the First, Fourth, and Fifth Amendments from the 1791 Bill of Rights, quote Warren and Brandeis renowned 1890 article, The Right to Privacy and uphold the Freedom of Information Act (1966), the Federal Privacy Act of 1974, and the Electronic Privacy Act of 1986 where Congress realized the need to protect private citizen records collected by the government.
The Bill of Rights
The HYPERLINK "javascript:doWindowOpen('http://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/constitution.billofrights.html','new_frame','width=600,height=420,menubar=1,toolbar=1,scrollbars=1,status=1,location=1,resizable=1,resizable=1',0)" Bill of Rights was passed by the United States Congress on September 25, 1789. However more than a century would pass before the judicial branch recognized and implemented the right to privacy implications stated in the HYPERLINK "javascript:doWindowOpen('/SCRIPT/SLIS_LIBRARY_PRIVACY/scripts/student/serve_page.pl?1050598725+History/History.htm+OFF+Glossary/first.htm+','new_frame','width=600,height=420,menubar=1,toolbar=1,scrollbars=1,status=1,location=1,resizable=1,resizable=1',0)" First, HYPERLINK "javascript:doWindowOpen('/SCRIPT/SLIS_LIBRARY_PRIVACY/scripts/student/serve_page.pl?1050598725+History/History.htm+OFF+Glossary/fourth.htm+','new_frame','width=600,height=420,menubar=1,toolbar=1,scrollbars=1,status=1,location=1,resizable=1,resizable=1',0)" Fourth, and HYPERLINK "javascript:doWindowOpen('/SCRIPT/SLIS_LIBRARY_PRIVACY/scripts/student/serve_page.pl?1050598725+History/History.htm+OFF+Glossary/fifth.htm+','new_frame','width=600,height=420,menubar=1,toolbar=1,scrollbars=1,status=1,location=1,resizable=1,resizable=1',0)" Fifth Amendments. The First amendment addresses the right to privacy by giving citizens the freedom of speech, interpreted by law to mean that citizens have the freedom to express their thoughts, views, and preferences without fear of retribution. The Fourth Amendment protects citizens privacy by ensuring that their personal possessions are not searched or seized without warning and without probable cause. The Fifth Amendment protects citizens private property from seizure for public use.
The Right to Privacy
Warren and Brandeis introduced the idea that people have the freedom and right, as American citizens, to expect that not only their tangible possessions, but also their HYPERLINK "javascript:doWindowOpen('/SCRIPT/SLIS_LIBRARY_PRIVACY/scripts/student/serve_page.pl?1050598725+History/History.htm+OFF+Glossary/intangible.htm+','new_frame','width=600,height=420,menubar=1,toolbar=1,scrollbars=1,status=1,location=1,resizable=1,resizable=1',0)" intangible personal informationwhat they think, believe, say, and readto be safe from public intrusion. If citizens disclose their thoughts in a private place, they have the expectation that their private thoughts, their private information remains in that private place.
Freedom of Information Act (1966)
The FOIA was enacted to allow persons to request access to federal agency records or information. In response to the FOIA, states adopted their own open records acts governing public access to state and local records. However, exceptions were made in most states, including Texas, to protect the confidentiality of library user records. In 1973, Texas enacted the Texas Open Records Act, later to be revised as the Texas Public Information Act of 1995 (The Act). The Act allowed the public access to all government entity records, except for records containing personal information about individuals. Library recordswhich includes database search records; circulation records; interlibrary loan records; other personally identifiable uses of library materials, facilities, programs or services; and information obtained in reference interviewswere exempt from disclosure except under certain circumstances.Before the USA PATRIOT Act, American citizens were free to walk into a library, pick out a magazine, sit down and read, and walk out again without anyone knowing who they are, where they live, or what they chose to read. These freedoms were understood unless a court issued a subpoena showing probable cause that the disclosure of their records was necessary to protect the public safety; the record was evidence of a crime; or the record was evidence against a particular person who committed a crime.
Federal Privacy Act of 1974
The FOIA allowed access to government-held records. Some government-held records contained confidential information about individuals. Congress passed the Privacy Act in 1974 to ensure the protection of individual privacy from data collected by the government. The law allows individuals to view, copy, and correct their own records. It also prevents agencies from sharing data.
Electronic Privacy Act of 1986
The Electronic Communications Privacy Act of 1986 (ECPA) updated wiretapping laws for digital communications. It banned the capture of communications between network points -- it protected electronic communications while they are en route. However, in 1996, the FBI urged Congress to pass the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act of 1994 (Digital Telephony Act), a law that forces telecommunications carriers to design their systems so that law enforcement agencies can tap into them if necessary.
Librarianship and Online Information
Librarians also face decisions regarding library patrons information privacy on the Internet. Threats to online information include the USA PATRIOT Act, NOTEREF _Ref112405872 \h \* MERGEFORMAT 3 cookies, COPPA, and CIPA.
Cookies
Library users activities can be tracked using tiny text files, called cookies. Because cookies reveal where users visit, when they visit, how long they stay, what links they click, what purchases they make, and any preferences they may have set during the session, most libraries find it unethical to retain permanently the information saved in cookies.
Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA) (2000)
The Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA), went into effect April 21, 2000 (Federal 1999). COPPA requires that commercial Web sites must have documented parental consent to collect personally identifiable information (including an e-mail address) from children (COPPA 2002). However, this law does not mean that librarians must reveal to a parent what a child views on the Internet, or even what a child reads.
