ࡱ> @ ObjbjFF ;,,ޒw2222jjj8^Tf"^\q0 f f f f f f f$^hRj/fQ(Q(Q(/f2FhDfBBBQ(`  fBQ( fBBY[ [ 0Hj5DZe<Zf0fZ( visited 25/03/2005), J. LEYDEN, LoveBug Threatens Email Servers [ 5 May 2000], < HYPERLINK "http://www.vnunet.com/news/1100661" http://www.vnunet.com/news/1100661> (visited 25/03/2005), P. FESTA and J. WILCOX, Experts Estimate Damages in the Billions for Bug [ 5 May 2000], at: < HYPERLINK "http://news.com.com/2100-1001-240112.html?legacy=cnet" http://news.com.com/2100-1001-240112.html?legacy=cnet> (visited 25/05/2005).  In fact, the difficulty comes in defining the laws that need to be in place to allow the apprehension and prosecution of cybercriminals. While this might be a straightforward task, it actually raises some difficult issues. One is the scope of cyber-offences a country needs to define. Another is the extent to which these laws should be cybercrime specific. Thus, it is necessary for a country to add a computer fraud offence if it has already outlawed fraud. On this point see M. D. GOODMAN and S. BRENNER, The Emerging Consensus on Criminal Conduct in Cyberspace ( Oxford, International Journal of Law and Information Technology), [ 200] Vol. 10, n. 2 p. 3.  In fact, the term cyberspace literally means navigable space and is derived from the Greek word kyber (to navigate). In William Gibsons 1984 novel, the original source of the term, cyberspace refers to, a navigable, digital space of networked computers accessible from computer consoles, a visual, colourful, electronic, Cartesian datascape known as The Matrix where companies and individuals interact with, and trade in, information. Since the publication of this novel, the term cyberspace has been reappropriated, adapted and used in a variety of ways, by many different constituencies, all of which refer in some way to emerging computer-mediated communication and virtual reality technologies. Here, we refocus the definition back to the envisaged by Gibson, so that cyberspace refers to the conceptual space within ICTs, rather than the technology itself. See W. GIBSON, Neuromancer (New York, Grafton), [1984]; M. DODGE, Mapping Cyberspace (N.Y, Routeldge), [2001] p. 1.  C. REED, Computer Law (U.K, John Angel), [2004] p. 242.  Id.  Id.  However, the blurring of real and virtual extends beyond the imaginable. Analysts have recently started to argue that our geographic environments are becoming virtualised as computers are used increasingly to manage information concerning places. As such, city structure is becoming composed of and controlled by computers, and a recursive relationship is evolving so that as the city becomes composed of computers, the computer network is the city. Here, the virtual spaces of city data and management and the real spaces of buildings and streets become entwined. On this point see M. DODGE, op. cit. p. 22.  D. JOHNSON and D. POST, Law and Borders: The Rise of Law in Cyberspace (Stanford, Stanford Law Review), [1996] n 1378.  On the conflict of laws in cyberspace see A. MEFFORD, Lex Informatica: Foundations of the Law on the Internet (IJGLS), [1997], 5(1) p.212. See Karen Kaplan, Germany Forces Online Service to Censor Internet, L.A. Times, [ Dec. 29, 1995] , at A1; Why Free-Wheeling Internet Puts Teutonic Wall over Porn, Christian Sci. Monitor, [ Jan 4, 1996] , at 1; Cyberporn Debate Goes International; Germany Pulls the Shade On CompuServe, Internet, Wash. Post, [Jan. 1, 1996] , at F13 in Id.  See The Minnesota Attorney Generals Office distributed a  HYPERLINK "http://www.state.mn.us/cbranch/ag/memo/txt" Warning to All Internet Users and Providers, available at < HYPERLINK "http://www.state.mn.us/cbranch/ag/memo/txt" http://www.state.mn.us/cbranch/ag/memo/txt> (visited 30/03/2005).  See D. JOHNSON and D. POST, op. cit.  Id. p. 16.  In one such case in San Francisco, an electrical transformer in the basement of a building exploded, causing a poisonous liquid coolant to be released. The computers in the building continued to operate, but the fire department would not allow anybody to enter the building to tend to them, which rendered the information unavailable.  Id.  Id.  In fact criminals may use computers, graphics software, and colour printers to forge documents. Criminals who create automated crime software and those who purchase and use the software will be using their computers as tools to commit crimes.  See D. PAKER, op. cit. p. 16.  < HYPERLINK "http://www.nctp.org" http://www.nctp.org>.  < HYPERLINK "http://www.theiacp.org/" http://www.theiacp.org/>.  