ࡱ> ,.)*+ @ bjbjFF 6,,FFFFFFFfH8&TfH.b pͧW4Y.[.[.[.[.[.[.$1R4.Fͧͧ.FF. FFY.Y.je FF V *] q2M! .0.R 5 5d FGFFFF 5F X..fHfH! jT fHfH jCHAPTER  DocProperty "ChapterNumber" 6 Attitudes  seq NLI \r 0 \h  seq NL1 \r 0 \h Outline  seq NLI \* ROMAN I seq NLA \r 0 \h . Putting Common Sense to the Test  seq NLI \* ROMAN II seq NLA \r 0 \h . The Study of Attitudes  seq NLA \* ALPHABETIC A seq NL1 \r 0 \h . How Attitudes Are Measured  seq NLA \* ALPHABETIC B seq NL1 \r 0 \h . How Attitudes Are Formed  seq NLA \* ALPHABETIC C seq NL1 \r 0 \h . The Link Between Attitudes and Behavior  seq NLI \* ROMAN III seq NLA \r 0 \h . Persuasion by Communication  seq NLA \* ALPHABETIC A seq NL1 \r 0 \h . Two Routes to Persuasion  seq NLA \* ALPHABETIC B seq NL1 \r 0 \h . The Source  seq NLA \* ALPHABETIC C seq NL1 \r 0 \h . The Message  seq NLA \* ALPHABETIC D seq NL1 \r 0 \h . The Audience  seq NLA \* ALPHABETIC E seq NL1 \r 0 \h . Cultural Influences on Persuasion  seq NLI \* ROMAN IV seq NLA \r 0 \h . Persuasion by Our Own Actions  seq NLA \* ALPHABETIC A seq NL1 \r 0 \h . Role Playing: All the Worlds a Stage  seq NLA \* ALPHABETIC B seq NL1 \r 0 \h . Cognitive Dissonance Theory: The Classic Version  seq NLA \* ALPHABETIC C seq NL1 \r 0 \h . Cognitive Dissonance Theory: A New Look  seq NLA \* ALPHABETIC D seq NL1 \r 0 \h . Alternate Routes to Self-Persuasion  seq NLA \* ALPHABETIC E seq NL1 \r 0 \h . Cultural Influences on Cognitive Dissonance  seq NLI \* ROMAN V seq NLA \r 0 \h . Review  seq NLI \* ROMAN VI seq NLA \r 0 \h . Key Terms  seq NL1 \r 0 \h LEARNING OBJECTIVES: GUIDELINES FOR STUDY You should be able to do each of the following by the conclusion of Chapter 6. SEQ NL1 \r 0 \h   seq NL1 1 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . Define what is meant by attitudes. Discuss how attitudes are measured, including both self-report and covert techniques, as well as measurement of implicit attitudes. (pp. 181-186)  seq NL1 2 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . Discuss the relationship between attitudes and behaviors. Explain what types of attitudes are most likely to predict behavior, and under what circumstances. (pp. 186-189)  seq NL1 3 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . Define and distinguish the peripheral and central routes to persuasion. Identify factors that dictate which route of processing is taken. (pp. 189-192)  seq NL1 4 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . Explain how and under what circumstances message source affects whether people are likely to be persuaded. Discuss the reasons behind the sleeper effect. (pp. 192-197)  seq NL1 5 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . Explain how the content of a message affects whether people are likely to be persuaded. Describe how the cognitive and emotional content affects message persuasiveness, as does message order. Consider evidence regarding the effectiveness of subliminal persuasive messages. (pp. 197-203)  seq NL1 6 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . Explain how characteristics of the audience, including cultural considerations, can moderate the extent to which it is persuaded by a message. Describe strategies for enabling an audience to resist efforts at persuasion. (pp. 203-206)  seq NL1 7 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . Explain the elements of the classic version of cognitive dissonance theory, and the relevance of this theory to understanding attitude change. (pp. 207-211)  seq NL1 8 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . Explain the new look of cognitive dissonance and how it expands upon the original theory. Discuss cultural influences on cognitive dissonance. (pp. 211-213)  seq NL1 9 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . Consider alternate routes to self-persuasion such as those described by self-perception theory, impression-management theory, and theories of self-esteem. Explain how the processes postulated by these theories differ from those described by cognitive dissonance theory. (pp. 213-216)  seq NL1 \r 0 \h MAJOR CONCEPTS: THE BIG PICTURE Below are three basic issues or principles that organize Chapter 6. You should know these issues and principles well. SEQ NL1 \r 0 \h   seq NL1 1 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . The study of attitudes has been one of the foundations of social psychology. Researchers measure attitudes by asking people direct questions about their attitudes or by assessing peoples behavior or physiological responses. In general, our attitudes are not as strong a predictor of our behaviors as one might think. However, attitudes do a better job of predicting behavior when the attitude is specific to a behavior or particularly important.  seq NL1 2 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . One of the earliest fields of study in social psychology focused on persuasion, the changing of peoples attitudes through communication. Research in this field has found that there are two basic routes to persuasion: a central route that emphasizes the content of a message and systematic deliberate processing of information, and a peripheral route that emphasizes more rules of thumb or heuristic processing of information. The source of a message, its content, and the audience that hears the message all affect whether the message will be persuasive.  seq NL1 3 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . People are also persuaded by their own actions and the roles that they play. Cognitive dissonance theory maintains that when people engage in an action that conflicts with their attitudes they will feel tension, and that the easiest way to reduce this tension is to change their attitude. In this way, the theory predicts that people will change their attitudes to match their behavior. Recent revisions to cognitive dissonance theory suggest that this attitude change occurs mostly when people take responsibility for their actions. Other approaches emphasize that people rationalize their behaviors by changing them to manage a positive impression with others, to maintain a positive view of themselves, or to be consistent with the way in which they perceive their own behavior.  seq NL1 \r 0 \h KEY TERM EXERCISE: THE CONCEPTS YOU SHOULD KNOW Below are all of the key terms that appear in boldface in Chapter 6. To help you better understand these concepts, rather than just memorize them, write a definition for each term in your own words. After doing so, look at the next section where youll find a list of definitions from the textbook for each of the key terms presented in random order. For each of your definitions, find the corresponding textbook definition. Note how your definitions compare with those from the textbook.  