Children's Internet Protection Act (CIPA) (2000)
The Children's Internet Protection Act (CIPA) is a law passed by the federal government in December, 2000 to speak to concerns regarding children's access to the Internet from schools and libraries. CIPA requires that institutions that receive federal E-Rate or Library Services and Technology Act (LSTA) funds) filter all of its Internet terminals to block access to sites defined as obscene, child pornography, or harmful to minors.
The American Library Association challenged the law in a Philadelphia district court in May 2002. The court ruled that CIPA violated first amendment rights of library users, however, the government appealed the decision. On June 23, 2003, the U.S. Supreme Court reversed the lower court decision and upheld CIPA ruling that CIPA does not violate the First Amendment. Appendix C
McEntires disaster equation for informationExample problemsVulnerability+Hazard (Triggering Agent)=DisasterUnsealed storage roomUncovered, unwrapped physical archives +Terrorism/Vandalism=Damaged or destroyed books, artifacts, other historically significant objectsHeating/air conditioning failureFlood, tornado, hurricane, earthquake, etc.Novice userUnprotected or unduplicated files+User error: unintentional pressing of delete key=Loss or change of important document(s), No virus protectionVirus attack=Loss or damage of important documentsVague file security policyUnauthorized user access=information leakage, theft of sensitive or private informationNo/inferior firewallHacking=Stolen identity, credit information theft Faulty wiringPower failure/surge=Loss or damage of important documentsPoor ventilationHeating/ air conditioning/ failure=Loss or damage to: documents; software; hardwareHaphazard attitude toward warning systemsFailed/thwarted warning system +Cyberterrorism (using computer networks in the service of terrorism)=Destruction and death from terrorist actsAdversaries to information holdersSystems holding sensitive information+Information warfare=Propaganda causing destruction: denial of vital information; reception of false informationAmbiguous Information/knowledge policies/lawsCultural differences
+Cultural power struggles=Limitation of human and/or artificial knowledge (databases); inventory listsAmbiguous/absent document/information sharing standards Communication inoperability+Power failure/surge as a result natural hazard; terrorism; information security regulations=Missing, inaccurate withheld, or selective informationInformation scarcity (i.e., Digital Divide)No/limited access to information warning systemsSections 215 and 216 of the USA PATRIOT ActAccessible sensitive private information+Careless or impulsive law enforcement=Breach of anonymity, autonomy, privacy rights Appendix D
G.R.O.U.P. D.Y.N.A.M.I.C.S.: Major Properties of Task GroupsGoalsGroups in EM organizations are impacted by the goals throughout every phase of the disaster managements decision process. A goal is the desired final status of the situation, the consensus opinion, recommendation, or mandate ADDIN EN.CITE Schultz199950EndNote05<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Socialization processes in groups</style>(Anderson, Riddle and Martin, 1999). The intensity of an individuals commitment to the groups goal is dependent upon the ability of the members to give and receive information that will help them attain the groups goal ADDIN EN.CITE Allen199068EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Organizational socialization tactics: A longitudinal analysis of links to newcomer's commitment and role orientation</style>(Allen and Meyer, 1990). RolesA role is a set of communicative behaviors performed by an individual and involves the behaviors performed by one member in light of the expectations that other members hold toward these behaviors ADDIN EN.CITE Ellis19948, p. 114EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Small Group Decision Making: Communication and the Group Process</style>(Ellis and Fisher, 1994). As EM groups work out their own roles in cooperation with other team members, each member takes on a role that differentiates him or her from the other group members. A major influence on role development is the openness of the group to outside advice. Group roles form because of intergroup interaction, but more quickly identified through outside input. As open systems, outside influences not only impact the shaping of the roles, but also the shaping of the incoming and outgoing information.OpennessAlthough EM organizations are open systems, they must also draw on their systems ability to consider the integrity of the input. Propp ADDIN EN.CITE Propp199972EndNote05<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Collective Information Processing</style>(1999) sets forth this filtered input and coordinated output of information in her Distillation Model of CIP (collective information processing). CIP is a distillation process that progresses from a substantial collective knowledge base to a distilled information base that is purged of irrelevant or unsound information. A decision is then brought forth based on the final collective information. Propp describes four developmental stages in the Model: 1) individual knowledge baseknowledge that each member brings to the group concerning the task; 2) group knowledge basecollective knowledge available to a group as a whole; 3) communicated information baseinformation exchanged and shaped through group discussion; 4) final collective information baseinformation accepted and utilized by a group to come to a decision ADDIN EN.CITE Propp199972, p. 232EndNote05<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Collective Information Processing</style>(Propp, 1999).UnityThis separate identitya group within an EM organization for instance, assumes the qualities of a system. Groups, as systems, demonstrate unity in three ways: wholeness (Appendix E) , groupness, and synergy ADDIN EN.CITE Mabry199947EndNote05<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>The systems metaphor in group communication</style>(Mabry, 1999) .
Groupness was mentioned for the first time in 1967 by John Brilhart. Brilhart described groupness as a property only found in real groupsgroups of individuals who perceive themselves as a group. According to Brilhart, groupness evolves slowlyand is developed as the group becomes cohesive ADDIN EN.CITE Ellis19948EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Small Group Decision Making: Communication and the Group Process</style>(Ellis and Fisher, 1994). More research could show what events or situations accelerate or decelerate the development of unity.