The main goal of Internet security is to keep proprietary information confidential, to preserve its integrity, and to maintain its availability for those authorized to view that information. When information is accessed and examined by unauthorized individuals, it is no longer confidential. By connecting to the Internet organizations have made their information assets far more vulnerable to unauthorized access and breaches of confidentiality. If data are tampered with, modified, or corrupted by intruders there is a loss of information integrity. Some times this can happen inadvertently, but most often it is the intentional act of a hacker or a disgruntled employee seeking revenge. Finally, if information is deleted or becomes inaccessible to authorized users, there is a loss of availability. See R. SPINELLO, Regulating Cyberspace: The Policies and Technologies of Control (U.S.A, Spinello), [2002] p. 207.  See M. D. GOODMAN and S. BRENNER, op. cit.  Id.  D. SHINDER, Scene of the Cybercrime (U.S.A, Syngress), [2002] p. 6.  Id.  < HYPERLINK "http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2194/is_8_70/ai_78413303" http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2194/is_8_70/ai_78413303> (visited 29/03/2005).  D. SHINDER, op. cit. p. 6.  Id.  Daved GARLAND argues that todays world of crime control and criminal justice was not brought into being by rising crime rates or by a loss of faith in penal-welfarism, or at least not by these alone. These were proximate causes rather than the fundamental processes at work. It was created instead by a series of adaptive responses to the cultural and criminological conditions of late modernity- conditions which included new problems of crime and insecurity, and new attitudes towards the welfare State. But these responses did not occur outside of the political process, or in a political and cultural vacuum. On the contrary. They were deeply marked by the cultural formation that he describes as crime complex ; by the reactionary politics that have dominated Britain and America during the last twenty years; and by the new social relations that have grown up around the changing structures of work, welfare and market exchange in these two late modern societies. On this point see D. GARLAND, The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society (David Garland, University of Chicago), [2001].  D. SHINDER, op. cit. p. 6.  For example, the Internet is a non-secure network with more than one hundred million users around the world. One of the Internets greatest strengths-its open anonymous nature-is also its greatest weakness, making it ripe for abuse and attracting attention from an array of unsavoury individuals and advocacy groups including terrorists, neo-Nazis, pornographers, and paedophiles. Fraudsters of every stripe engage in securities boiler room operations, illegal gambling, Ponzi pyramid schemes, credit card fraud, and a variety of other illicit activities. On this point see D. PARKER, op. cit. p. 114.  Id.  See Texas Penal Code, available at: < HYPERLINK "http://www.capitol.state.tx.us/statutes/docs/PE/content/word/pe.007.00.000033.00.doc" http://www.capitol.state.tx.us/statutes/docs/PE/content/word/pe.007.00.000033.00.doc > (visited 29/03/2005).  Section 502.  See Tenth United Nation Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, Vienna, and April 2000. Available at < HYPERLINK "http://www.uncjin.org/Documents/congr10/4r3e.pdf" http://www.uncjin.org/Documents/congr10/4r3e.pdf> (visited 29/03/2005).  See M. D. GOODMAN and S. BRENNER, op. cit. p. 145.  See R. CRUTCHFIELD, Crime: Readings (California, Pine Forge Press), [2000], p. 7.  See P. HITCHENS, A Brief History of Crime (Atlantic, London), [2003].  See for example W. BALCKSTONE, Commentaries on the Laws of England (Chicago, The University of Chicago), [1979].  See M. D. GOODMAN and S. BRENNER, op. cit. p. 151.  Id.  Id.  See e.g LoveBug.  A notorious example of this is in the February, 2000 denial of service attacks that targeted eBay, Yahoo and CNN, among others, that effectively shut down their web sites for hours and were estimated to have caused $ 1.2 billion in damage. See M. D. GOODMAN and S. BRENNER, op. cit. p.  See S. GIBSON, The Strange Tale of the Denial of Service, available at < HYPERLINK "http://grc.com/dos/grcdos.htm" http://grc.com/dos/grcdos.htm> (visited 29/03/2005).  See C. BICKNELL, Sex.Com: It Wasnt Stolen [ 25/08/2000], available at : < HYPERLINK "http://www.mediaesq.com/new31857.php" http://www.mediaesq.com/new31857.php> (visited 29/03/2005).  See D. SCHWEITZER, op. cit.  J. LEYDEN, Love Bug Suspect Released ( vnunet.com), [ May 2000], available at: < HYPERLINK "http://www.vnunet.com/news/1101024" http://www.vnunet.com/news/1101024> (visited 29/03/2005).  See M. D. GOODMAN and S. BRENNER, op. cit. p. 153.  Id.  Id.  