seq NL1 \r 0 \h Key Terms  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h  SEQ NL1 1. theory of planned behavior  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h  SEQ NL1 2. cognitive dissonance theory  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h  SEQ NL1 3. persuasion  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h  SEQ NL1 4. inoculation hypothesis  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h  SEQ NL1 5. central route to persuasion  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h  SEQ NL1 6. insufficient deterrence  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h  SEQ NL1 7. peripheral route to persuasion  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h  SEQ NL1 8. attitude  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h  SEQ NL1 9. elaboration  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h  SEQ NL1 10. sleeper effect  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h  SEQ NL1 11. need for cognition (NC)  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h  SEQ NL1 12. insufficient justification  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h  SEQ NL1 13. psychological reactance  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h  SEQ NL1 14. attitude scale  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h  SEQ NL1 15. implicit attitudes  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h  SEQ NL1 16. facial electromyograph (EMG)  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h  SEQ NL1 17. bogus pipeline  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h  SEQ NL1 18. Implicit Association Test (IAT)  seq NL1 \r 0 \h Textbook Definitions SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h   seq NL_a \* alphabetic a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . A condition in which people freely perform an attitude-discrepant behavior without receiving a large reward.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . The process by which a person does not think carefully about a communication and is influenced instead by superficial cues.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . A personality variable that distinguishes people on the basis of how much they enjoy effortful cognitive activities.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . The theory that attitudes toward a specific behavior combine with subjective norms and perceived control to influence a persons actions.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic e seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . The process by which a person thinks carefully about a communication and is influenced by the strength of its arguments.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic f seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . An electronic instrument that records facial muscle activity associated with emotions and attitudes.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic g seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . A phony lie-detector device that is sometimes used to get respondents to give truthful answers to sensitive attitude questions.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic h seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . The process by which attitudes are changed.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic i seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . The theory that holding inconsistent cognitions arouses psychological tension that people become motivated to reduce.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic j seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . A delayed increase in the persuasive impact of a noncredible source.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic k seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . A multiple-item questionnaire designed to measure a persons attitude toward some object.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic l seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . Attitudes that we cannot report in questionnaires because were not aware of having them  seq NL_a \* alphabetic m seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . A condition in which people refrain from engaging in a desirable activity, even when only mild punishment is threatened.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic n seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . The idea that exposure to weak versions of a persuasive argument increases later resistance to that argument.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic o seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . A positive or negative reaction to a person, object, or idea.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic p seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . The theory that people react against threats to their freedom by asserting themselves and perceiving the threatened freedom as more attractive.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic q seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . The process of thinking about and scrutinizing the arguments contained in a persuasive communication.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic r seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . A covert measure of unconscious attitudes, it is derived from the speed at which people respond to pairings of conceptssuch as black or white with good or bad.  seq NL1 \r 0 \h ANSWERS FOR KEY TERM EXERCISE Answers for the key terms exercise are listed below. SEQ NL1 \r 0 \h   seq NL1 1 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . d  seq NL1 2 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . i  seq NL1 3 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . h  seq NL1 4 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . n  seq NL1 5 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . e  seq NL1 6 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . m  seq NL1 7 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . b  seq NL1 8 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . o  seq NL1 9 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . q  seq NL1 10 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . j  seq NL1 11 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . c  seq NL1 12 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . a  seq NL1 13 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . p  seq NL1 14 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . k  seq NL1 15 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . l  seq NL1 16 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . f  seq NL1 17 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . g  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h  SEQ NL1 18. r  seq NL1 \r 0 \h PRACTICE QUIZ: TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE CHAPTER  seq NL1 \r 0 \h Multiple-Choice Questions SEQ NL1 \r 0 \h   seq NL1 1 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . Attitudes are often measured by means of self-reports, questionnaires on which respondents endorse their attitudes. Another technique often used is to collect covert measures. Covert measures are SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h   seq NL_a \* alphabetic a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . collected from the respondents friends, who describe what his or her attitudes are.