The other aspect of unity is found in synergyfrom the Greek word sunergos, which means working together. Synergy empowers groups to make better decisions. The combination of ideas generated by brainstorming is an example of synergythe outcome is usually greater than a simple summation of individual ideas ADDIN EN.CITE Harris200234EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Small Group and Team Communication</style>(Harris and Sherblom, 2002).
Unity fosters compromise, cooperation, and consensus. Unified groups begin to adopt methods to facilitate their performance as a group: they adopt procedures to facilitate discussion, analyses, creativity, and agreement.Procedures
Although formal procedures are time-consuming, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that formal discussion and problem-solving procedures improve group performance ADDIN EN.CITE Poole19916376375M. PooleR.A. SwansonB.O. KnapProcedures for managing meetings: Social and technological innovationInnovative meeting management53-1091991Austin, TX3M Meeting Management Institute(Poole, M., 1991). Further in-depth study could determine what procedures to use for specific situations. One assumption is that the choices are largely dependent upon how culturally diverse the members are. The philosophical approach to group formation and problem solving varies between culturesand task groups like those found in EM organizations, are becoming more and more culturally diverse with the increased participation of ethnic minorities. Diversity
The most significant difference among cultures is attributed to value differences between individualistic and collectivistic cultures. When working in task groups, people from individualistic Western cultures, like the United States, tend to concentrate primarily on the task dimension and secondarily on the social dimension. Conversely, people from collectivist culturesEast Asia, Latin America, and Africatend to concentrate primarily on the social dimension and secondarily on the task dimension ADDIN EN.CITE Jetten200295EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>'We're </style><style face='italic' font='default' size='100%'>all</style><style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'> individuals': group norms of individualism and collectivism, levels of identification and identity threat</style>Sosik200292EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Work-group characteristics and performance in collectivistic and individualistic cultures</style>(Jetten, Postmes and McAuliffe, 2002; Sosik and Jung, 2002).
Individualistic and collectivistic values also affect group interactions and consequently, group outcomes. Individualistic members cultivate task roles early on whereas collectivistic members cultivate social roles first, however Oetzel ADDIN EN.CITE Oetzel200193EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Self-construals, communication processes, and group outcomes in homogenous and heterogeneous groups</style>(2001) did not find that groups composed of both individualistic and collectivistic members had communication problems. Surprisingly, even in individualistic cultures like the United States, EM team members can become unusually devoted to the social dimension, particularly groups with a highly powerful or persuasive leader who encourages yea-sayingblind support of the members to every view or suggestion of the leader.Yea-sayingYea-saying, also called groupthink was outlined by Janis ADDIN EN.CITE Janis19826136136Irving L. JanisGroupthink: Psychological studies of policy decisions and fiascoes2nd1982BostonHoughton Mifflin(1982) who believed that certain conditions were indicative of a tendency to promote the urgency of a quick consensus. Janis conditions for groupthink to occur are: cohesive decision-makers; isolated/insulated groupno external influences; members with similar backgrounds and attitudes; provocative, stressful situations and outside pressures.
Although the groupthink theory has been said to lack generalizability ADDIN EN.CITE Chen199676EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Groupthink: Deciding with the leader and the devil</style>Park200078EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>A comprehensive empirical investigation of the relationships among variables of the groupthink model</style>(Chen and Lawson, 1996; Park, 2000), Janis theory has been used to entertainingly describe many U.S. presidential decision fiascoes including Roosevelts complacency before Pearl Harbor, Trumans invasion of North Korea, Kennedys Bay of Pigs failure, Johnsons escalation of the Vietnam War, and Nixons Watergate ignominy. (If Janis updated his presidential study, he might include Carters political asylum for the Shah of Iran, Reagans Iran Contra affair, Fords pardon of Nixon, George Bushs leadership in the Gulf War, Clintons approval of the Branch Davidian raid, and George W. Bushs rush into Iraq.) Now that groupthink is a relatively known term, a current study of high-profile leaders could be very enlightening.
Groupthink is highly observable in EM, especially when the decisions impact nations. Equally as powerful, yet nearly invisible, are social norms, the most influential form of group control.NormsNorms are regular patterns of behavior or thinking that come to be accepted in a group as the usual way of doing things ADDIN EN.CITE Keyton199952EndNote05<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Relational communication in groups</style>(Keyton, 1999) Unlike rules, which are explicit guidelines of behavior, norms are implicit guidelines of behavior that emerge as the group evolves. These conventions, though unsaid, are powerful enough to shape group members conduct, viewpoints, and interaction. Norms become apparent early in the groups formation. They are typically developed as members observe each other and become cohesive. What is acceptable and not acceptable is just understood as group members come to know each other. Norms and rules determine how, when, and why decisions are made; they also are instrumental in whether a leader emerges from the membership or if the group members maintain equal status. The understood rules dictate how an EM team evaluates and allocates authoritya concept that suggests leadership, as well as power. AuthorityStudies show that most groups need a leader to plan meetings and empower members to carry out tasks. Leaders are also ultimately responsible for the management of conflict. So called leaderless groups usually have an unofficial leader that gradually assumes the leadership role ADDIN EN.CITE Brown200080EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Communication networks in task-performing groups: Effects of task complexity, time pressure, and interpersonal dominance</style>Ellis19948EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Small Group Decision Making: Communication and the Group Process</style>(Brown and Miller, 2000; Ellis and Fisher, 1994) This leader emergence is evident in many groups, especially groups that must make critical decisions. Leader emergence is found to be common in emergent groups at disaster scenes.