Studies of cybercriminals reveals seven significant profiles. Unfortunately, however, no criminal fits exclusively in any one profile. Instead, the profiles overlap one another in fuzzy relationships. (A) Pranksters; (b) Hackers; (c) Malicious hackers; (d) Personal problem solvers; (e) career criminals; (f) extreme advocates; (g) malcontents, addicts, and irrational and incompetent people.  See 1999 Report on Cybertalking ( US Department of Justice), [ 1999] available at: < HYPERLINK "http://www.usdoj.gov/criminal/cybercrime/cyberstalking.htm" http://www.usdoj.gov/criminal/cybercrime/cyberstalking.htm> (visited 29/03/2005).  See M. D. GOODMAN and S. BRENNER, op. cit. p. 154.  D. PARKER, op. cit. p. 10.  See Mcconnell International E-Lert, Combating Cybercrime: A Proactive Approach [ Feb. 2001], available at: < HYPERLINK "http://www.mcconnellinternational.com/pressroom/elert.cfm" http://www.mcconnellinternational.com/pressroom/elert.cfm> ( visited 29/03/2005).  See UNESCO, Les Dimensions Internationales du Droit du Cyberespace (Paris, Economica), [2000].  D. PARKER, op. cit. p. 10.  In fact, some surveys dont focus on the incidence of cybercrime, but on the extent to which the public is concerned about cybercrime. May be on the theory that public opinion is an important driver of national policy. In a February 2001 survey of Americans, two contradictory views emerged: The first is that many Americans do not trust their government and its agencies very much. Yet the second strong strain of opinion is that Americans are quite willing to grant to law enforcement agencies and the FBI the right to intercept the email of criminal suspects, perhaps because Americans are concerned about crime, especially new ways to perpetrate crime using the Internet. While a majority of Americans approve of email interception to fight crime, only 21% of all Americans have heard about Carnivore, the FBIs digital surveillance tool. On this point see Pew Internet and American Life Project, available at < HYPERLINK "http://www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/PIP_Fear_of_crime.pdf" http://www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/PIP_Fear_of_crime.pdf>(visited 29/03/2005).  < HYPERLINK "http://www.gocsi.com/" http://www.gocsi.com/>. (visited 29/03/2005).  < HYPERLINK "http://www.emergency.com/fbi-nccs.htm" http://www.emergency.com/fbi-nccs.htm>. (visited 29/03/2005).  < HYPERLINK "http://i.cmpnet.com/gocsi/db_area/pdfs/fbi/FBI2004.pdf" http://i.cmpnet.com/gocsi/db_area/pdfs/fbi/FBI2004.pdf> (visited 29/03/2005).  See Cybercrime Soars in the UK, available at < HYPERLINK "http://www.vnunet.com/news/1113497" http://www.vnunet.com/news/1113497> (visited 29/03/2005).  See M. KABAY, Studies and Surveys of Computer Crime ( Norwich), [ 20001], available at: < HYPERLINK "http://www.securitystats.com/reports/Studies_and_Surveys_of_Computer_Crime.pdf#search='studies%20and%20surveys%20of%20computer%20crime'" http://www.securitystats.com/reports/Studies_and_Surveys_of_Computer_Crime.pdf#search='studies%20and%20surveys%20of%20computer%20crime'> (visited 30/03/2005).  See Deloitte and Victoria Police Computer Crime Survey [2004], p. 3.  Id.  In 1999, the Australian survey found that the attacks perpetuated appear to be random, spur of the moment attacks, with no discernible pattern detected in more than 70% of the cases. According to respondents, the most likely motivation for an attack was curiosity (71%). The attacker was most likely to be a disgruntled employee or an independent hacker. On this point see M. D. GOODMAN and S. BRENNER, op. cit. p. 156.  Id.  Id.  See D. PARKER, op. cit. p. 74.  See M. KABAY, op. cit.  Id.  See U.N Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, 10 th session, Item 4 at 10, Conclusion of the Study on Effective Measures to Prevent and Control High-Technology and Computer Related Crime [2001] p. 10. Available at: < HYPERLINK "http://www.unodc.org/pdf/crime/10_commission/4e.pdf" http://www.unodc.org/pdf/crime/10_commission/4e.pdf> (visited 30/03/2005).  Id.  Id.  See CSI/FBI 2004Computer Crime and Security Survey, op. cit.  See M. KABAY, op. cit.  Id.  Id.  Id.  See A. MILES, Bug Watch: The Fight Against Cybercrime [20 April 2001]. Available at: < HYPERLINK "http://www.pcw.co.uk/print/it/1120814" http://www.pcw.co.uk/print/it/1120814> (visited 31/03/2005).  For a full study, see F. CILLUFFO and al., Cyber Threats and Information Security (CSIS), [May 2001].  See M. D. GOODMAN and S. BRENNER, op. cit. p. 160.  See J. BURREN, European Commission Wants to Tackle Cyberime [10/01/2001]. Available at: < HYPERLINK "http://www.heise.de/tp/r4/artikel/4/4658/1.html" http://www.heise.de/tp/r4/artikel/4/4658/1.html>( visited 31/03/2005).  Id.  