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . measures that are taken in addition to self-report measures.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . collected by use of a bogus pipeline.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . measures collected indirectly.  seq NL1 2 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . The theory of planned behavior suggests that one reason attitudes might not always predict behaviors is that SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h   seq NL_a \* alphabetic a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . people may not have strong enough attitudes.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . peoples attitudes may be outside their awareness.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . people may have only false attitudes.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . peoples intentions to act may be different from their attitudes.  seq NL1 3 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . In a television commercial for dental floss, the spokesperson (a well-known TV celebrity) says that eight out of ten dentists recommend the product. The reference to dentists is an attempt to establish SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h   seq NL_a \* alphabetic a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . communicator credibility.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . self-monitoring.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . insufficient deterrence.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . fear arousal.  seq NL1 4 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . Central and peripheral routes to persuasion are proposed by  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h   seq NL_a \* alphabetic a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . the dual-process theory.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . cognitive dissonance theory.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . self-perception theory.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . the theory of planned behavior.  seq NL1 5 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . In their campaigns, John Smith and Jane Doe both present arguments stressing the logic of their positions and detailing the many reasons for their views. These candidates are trying to persuade voters through SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h   seq NL_a \* alphabetic a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . attitude-discrepant behavior.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . heuristics.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . the peripheral route.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . the central route.  seq NL1 6 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . If we must make a choice between two equally desirable options, the positive attributes of the alternative we ultimately do not choose will cause SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h   seq NL_a \* alphabetic a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . a sleeper effect.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . a primacy effect.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . cognitive dissonance.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . attitude inoculation.  seq NL1 7 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . Harry is listening to a debate. Harry assumes that the person with the most arguments is the best-qualified candidate. Harrys reasoning is an example of SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h   seq NL_a \* alphabetic a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . cognitive dissonance.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . elaboration.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . a heuristic.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . impression management.  seq NL1 8 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . Jeanne has a negative attitude toward bikes but a positive attitude toward skateboards. If she has spent a lot of time biking and only a little time skateboarding, which attitude is likely to be the stronger one? SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h   seq NL_a \* alphabetic a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . Her attitude toward biking is likely to be stronger.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . Her attitude toward skateboarding is likely to be stronger.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . Both attitudes are likely to be strong.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . Both attitudes are likely to be weak.  seq NL1 9 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . Yvonne is buying a new car. The salesman sees a school sticker on her old car and says he went to the same university. The reference to a common alma mater is an attempt to create SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h   seq NL_a \* alphabetic a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . self-monitoring.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . communicator like ability.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . the need for cognition.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . fear arousal.  seq NL1 10 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . Mindy chose to write an essay for her English class that argued for a tuition hike even though she didnt want one. Her instructor sent the essay to the president of the university, who decided that if students could write so well then there should not be a tuition hike. Recent research on cognitive dissonance theory would suggest that Mindy will SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h   seq NL_a \* alphabetic a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . experience physiological arousal.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . feel responsible for her essay.