Some outstanding leaders are faced with contentious groups: groups composed of dominators, aggressors, conformists, or naysayers. Most leaders, however, find that their greatest challenge is managing members who consistently conform to majority or minority influence.Majority/minorityThe majority/minority concept discussed here does not relate to consensusit instead refers to tendencies of task group members to be influenced to conform to a majority opinion or minority opinion. Little research has been done in this area, however, studies have shown that minority dissent is many times as powerful in swaying group decision as is majority consent ADDIN EN.CITE Hartley19977EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Group Communication</style>(Hartley, 1997). Interactions among group members and members of majority and minority subgroups should be examined to determine the communication similarities and dissimilarities. Recent research shows that having a small majority consensus52% to 48%sways the undecided members toward the majority view as much as having a large majority consensus82% to 18% ADDIN EN.CITE Martin200284EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Level of consensus and majority and minority influence</style>(Martin, Gardikiotis and Hewstone, 2002). Interestingly, minority influences were posited to be stronger, regardless of the consensus size, if their views were highly distinctive from the majority views. A markedly atypical view is given even greater consideration by group members ADDIN EN.CITE Hartley19977EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Group Communication</style>(Hartley, 1997). Interdependence
Interdependence is apparent in the group system as members interact and respond to each other. The attributes of the memberspersonality, skills, attitudesaffect the experiences of all of the other members in the group. These attributes of all of the members also affect cohesiveness, relationships, and member satisfaction. Conversely, cohesiveness, relationships, and member satisfaction affect the behaviors and attitudes of all of group members.
The output of the task dimension is productivity; the output of the social dimension is cohesivenesswhich are also interdependent. The more productive the group is, the more cohesive it is. The more cohesive the group is, the more productive it is ADDIN EN.CITE Bonito200285EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>The analysis of participation in small groups: Methodological and conceptual issues related to interdependence</style>Harris200234EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Small Group and Team Communication</style>Keyton199952EndNote05<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Relational communication in groups</style>Mabry199947EndNote05<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>The systems metaphor in group communication</style>Meyers199982EndNote05<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Influence processes in group interaction</style>Ellis19948EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Small Group Decision Making: Communication and the Group Process</style>(Bonito, 2002; Ellis and Fisher, 1994; Harris and Sherblom, 2002; Keyton, 1999; Mabry, 1999; Meyers and Brashers, 1999)Conflict
Conflict can be defined as recognition by all group members that there are differences, disagreements, contradictory or irreconcilable desires among group members ADDIN EN.CITE Sell200475EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Investigating Conflict, Power, and Status Within and Among Groups</style>(Sell, Lovaglia, Mannix, Samuelson and Wilson, 2004). Conflict can be exacerbated or diminished based on group behaviors during a heated discussion ADDIN EN.CITE Sillince200070EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Rhetorical power, accountability and conflict in committees: An argumentation approach</style>(Sillince, 2000). Conflict can be described as either affective or substantive. Affective conflict involves an emotional conflict or struggle that is usually based on selfish or personal issues. It may involve differences of opinions, interpretation of rules, or attitudes toward established norms.
Substantive conflict involves intellectual opposition to the content of ideas or issues pertinent to the decision. It may involve bargaining, negotiations, or intellectual evaluation. The advantages to conflict outnumber the disadvantages.Structure
Interdependence also exists in the flow of information between and among EM team members. As the members sharing of information becomes more organized, a structure becomes evident. This structure includes both intangible and tangible frameworks that organize group interaction. Two forms of group structure are networks and proxemics. Networks are links between and among members that develop into recurrent patterns for the exchange of information. Proxemics, sometimes called group ecology, is concerned with how group members arrange, use and are affected by physical space in their interaction with others.
Appendix E
Groups as open systems System conceptsSystemEM organizationWholeness
Every component of a system affects and is affected by every other component.Every member affects and is affected by every other member.The system, though it has many components, assumes an identity as a unit.The organization, though it has many members, assumes an identity as a unit.A change in one component effects changes in all other componentsA change in one member effects changes in all other membersThe whole is different from the sum of the partsThe outcome of collaboration is different from the combined outcomes of the same people working alone.OpennessAn open system self-regulates: it receives processes new information, then discards what it does not need to survive.A group self-regulates: it receives and examines new information for relevance and reliability, then discards the irrelevant and unreliable.It freely exchanges information with the environment.Group members interact outside the group, freely exchanging ideas.StructureAll systems have spatial relationships: components that are above, below, beside, behind, or facing.Group members have spatial relationships as explained by positions within a communication network.FunctionEach component of a system has a function that complements the other components.Each member in a group has a role that complements other group roles.EvolutionSystems continuously transform through interactive processes.Groups continuously transform as they interact.InterdependenceSystem components depend on other components for proper functioning and replenishing.Group members depend on other group members to fulfill their goals.FeedbackA system sustains and adapts through feedback: responses to input and output.A group sustains and adapts through the cycle of interaction and feedback among its members. ADDIN EN.CITE Bales199946EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Social interaction systems : Theory and measurement</style>Mabry199947EndNote05<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>The systems metaphor in group communication</style>Fisher197445EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Small Group Decision Making</style>Hare196238EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Handbook of Small Group Research</style>(Bales, 1999; Fisher, A., 1974; Hare, A. Paul, 1962; Mabry, 1999) Appendix F
OSIS/RAINS BackgroundOSIS is based on RAINS established Connect & Protect program, a wide area network project that connects schools, government agencies and other organizations in Portland, Oregon ADDIN EN.CITE Fisher20043EndNote041<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>National security spec advances</style>(Fisher, D., 2004). Connect & Protect program a cooperative effort between RAINS and the City of Portland's Bureau of Emergency Communications (BOEC) allows the conveyance of real-time emergency information among more than 60 local public safety stakeholders including 911 centers, schools, hospitals, hotels, and banks. Alerts can be received through PCs, personal digital assistants or cellular phones ADDIN EN.CITE RAINS Programs200410EndNote040<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Open Specification</style>RAINS Programs200410EndNote040<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Open Specification</style>(RAINS, 2004). BOEC was the first 9-1-1 Dispatch Center in the country to participate in this program. Oregons 9-1-1 center simultaneously implemented Connect & Protect with RAINS-Net in Portland, in August 2003. RAINS designed the program to be a scalable, affordable model (below) and therefore usable anywhere locally or nationally in cities and rural areas.