Recent studies of actual hacker crimes reveal that there are many misconceptions about hackers? In one instance, members of the U.S military, testifying before the U.S Armed Services Committee in Congress in 1994, described a master spy that posted a major threat to U.S security. The military chiefs feared that an East European spy ring had successfully hacked into American Ai Defence systems and learned some of its most well-guarded intelligence secrets. A 13-month investigation however, revealed that a 16-year-old British music student was responsible for the break-ins. The culprit, known as the Datastream Cowboy, had downloaded dozens of military files, including details of ballistic missile research and development, and had used a companys network in California for more than 200 logged security breaches-all using a $ 1,200 computer and modem. He was tried and convicted in 1997, and fined $ 1,915 by a London court. After his conviction, the media offered the musical hacker considerable sums for the book and film rights to his story, but he declined, preferring to continue his musical studies and concentrate on wining a place in a leading London orchestra. On these points see D. PAKER, op. cit. p. 164.  See D. PAKER, op. cit. p. 158.  Id.  On the history of hacking see J. CHIRILLO, Hack Attacks Encyclopaedia: A Complete History of Hacks, Cracks, Phreaks and Spies (Canada, John Wiley), [2001] p. 1.  See B. STERLING, The Hacker Crackdown (Batman Books) pp. 50 -51.  Id.  See M. D. GOODMAN and S. BRENNER, op. cit. p. 146.  See E. RAYMOND, The New Hackers Dictionary (U.S.A, MIT Press).  Some information has distinct monetary value. This is a unique kind of information that requires great security. Indeed, the threats to monetary information encompass the full spectrum of crime: Fraud, larceny, extortion, sabotage, forgery, and espionage focus on it. In the cyberspace, for example, we encounter real, negotiable money in bank account balances or as e-cash or cybercash. Each amount of money consists of optionally the name of a country and its currency symbol, numeric characters, and a decimal point. An ordered set of these symbols and characters represents an amount of monetary credit in an account. When you spend some of this money electronically, the balance in the computer account or smart card is debited by the appropriate amount, and the balance in the merchants account in another computer is credited with that amount. Owners may require different degrees of security for monetary information, depending on differences in its values, representations, and media. Thus, we need to consider the informations value to various individuals to identify where and how to apply security. The choices of security controls may depend on the means of converting from one representation or medium to another. See D. PARKER, op. cit. p.40.  A. NAGPAL, Cyberterrorism in the Context of Globalisation (India, UGC sponsored National Seminar on Globalization and Human Rights), [September 2001].  Id.  Id.  In fact, when information is sent over computer networks, it gets converted into hex and broken into lots of packets. Each packet is identified by a header, which contains the source, destination, size of packet, total number of packets, serial number of that packet, etc. If a hacker wants to see this information, he uses Packet Sniffing technology that reconverts the data from hex to the original. This technology is like putting the equivalent of a phone tap on a computer. Sniffing can be committed when a packet leaves the source or just before it reaches the destination. For this, the hacker would need to know only the IP Address (the unique number that identifies each computer on a network). A packet sniffer can log all the files coming from a computer. It can also be programmed to give only a certain type of information - e.g. only passwords. On this point see Id.  TEMPEST (Transient Electromagnetic Pulse Emanation Standard) technology allows someone not in the vicinity to capture the electromagnetic emissions from a computer and thus view whatever is on the monitor. A properly equipped car can park near the target area and pick up everything shown on the screen. There are some fonts that remove the high-frequency emissions, and thus severely reduce the ability to view the text on the screen from a remote location. This attack can be avoided by shielding computer equipment and cabling. See Id.  