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . experience no cognitive dissonance.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . change her attitude about tuition hikes.  seq NL1 11 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . Personal involvement and the sleeper effect are two limitations on the persuasive impact of  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h   seq NL_a \* alphabetic a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . fear-arousing communications.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . communicator credibility.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . attitude-discrepant behavior.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . self-perception processes.  seq NL1 12 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . The mayor and her challenger set up a debate three weeks before the election. They both agree that this will be the one and only debate. The challenger gets the opportunity to decide whether to go first or last in the debate. What advice would you give her? SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h   seq NL_a \* alphabetic a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . She should go first.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . She should go last.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . It doesnt matter whether she goes first or last.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . Whether she should go first or last depends on what she is going to say.  seq NL1 13 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . In theory, people who are high in the need for cognition should receive persuasive communications that rely on SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h   seq NL_a \* alphabetic a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . arguments.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . heuristics.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . attributions.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . mood.  seq NL1 14 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . Helen has always been upset by doctors who are late for appointments and believes that people should criticize them for this behavior. Yet she has taken a job as a sales representative for a drug company and must try to schmooze with the doctors on her route. In time, Helen is likely to SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h   seq NL_a \* alphabetic a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . learn to dislike doctors even more.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . dislike her job.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . be less concerned with doctors tardiness.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . feel stress in most of her interactions.  seq NL1 15 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . Heuristics and body movements are two kinds of cues that determine persuasion in  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h   seq NL_a \* alphabetic a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . attitude-discrepant behavior.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . cognitive dissonance.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . the peripheral route.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . the central route.  seq NL1 16 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . Carly decides to write a paper for her English class that argues for capital punishment even though she is against it. Cognitive dissonance theory would predict that Carly is SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h   seq NL_a \* alphabetic a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . likely to favor capital punishment more.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . likely to favor capital punishment less.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . unlikely to change her views on capital punishment.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . likely to find the experience enjoyable.  seq NL1 17 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . People are most likely to be in a state of cognitive dissonance if they  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h   seq NL_a \* alphabetic a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . experience no physiological arousal.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . engage in attitude-inconsistent behavior.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . engage in attitude-consistent behavior.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . experience negative unforeseeable consequences.  seq NL1 18 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . Advertisers and others often use the overheard communicator technique to enhance a speakers  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h   seq NL_a \* alphabetic a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . likeability.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . perceived competence.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . reactance.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . trustworthiness.  seq NL1 19 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . Gabriella decides to buy a portable tape player rather than a portable CD player. She wonders if she made the right decision. After discussing her purchase with a friend, she is reminded that she is a good student and a good friend. Research on self-affirmation theory would predict that Gabriella will SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h   seq NL_a \* alphabetic a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . experience physiological arousal.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . feel bad about her decision.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . experience no cognitive dissonance.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . come to a stronger conviction that she made the right decision.  seq NL1 20 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . Self-perception theory suggests that people change their attitudes to match their behaviors because they SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h   seq NL_a \* alphabetic a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . feel a psychological tension.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . want to maintain a positive self-image.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . infer their attitudes from their behaviors.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . want to impress other people.  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h  SEQ NL1 21. This effect shows that people often forget the source but not the message, so the effects of source credibility dissipate over time.