RAINS began as a result of 9/11, 2001. Several Oregon companies united as Oregon RAINS, a regional emergency response network. RAINS grew to include more than 60 companies and six research universities by the time it deployed RAINS-Net in 2003 ADDIN EN.CITE Jackson200415EndNote041<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Coalition has specs for secure data-sharing</style>(Jackson, 2004).
Since then it has recruited agencies in two states, Virginia and Washington RAINS is optimistic that OSIS will attract at least 10 states in the near future. Already it is the first statewide system in the country that will be able to send emergency alerts securely online ADDIN EN.CITE Robinson200323EndNote041<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>RAINS showcases secure info</style>(Robinson, 2003).
RAINS hopes that OSIS can become the nations prototype for sensitive information exchange ADDIN EN.CITE Robinson200320EndNote041<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Oregon pushes for DHS dollars</style>(Robinson, 2004). Wyatt Starnes, co-founder of RAINS, confirmed that OSIS encourages the use of specialized Web Services and additional standards including XML, Common Alert Protocol, WS-Security, WS-Security Policy, WS-Trust, SAML but it does not force users to follow specific form when implementing these services ADDIN EN.CITE What's next?20044EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>New security specification targets government</style>(What's next? 2004). RAINS believes its major advantage of OSIS is its non-proprietary approach it can be used by both government and private organizations who need to share sensitive information without forgoing free market competition ADDIN EN.CITE ESRI20049EndNote040<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Environmental Systems Research Institute News Release</style>RAINS-Gauge200412EndNote041<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Spotlight on RAINS open specification</style>ESRI20049EndNote040<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Environmental Systems Research Institute News Release</style>RAINS-Gauge200412EndNote041<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Spotlight on RAINS open specification</style>(ESRI, 2004; RAINS-Gauge, 2004). Currently, all government and first responder organizations using the RAINS-Net system are employing OSIS ADDIN EN.CITE What's next?20044EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>New security specification targets government</style>What's next?20044EndNote017<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>New security specification targets government</style>(What's next? 2004). Appendix G
Homeland Security Act (2002)
Section 201: Directorate for Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection
To review, analyze, and make recommendations for improvements in the policies and procedures governing the sharing of law enforcement information, intelligence information, intelligence-related information, and other information relating to homeland security within the Federal Government and between the Federal Government and State and local government agencies and authorities.
The major purpose of the Act was to establish the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) whose primary mission is to protect our Homeland ADDIN EN.CITE Bush2002424227George W. BushDepartment of Homeland Security2002Washington, D.C.The White Househttp://www.dhs.gov/interweb/assetlibrary/book.pdf(Bush, G. W., 2002). The DHS outlined seven priorities for completion in 2005. Priorities 1, 2, and 5 specifically address tactics to develop shareable information systems.
Priority 1
The DHS intends to establish a Homeland Security Information Network (HSIN), a computer-based counterterrorism communications network designed to strengthen the two-way flow of threat information that will be available to all 50 states, 5 territories, Washington, D.C., and 50 other major urban areas. Its major function will be to prevent terrorist attacks, but it may also serve as a tool during crisis management. ADDIN EN.CITE DHS Press Office2004444440DHS Press Office,Department of Homeland SecurityDepartment of Homeland Security Implements Information Exchange System for G-8 Summit EventsApril 5, 200520042004 May 28http://www.dhs.gov/dhspublic/display?content=3649DHS Press Office2004444440DHS Press Office,Department of Homeland SecurityDepartment of Homeland Security Implements Information Exchange System for G-8 Summit EventsApril 5, 200520042004 May 28http://www.dhs.gov/dhspublic/display?content=3649(DHS Press Office, 2004).
Priority 2
The DHS intends to initiate measures that will significantly improve interoperability among firefighters, police officers and other emergency personnel who need to be in contact and share equipment during catastrophes.
Priority 5
The DHS intends to implement the National Incident Management System (NIMS). NIMS will offer a consistent nationwide template to enable federal, state, local and tribal governments and private-sector organizations to work together effectively to prepare for, prevent, respond to, and recover from a terrorist attack or other major disaster ADDIN EN.CITE United States Department of Homeland Security2005434340United States Department of Homeland Security,DHS OrganizationPriorities for Second YearApril 10, 20052005http://www.dhs.gov/dhspublic/display?theme=10&content=3240(United States Department of Homeland Security, 2005).