A password is a type of secret authentication word or phrase used to gain access. Passwords have been used since Roman times. Internal to the computer, passwords have to be checked constantly. So, all computers try to "cache" passwords in memory so that each time a password is needed the user does not need to be asked. If someone hacks into the memory of a computer, he can sift the memory or page files for passwords. Password crackers are utilities that try to 'guess' passwords. One way, the dictionary attack, involves trying out all the words contained in a predefined dictionary of words. Ready-made dictionaries of millions of commonly used passwords can be freely downloaded from the Internet. Another form of password cracking attack is 'brute force' attack. In this attack, all possible combinations of letters, numbers and symbols are tried out one by one till the password is found out. See Id. Also known as buffer overrun, input overflow and unchecked buffer overflow, this is probably the simplest way of hacking a computer. It involves input of excessive data into a computer. The excess data "overflows" into other areas of the computer's memory. This allows the hacker to insert executable code along with the input, thus enabling the hacker to break into the computer. See Id.  See U. SIEBER, op. cit. p. 43.  Id.  See D. PAKER, op. cit. p. 82.  See R. GRIMES, Malicious Mobile Code, Virus Protection for Windows (OReilly), [August 2001] p. 2.  Id.  See D. SCHWEITZER, op. cit. p. 44.  On this point see experiments with computer virus. Available at < HYPERLINK "http://all.net/books/virus/part5.html" http://all.net/books/virus/part5.html> (visited 25/03/2005).  See D. SCHWEITZER, op. cit. p. 44.  See E. SKOUDIS, Malware, Fighting Malicious Code (Prentice), [2003] p. 25.  Although viruses cannot be activated in data files because these files are not executed as programs, viruses can be activated through execution of imbedded or attached macro programs that accompany data file documents. When a user executes a word processor program (e.g Microsoft Word) to open a file for viewing, the embedded to attached macro programs are automatically executed to format the data contents. Macros can be infected with macro viruses that also execute when the user opens a file. This type of virus (most notably, Microsoft Word Concept) is becoming increasingly common. The bizarre Maddog virus, for example, changes the letter a to e throughout infected documents tat happen to be in use at 8 PM on any day. See D. PARKER, op. cit. p. 84.  Id p. 83.  Id.  Id.  See M. D. GOODMAN and S. BRENNER, op. cit. p. 146.  Id.  Id.  See U. SIEBER, Legal Aspects of Computer Related Crime, op. cit p. 49.  Id.  This virus, when it was first noticed on 26th March 1999 was the fastest spreading virus the world over. The virus by itself was quite harmless. It merely inserted some text into a document at a specified time of the day. What caused the maximum harm was that the virus would send itself to all the email addresses in the victim's address book. This generated enormous volume of traffic making servers all over the world crash.  In its activities it was similar to Melissa, but there was one major difference. ExploreZip, first discovered in June 1999, was not a virus but a Trojan. This means that it was incapable of replicating itself. Thus, the Melissa virus had more far reaching presence. Also, ExploreZip was more active. It not only hijacked Microsoft Outlook but also selected certain files and made their file size zero - reduced their data to nothing. Those files were then of no use to the user and they could not be recovered.  The Chernobyl, or PE CIH, virus activates every year on the 26th of April - on the anniversary of the Chernobyl, Ukraine, nuclear power plant tragedy. The virus wipes out the first megabyte of data from the hard disk of a personal computer thus making the rest of the files of no use. Also, it also deletes the data on the computer's Basic Input-Output System (BIOS) chip so that the computer cannot function till a new chip is fitted or the data on the old one is restored. Fortunately only those BIOSes, which can be changed or updated, face a threat from this virus.  This virus was originally written in New Zealand and would regularly display a message, which said, Your PC is stoned. Legalize Marijuana.  This virus is also called Falling Letters or 1701. It initially appeared as a Trojan horse in the form of a program designed to turn off the Num-Lock light on the user's keyboard. In fact, what it did was to make the characters on the screen drop in a heap to the bottom of the screen.  This virus is titled after famous Italian Renaissance artist Michelangelo Buonarroti. It gets activated every year on the artist's birthday - 6th March.  It is difficult to determine when the first crime involving a computer actually occurred. The computer has been around in some from since the abacus. It is known to have existed in 3500 B.C. In 1801 profit motives encouraged Joseph Jacquard, a textile manufacturer in France, to design the forerunner of the computer card. This device allowed the repetition of a series of steps in the weaving of special fabrics. So concerned where Jacquards employees with the threat to their traditional employment and livelihood that acts of sabotage were committed to discourage M. Jacquard from further use of new technology. A computer crime had been committed. On this point see J. WELLS, The Computer and Internet Fraud Manual (Austin, Texas), [2002] p. 3.  