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . The insufficient justification effect  seq NL_a \* alphabetic b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . The elaboration effect  seq NL_a \* alphabetic c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . The bogus pipeline effect  seq NL_a \* alphabetic d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . The sleeper effect  seq NL1 22 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . The theory that says people are motivated only to appear consistent to others is  seq NL_a \* alphabetic a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . Impression-management theory.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . The elaboration model.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . Self-perception theory.  seq NL_a \* alphabetic d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . Cognitive dissonance theory. Essay Questions  seq NL1 23 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . Discuss whether attitudes lead to behaviors that are consistent with the attitudes. Describe aspects of attitudes that can strengthen their relationship to behavior.  seq NL1 24 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . Compare and contrast the central and peripheral routes to persuasion.  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h  SEQ NL1 25. Explain how cognitive dissonance theory accounts for changes in peoples attitudes based on changes in their behavior.  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h  SEQ NL1 26. Discuss the effects of fear arousal in politics.  seq NL1 \r 0 \h ANSWERS TO THE PRACTICE QUIZ Multiple-Choice Questions: Correct Answers and Explanations  seq NL1 1 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . measures collected indirectly. Covert measures, like facial movements, physiological recordings, and brain-wave patterns, are collected indirectly without the respondents being able to control their responses. The bogus pipeline is not a covert measure as respondents are aware their attitudes are being measured and can control their responses. This procedure attempts to get respondents to give accurate responses. Sometimes covert measures are collected by means of self-reports but usually they are not. Finally, asking a respondents friends about the respondents attitudes is usually viewed as assessing the friends attitudes about the respondents attitude via self-report.  seq NL1 2 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . peoples intentions to act may be different from their attitudes. The theory of planned behavior stresses that in order for an attitude to predict behavior, that attitude must lead to an intention to act in a specific situation. But such intentions to act do not always follow from peoples attitudes, which prevents their attitudes from predicting their behavior. The theory of planned behavior does not encompass the strength of attitudes, the awareness of attitudes, or the falseness of attitudes.  seq NL1 3 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . communicator credibility. In referring to the experts opinion, the spokesperson is drawing upon the credibility of the expert in an attempt to influence the audience. It does not appear that the spokesperson is arousing fear or attempting to deter (or use insufficient deterrence against) peoples use of the product. Finally, the spokesperson does not seem to be using a self-monitoring strategy, attempting to present himself or herself in a way that is appropriate for the specific situation.  seq NL1 4 seq NL_a \r 0 \h .  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . the dual-process theory. The dual-process theory of persuasion suggests that people process information through one of two channels: a central channel in which the quality of the arguments affects peoples response to a persuasive message, and a peripheral channel in which heuristics or simplistic rules affect peoples response to a persuasive message. Cognitive dissonance theory, self-perception theory, and the theory of planned behavior do not propose central and peripheral routes to persuasion.  seq NL1 5 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . the central route. The central route to persuasion, as elaborated by the dual-process theory, leads to persuasion through the quality of the arguments that are presented for or against a position. John Smith and Jane Doe appear to be trying to use this route to persuasion. The peripheral route to persuasion, also elaborated by the dual-process theory, leads to persuasion through the use of heuristics or simplistic rules that people may use without even being aware of it. There is no evidence that John Smith and Jane Doe are trying to use heuristics or a peripheral route to persuasion. Finally, it does not appear that the campaigners are trying to use attitude-discrepant behavior to influence voters. This strategy would require the voters to engage in actions that would later lead to a change in their attitudes.  seq NL1 6 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . cognitive dissonance. When people make a choice, the positive features of the option they did not choose are inconsistent with their choice. This inconsistency creates cognitive dissonance. For example, if I choose between a chocolate chip cookie and a molasses cookie, and pick the molasses cookie, the fact that I love chocolate would be inconsistent with my choice and would create cognitive dissonance. There is no evidence that the positive attributes of the alternative not chosen (chocolate chips in my example) create a sleeper effect, a primacy effect, or attitude inoculation.  seq NL1 7 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . a heuristic. Here Harry is using a simplistic rule, or heuristic whoever makes the most arguments is the best-qualified candidate. He is not elaborating on what the candidate is saying, and there is no evidence that Harry is experiencing cognitive dissonance or that he is concerned with impression management.  seq NL1 8 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . Her attitude toward biking is likely to be stronger. Jeanne has spent more time biking and thus has more personal contact with biking. Research shows that attitudes about objects with which people have more personal contact tend to be stronger attitudes. Jeannes attitude toward skateboarding is less likely to be strong because she has had little contact with skateboarding.  