Interestingly, there are 1.375 million nonprofit organizations in the U.S. with 11 million meetings being held daily ADDIN EN.CITE Weitzel1998303017Al WeitzelPatricia GeistParliamentary procedure in a community group: communication and vigilant decision makingCommunication MonographsCommunication Monographs244-2596591998Weitzel1998303017Al WeitzelPatricia GeistParliamentary procedure in a community group: communication and vigilant decision makingCommunication MonographsCommunication Monographs244-2596591998(Weitzel and Geist, 1998). In spite of this incredible number of meetingsand the importance of smooth information flow in and among EM organizationspublic management organizations conduct few field studies in information flow.
Some historical accounts attribute the Librarys obliteration to Julius Caesar during the Roman civil war. While chasing the mutinous General Pompey, Caesar ordered his soldiers to burn the Egyptian fleet. Some accounts report that the fire spread into Alexandria and into the Library. Other accounts blame the destruction on a religious dispute around 391 A.D. Alexandrian Jews were attempting to burn down a Christian church when flames engulfed the nearby Library. The third rendition of the loss of the Library involves the Moslems who seized Alexandria in 640 A.D. Accusers blame the Moslem leader, Caliph Omar for burning all the books upon hearing that the Library contained all the knowledge of the world. Caliph Omar supposedly said about the Librarys holdings that they will either contradict the Koran, in which case they are heresy, or they will agree with it, so they are superfluous ADDIN EN.CITE Chesser200575275212Preston Chesser<style face="normal" font="Times New Roman" size="100%">eHistory.com</style>2005July 312005Ohio State University Web sitehttp://ehistory.osu.edu/world/articles/ArticleView.cfm?AID=9(Chesser, 2005).
Attorney General John Ashcroft, who urged Congress during the aftermath of the 9/11 to expand governmental powers in order to fight terrorism more aggressively, instigated the legislation leading to the PATRIOT Act. The PATRIOT Act quickly became law October 21, 2001 without the customary consultation and hearings of Congressional committees. The PATRIOT Act expanded the authority of law enforcement agencies to allow access to records previously protected by open records laws. The PATRIOT Act, up for reenactment in 2005, made changes to many laws that can apply to library records and confidentiality. The amendments expanded the authority of law enforcement agencies. Agents can use wiretaps without making sure the target is actually using the phone to be tapped ( HYPERLINK "javascript:doWindowOpen('/SCRIPT/SLIS_LIBRARY_PRIVACY/scripts/student/serve_page.pl?1050598725+Current/effect.htm+OFF+Current/206roving.htm+','new_frame','width=600,height=420,menubar=1,toolbar=1,scrollbars=1,status=1,location=1,resizable=1,resizable=1',0)" Section 206). They can also access library circulation records, Internet use records, and registration information (electronic or printed) using HYPERLINK "javascript:doWindowOpen('/SCRIPT/SLIS_LIBRARY_PRIVACY/scripts/student/serve_page.pl?1050598725+Current/effect.htm+OFF+Glossary/gagorders.htm+','new_frame','width=600,height=420,menubar=1,toolbar=1,scrollbars=1,status=1,location=1,resizable=1,resizable=1',0)" gag orders and without demonstrating HYPERLINK "javascript:doWindowOpen('/SCRIPT/SLIS_LIBRARY_PRIVACY/scripts/student/serve_page.pl?1050598725+Current/effect.htm+OFF+Glossary/probable.htm+','new_frame','width=600,height=420,menubar=1,toolbar=1,scrollbars=1,status=1,location=1,resizable=1,resizable=1',0)" probable cause ( HYPERLINK "javascript:doWindowOpen('/SCRIPT/SLIS_LIBRARY_PRIVACY/scripts/student/serve_page.pl?1050598725+Current/effect.htm+OFF+Current/215accessFISA.htm+','new_frame','width=600,height=420,menubar=1,toolbar=1,scrollbars=1,status=1,location=1,resizable=1,resizable=1',0)" Section 215). They can also monitor library computer use including Internet, email, IP addresses and Web page URLs ( HYPERLINK "javascript:doWindowOpen('/SCRIPT/SLIS_LIBRARY_PRIVACY/scripts/student/serve_page.pl?1050598725+Current/effect.htm+OFF+Current/216pentrap.htm+','new_frame','width=600,height=420,menubar=1,toolbar=1,scrollbars=1,status=1,location=1,resizable=1,resizable=1',0)" Section 216).
A group is a collection of at least three people who interact with each other, display interdependence, establish roles within an open communication system, have a sense of unity and identity, maintain norms, and share common motives or goals with the intention of making a decision ADDIN EN.CITE Brilhart197835EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Effective Group Discussion</style>Brilhart197835EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Effective Group Discussion</style>Ellis19948EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Small Group Decision Making: Communication and the Group Process</style>Hare196238EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Handbook of Small Group Research</style>Harris200234EndNote06<style face='normal' font='default' size='100%'>Small Group and Team Communication</style>(Brilhart, 1978; Ellis and Fisher, 1994; Hare, A. Paul, 1962; Harris and Sherblom, 2002).
Shannon & Weaver, 1947, Modified. Claude Shannon, a research scientist at Bell Telephone Company, attempted to maximize telephone line capacity with minimal distortion. He probably intended his mathematical theory of signal transmission for use with telephone technology only.