seq NL1 9 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . communicator likeability. The salesman is establishing that in at least one respect (attending the same school) he is similar to Yvonne. This similarity may increase Yvonnes liking for the salesman, which in turn may increase his likeability. It does not appear that the salesman is arousing fear, and need for cognition is a personality construct that distinguishes people on how much they enjoy effortful cognition, so neither of these answers is correct. The salesman may be engaging in self-monitoring or trying to present himself in a way that is appropriate to the situation, but the reference to his alma mater does not seem to be a self-monitoring strategy per se.  seq NL1 10 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . experience no cognitive dissonance. Even though Mindy chose to write a counter-attitudinal essay, she is unlikely to experience cognitive dissonance because her actions had no negative consequences. In fact, her actions produced a result that was consistent with her attitude; her essay actually prevented the tuition hike she opposed. Because Mindy is unlikely to feel cognitive dissonance, she is also unlikely to experience physiological arousal, take responsibility for her essay, or change her attitude about tuition hikes.  seq NL1 11 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . communicator credibility.When people are personally involved with a topic, they are more likely to process information about that topic through the central route to persuasion. Processing information in this way should lead them to be less concerned with communicator credibility and more concerned with the content of the message. The sleeper effect is the tendency for people to lose track of which message was associated with which communicator such that, over time, the effect of communicator credibility becomes increasingly less and people evaluate the message more on its own merit. Fear-arousing messages may have less affect for people who are personally involved with a topic, but there is no evidence that the sleeper effect influences fear-arousing communications. Finally, attitude-discrepant behavior and self-perception processes are more likely to occur when people are personally involved with a topic and thus probably not affected by the sleeper effect.  seq NL1 12 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . She should go first. Because the election is just a few weeks away, the challenger would probably be better off going first, so she could take advantage of the primacy effect. Research shows that when two messages are presented together and there is a time separation before people make a decision about the quality of the messages, as is the case in this example, people tend to prefer the first message a primacy effect. Recency effects tend to occur when people make a decision about the quality of the messages immediately after the messages are presented. Primacy and recency effects are general effects and seem to be the result of the way peoples memories work; as such, they do not seem to be affected by the content of messages.  seq NL1 13 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . arguments. The dual-process theory suggests that people who are high in the need for cognition are more likely to process information through the central route to persuasion and, therefore, are more likely to rely on the quality of arguments for or against a position. By the same token, they are less likely to rely on heuristics associated with the peripheral route to persuasion.  seq NL1 14 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . be less concerned with doctors tardiness. On her route, Helen will probably meet a lot of doctors who are late for their appointments with her, but Helen will probably have to say things like, Thats OK. I dont mind that you are late for your appointment. This action that is discrepant with her attitude will likely set the wheels of justification in motion, and Helen will likely change her attitude to match her behavior. As she makes this transition, it is unlikely that she will dislike doctors more, dislike her job, or be stressed in most of her interactions.  seq NL1 15 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . the peripheral route. When people are persuaded through the peripheral route, they are persuaded without fully processing the incoming information. Instead of relying on the content of the information, they use simplistic rules, or heuristics, and rely on simple cues like body movements when processing information along this route. In contrast, persuasion in the central route is determined by the quality of the arguments, not peripheral cues. Attitude-discrepant behavior and cognitive dissonance are likely to promote attitude change through self-justification.  seq NL1 16 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . a seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . likely to favor capital punishment more. Early research testing cognitive dissonance theory found that when people write essays that are contrary to their attitudes, they often change their attitudes so that they are closer to their essays. Cognitive dissonance explained this finding by noting that the act of writing the essay is inconsistent with the writers attitudes, which should produce cognitive dissonance. The easiest way to reduce this dissonance is for the people to change their attitudes; after all, they cannot take back their essays. Therefore, in this example, cognitive dissonance theory would predict that Carly will change her attitude about capital punishment and become more in favor of it; and because she has experienced cognitive dissonance, she probably has not found the experience enjoyable.  seq NL1 17 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . b seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . engage in attitude-inconsistent behavior. An inconsistency between peoples attitudes and their behavior is likely to produce cognitive dissonance. Cognitive dissonance is associated with physiological arousal, so if people experience no physiological arousal they probably have no cognitive dissonance. Attitude-consistent behavior does not produce cognitive dissonance because the attitudes and behavior in this case are consonant, not dissonant. Finally, research has shown that unforeseeable consequences often prevent cognitive dissonance in situations when it might otherwise be present.  seq NL1 18 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . d seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . trustworthiness. People will often discount a persuasive communication if they know that the person is trying to persuade them. The overheard communicator technique tries to nullify this discounting by presenting the persuasive appeal as if it were not directed at the audience. This technique gives the impression that the communicator is quite sincere and trustworthy. The overheard communicator technique has not been shown to have an affect on likeability or the perceived competence of the communicator, nor has it been shown to create reactance.  seq NL1 19 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . experience no cognitive dissonance. Self-affirmation theory proposes that people experience cognitive dissonance because their actions have threatened their self-image and that if their self-image is repaired after it has been threatened then they will no longer experience cognitive dissonance. In this case, making a difficult decision may have threatened Gabriellas confidence that she is a competent decision maker, thus perhaps initially creating cognitive dissonance; but when she was reminded she is a good student and a good friend, this information should have repaired her self-image and removed any cognitive dissonance she may have felt. Because Gabriella is unlikely to experience cognitive dissonance, she is unlikely to experience physiological arousal, feel bad about her decision, or come to a stronger conviction that she made the right decision.  seq NL1 20 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . c seq NL_1_ \r 0 \h . infer their attitudes from their behaviors. Self-perception theory proposes that people infer their own attitudes in the same way that they infer other peoples attitudes: on the basis of behaviors. Therefore, self-perception theory suggests that people make inferences about their own attitudes from their behaviors. Self-perception theory does not propose that people change their attitudes because they feel a psychological tension, want to maintain a positive self-image, or want to manage the impressions of others.  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h  SEQ NL1 21. d. The Sleeper Effect. Time may heal the effects of a bad reputation. Hovland and Weiss (1951) varied communicator credibility (for example, the physicist versus Pravda) and found that the change had a large and immediate effect on persuasion. But when they re-measured attitudes four weeks later, the effect had vanished. Over time, the attitude change produced by the high-credibility source decreased, and the change caused by the low-credibility source increased. This latter finding of a delayed persuasive impact of a low-credibility communicator is called the sleeper effect.  seq NL1 22 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . a. Impression-management theory. An alternative to a dissonance view of self-persuasion is impression-management theory, which says that what matters is not a motive to be consistent but a motive to appear consistent. Nobody wants to be called fickle or be seen by others as a hypocrite. So we calibrate our attitudes and behaviors publicly just to present ourselves to others in a particular light (Baumeister, 1982; Tedeschi et al., 1971). Or perhaps we are motivated not by a desire to appear consistent but by a desire to avoid being held responsible for the unpleasant consequences of our actions (Schlenker, 1982). Either way, this theory places the emphasis on our concern for self-presentation Answers to Essay Questions: Sample Essays  seq NL1 23 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . In general, attitudes show a weak relationship to behavior; they predict behaviors, but not very well. For one thing, people are not always thinking about their attitudes. Indeed, attitudes are better predictors of behavior when the attitudes are accessible that is, when people are thinking about their attitudes. In addition, not all attitudes are well thought out and clear in the minds of the people who hold them. Some attitudes are closer to a weak impression than to a strong feeling that people have toward an object. Attitudes generally are better predictors if they are strong.  seq NL1 24 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . The dual-process model proposes that there are two basic routes by which persuasive communication leads to changes in attitudes: the central route and the peripheral route. The central route to persuasion leads to attitude change that occurs when the audience pays attention to the quality of the arguments and elaborates or thinks about the content of the message. When people are persuaded via the central route to persuasion, they systematically process the information with which they are presented. The peripheral route to persuasion leads to attitude change that occurs when the audience pays attention to heuristics that suggest what attitude change should take place. When people are persuaded via the peripheral route, they spend little time analyzing the information that is being presented, and they may not even be aware that they are being persuaded.  seq NL1 25 seq NL_a \r 0 \h . Cognitive dissonance theory proposes that when people have two thoughts that are psychologically inconsistent, they will experience physiological arousal and cognitive dissonance. In addition, the theory suggests that people will be motivated to reduce this cognitive dissonance by changing whatever thought is easiest to change. When people engage in a behavior that is inconsistent with their attitudes, they are likely to have conflicting thoughts such as I just did that and I dont think people should do that. These two thoughts are psychologically inconsistent and, as such, lead to physiological arousal and cognitive dissonance. To reduce this dissonance, people are more likely to change their attitudes that is, to think Maybe it is OK if people do that. This thought is much easier to change than the thought that they had engaged in the action.  SEQ NL_a \r 0 \h  SEQ NL1 26. Guided by Terror Management Theory and the prediction that a deeply rooted fear of death motivates people to rally around their leaders as a way to ward off anxiety, Mark Landau and his colleagues (2004) found that college students expressed more support for President George W. Bush and his policies if they were reminded of their own mortality or were subliminally exposed to images of 9/11 than if they were not. This result is not limited to the laboratory. Analyzing patterns of government issued terror warnings and Gallup polls, Robb Willer (2004) found that increased terror alerts were predictably followed by increases in Presidential approval ratings.      PAGE 82 Chapter  DOCPROPERTY "ChapterNumber" 6:  DOCPROPERTY "ChapterTitle" Attitudes Chapter  DOCPROPERTY "ChapterNumber" 6:  DOCPROPERTY "ChapterTitle" Attitudes  PAGE 81 Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Copyright Houghton Mifflin Company. 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