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Y University of North Texas F q e Information Disasters and Disaster Information: Where Information Science Meets Emergency Management Title |" 8 @ _PID_HLINKS A 4" i , ; j a v a s c r i p t : d o W i n d o w O p e n ( ' / S C R I P T / S L I S _ L I B R A R Y _ P R I V A C Y / s c r i p t s / s t u d e n t / s e r v e _ p a g e . p l ? 1 0 5 0 5 9 8 7 2 5 + H i s t o r y / H i s t o r y . h t m + O F F + G l o s s a r y / i n t a n g i b l e . h t m + ' , ' n e w _ f r a m e ' , ' w i d t h = 6 0 0 , h e i g h t = 4 2 0 , m e n u b a r = 1 , t o o l b a r = 1 , s c r o l l b a r s = 1 , s t a t u s = 1 , l o c a t i o n = 1 , r e s i z a b l e = 1 , r e s i z a b l e = 1 ' , 0 ) 8 j a v a s c r i p t : d o W i n d o w O p e n ( ' / S C R I P T / S L I S _ L I B R A R Y _ P R I V A C Y / s c r i p t s / s t u d e n t / s e r v e _ p a g e . p l ? 1 0 5 0 5 9 8 7 2 5 + H i s t o r y / H i s t o r y . h t m + O F F + G l o s s a r y / f i f t h . h t m + ' , ' n e w _ f r a m e ' , ' w i d t h = 6 0 0 , h e i g h t = 4 2 0 , m e n u b a r = 1 , t o o l b a r = 1 , s c r o l l b a r s = 1 , s t a t u s = 1 , l o c a t i o n = 1 , r e s i z a b l e = 1 , r e s i z a b l e = 1 ' , 0 ) e ! 5 j a v a s c r i p t : d o W i n d o w O p e n ( ' / S C R I P T / S L I S _ L I B R A R Y _ P R I V A C Y / s c r i p t s / s t u d e n t / s e r v e _ p a g e . p l ? 1 0 5 0 5 9 8 7 2 5 + H i s t o r y / H i s t o r y . h t m + O F F + G l o s s a r y / f o u r t h . h t m + ' , ' n e w _ f r a m e ' , ' w i d t h = 6 0 0 , h e i g h t = 4 2 0 , m e n u b a r = 1 , t o o l b a r = 1 , s c r o l l b a r s = 1 , s t a t u s = 1 , l o c a t i o n = 1 , r e s i z a b l e = 1 , r e s i z a b l e = 1 ' , 0 ) 2 j a v a s c r i p t : d o W i n d o w O p e n ( ' / S C R I P T / S L I S _ L I B R A R Y _ P R I V A C Y / s c r i p t s / s t u d e n t / s e r v e _ p a g e . p l ? 1 0 5 0 5 9 8 7 2 5 + H i s t o r y / H i s t o r y . h t m + O F F + G l o s s a r y / f i r s t . h t m + ' , ' n e w _ f r a m e ' , ' w i d t h = 6 0 0 , h e i g h t = 4 2 0 , m e n u b a r = 1 , t o o l b a r = 1 , s c r o l l b a r s = 1 , s t a t u s = 1 , l o c a t i o n = 1 , r e s i z a b l e = 1 , r e s i z a b l e = 1 ' , 0 ) 5 / j a v a s c r i p t : d o W i n d o w O p e n ( ' h t t p : / / w w w . l a w . c o r n e l l . e d u / c o n s t i t u t i o n / c o n s t i t u t i o n . b i l l o f r i g h t s . h t m l ' , ' n e w _ f r a m e ' , ' w i d t h = 6 0 0 , h e i g h t = 4 2 0 , m e n u b a r = 1 , t o o l b a r = 1 , s c r o l l b a r s = 1 , s t a t u s = 1 , l o c a t i o n = 1 , r e s i z a b l e = 1 , r e s i z a b l e = 1 ' , 0 ) > k + ; h t t p : / / w w w . d h s . g o v / d h s p u b l i c / d i s p l a y ? t h e m e = 1 0 & c o n t e n t = 3 2 4 0 E ( A h t t p : / / w w w . f c w . c o m / g e b / a r t i c l e s / 2 0 0 3 / 1 0 0 6 / w e b - r a i n s - 1 0 - 0 7 - 0 3 . a s p S % B h t t p : / / w w w . f c w . c o m / g e b / a r t i c l e s / 2 0 0 3 / 0 3 3 1 / w e b - o r e g o n - 0 4 - 0 2 - 0 3 . a s p & t " O h t t p : / / w w w . h o m e l a n d s e c u r i t y . o r g / j o u r n a l / a r t i c l e s / d i s p l a y A r t i c l e . a s p ? a r t i c l e = 9 7 7 / h t t p : / / w w w . r a i n s n e t . o r g / p r o g r a m s / o p e n _ s p e c . a s p ? d : h t t p : / / w w w . r a i n s n e t . o r g / p r e s s / n e w s l e t t e r _ v o l 2 _ s p e c i a l . a s p 5 G 7 h t t p : / / w w w . g c n . c o m / v o l 1 _ n o 1 / d a i l y - u p d a t e s / 1 9 9 7 7 - 1 . h t m l y . @ h t t p : / / w w w . w h i t e h o u s e . g o v / n e w s / r e l e a s e s / 2 0 0 4 / 1 2 / 2 0 0 4 1 2 1 7 - 1 . h t m l Q S I h t t p : / / w w w . n c l i s . g o v / i n f o / t r u s t / T r u s t a n d T e r r o r . b r o c h u r e . E n g l i s h . I F L A . p d f T ? 4 h t t p : / / w w w . w t o n l i n e . c o m / n e w s / 1 _ 1 / s t a t e / 2 3 1 1 6 - 1 . h t m l = <
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+ h t t p : / / w w w . e s r i . c o m / c o m m o n / r a i n s / n e w s . h t m l e Y + h t t p : / / w w w . g c n . c o m / 2 3 _ 3 4 / n e w s / 2 8 0 9 7 - 1 . h t m l S Y 2 h t t p : / / w w w . d h s . g o v / d h s p u b l i c / d i s p l a y ? c o n t e n t = 3 6 4 9 0 K h t t p : / / w w w . d h s . g o v / d h s p u b l i c / i n t e r a p p / p r e s s _ r e l e a s e / p r e s s _ r e l e a s e _ 0 4 3 9 . x m l = h t t p : / / e h i s t o r y . o s u . e d u / w o r l d / a r t i c l e s / A r t i c l e V i e w . c f m ? A I D = 9 { ' / h t t p : / / w w w . n s f . g o v / a b o u t / h i s t o r y / v b u s h 1 9 4 5 . h t m 9 A 7 h t t p : / / w w w . g c n . c o m / v o l 1 _ n o 1 / d a i l y - u p d a t e s / 2 0 4 8 5 - 1 . h t m l m a i l t o : t p i p e s @ l i s . a d m i n . u n t . e d u s y j a v a s c r i p t : d o W i n d o w O p e n ( ' / S C R I P T / S L I S _ L I B R A R Y _ P R I V A C Y / s c r i p t s / s t u d e n t / s e r v e _ p a g e . p l ? 1 0 5 0 5 9 8 7 2 5 + C u r r e n t / e f f e c t . h t m + O F F + C u r r e n t / 2 1 6 p e n t r a p . h t m + ' , ' n e w _ f r a m e ' , ' w i d t h = 6 0 0 , h e i g h t = 4 2 0 , m e n u b a r = 1 , t o o l b a r = 1 , s c r o l l b a r s = 1 , s t a t u s = 1 , l o c a t i o n = 1 , r e s i z a b l e = 1 , r e s i z a b l e = 1 ' , 0 ) E j a v a s c r i p t : d o W i n d o w O p e n ( ' / S C R I P T / S L I S _ L I B R A R Y _ P R I V A C Y / s c r i p t s / s t u d e n t / s e r v e _ p a g e . p l ? 1 0 5 0 5 9 8 7 2 5 + C u r r e n t / e f f e c t . h t m + O F F + C u r r e n t / 2 1 5 a c c e s s F I S A . h t m + ' , ' n e w _ f r a m e ' , ' w i d t h = 6 0 0 , h e i g h t = 4 2 0 , m e n u b a r = 1 , t o o l b a r = 1 , s c r o l l b a r s = 1 , s t a t u s = 1 , l o c a t i o n = 1 , r e s i z a b l e = 1 , r e s i z a b l e = 1 ' , 0 ) C ^ j a v a s c r i p t : d o W i n d o w O p e n ( ' / S C R I P T / S L I S _ L I B R A R Y _ P R I V A C Y / s c r i p t s / s t u d e n t / s e r v e _ p a g e . p l ? 1 0 5 0 5 9 8 7 2 5 + C u r r e n t / e f f e c t . h t m + O F F + G l o s s a r y / p r o b a b l e . h t m + ' , ' n e w _ f r a m e ' , ' w i d t h = 6 0 0 , h e i g h t = 4 2 0 , m e n u b a r = 1 , t o o l b a r = 1 , s c r o l l b a r s = 1 , s t a t u s = 1 , l o c a t i o n = 1 , r e s i z a b l e = 1 , r e s i z a b l e = 1 ' , 0 ) 9 q j a v a s c r i p t : d o W i n d o w O p e n ( ' / S C R I P T / S L I S _ L I B R A R Y _ P R I V A C Y / s c r i p t s / s t u d e n t / s e r v e _ p a g e . p l ? 1 0 5 0 5 9 8 7 2 5 + C u r r e n t / e f f e c t . h t m + O F F + G l o s s a r y / g a g o r d e r s . h t m + ' , ' n e w _ f r a m e ' , ' w i d t h = 6 0 0 , h e i g h t = 4 2 0 , m e n u b a r = 1 , t o o l b a r = 1 , s c r o l l b a r s = 1 , s t a t u s = 1 , l o c a t i o n = 1 , r e s i z a b l e = 1 , r e s i z a b l e = 1 ' , 0 ) W j a v a s c r i p t : d o W i n d o w O p e n ( ' / S C R I P T / S L I S _ L I B R A R Y _ P R I V A C Y / s c r i p t s / s t u d e n t / s e r v e _ p a g e . p l ? 1 0 5 0 5 9 8 7 2 5 + C u r r e n t / e f f e c t . h t m + O F F + C u r r e n t / 2 0 6 r o v i n g . h t m + ' , ' n e w _ f r a m e ' , ' w i d t h = 6 0 0 , h e i g h t = 4 2 0 , m e n u b a r = 1 , t o o l b a r = 1 , s c r o l l b a r s = 1 , s t a t u s = 1 , l o c a t i o n = 1 , r e s i z a b l e = 1 , r e s i z a b l e = 1 ' , 0 )
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