Investigations show that online auction complaints represent the largest category for internet fraud statistics. On this point see < HYPERLINK "http://www.fraud.org/internet/lt00totstats.htm" http://www.fraud.org/internet/lt00totstats.htm> (visited 26/03/2005). At the same time it is argued that the amount of internet fraud is tiny compared with the number of transactions which take place. See M. BICHLER, The Future of E-Markets: Multidimensional Mechanisms (CUP), [2000] p. 131.  Id p. 8.  Id.  Id.  Although data and information are synonymous according to most dictionaries, some people like to think of data as raw information or as collections of symbols that are not structured and labelled for people to use. Data security is usually synonymous with information security. Some organizations, however, use data security to mean the administration of computer security. Such as password assignment to users, and information security to mean the management of information security, such as establishing security policies and control standards.  Some years ago, the U.S. Secret Service (the department responsible for the odd combination of protecting the President and tracking down counterfeiters) determined the new colour laser printers as being a significant threat, what with their ability to produce almost perfect copies of paper money. Based on this, the Secret Service paid a little visit to colour laser printer manufacturers across the the globe and convinced them to add a special little circuit to pretty much every laser printer that leaves the dock. Using a pattern of dots nearly invisible to the naked eye and distributed at random points on the page, it encodes the printer's serial number or various other identifying characteristics in the printer's output. Using seized counterfeit bills, law enforcement agencies can determine exactly which printer made the bills and, working with the printer manufacturer's sales records, determine whom the printer was sold to.  Id.  Id.  For the modi operandi, one can be differentiate between methods causing physical damage and those causing logical damage. During the 1970s, the most frequently practised methods of causing physical damage were igniting or bombing a building. These techniques were typically applied by outsiders not employed or otherwise related with the owners of the facilities damaged.  See J. WELLS, The Computer and Internet Fraud Manual (Austin, Texas), [2002] pp. 9-10.  Id.  Id.  See D. PAKER, op. cit. p. 52.  In another case in Germany, a complex invoice manipulation was committed as early as 1974 by a programmer who carried out salary manipulations worth over DM193,000 through changes of the salary data as well as the book-keeping and balance sheet programs of his company. Using a program written especially for this purpose, he entered the information on the salaries of fictitious people into the data memories containing company salary information and entered his own account as the account to which the fictitious salaries should be transferred. These salary manipulations would have been discovered by the company because normally, the computer prepared wage-slips, checklists, account summaries, and balances sheets which were carefully checked. In order to prevent discovery by these control printouts, the offender first made adjustments in the salary payments program to ensure that no pay-slips were printed for payments to the fictitious employees so that the payment did not appear in the checklists produced by the computer. By further manipulation of the program which produced the company's accounting summaries and balance sheets, the perpetrator finally succeeded in having the embezzled amounts deducted from the income tax to be paid to the tax office. Thus, the sums did not appear as deficient amounts in the companys accounting summaries and balance sheet. Cited by U. SIEBER, Legal Aspects of Computer Related Crime, op. cit p. 52.  See C. RAMBERG, Internet Market Places, The Law of Auctions and Exchanges Online (Oxford, Oxford University Press), [2002] p. 36.  Normally when thinking about the term, the English auction comes to mind. This is an auction initiated by a seller where higher and higher bids are made orally by bidders. When no further bids are heard the auctioneer lets the hammer fall and the highest acquires the item offered As we see nowadays in the cyberspace, there are many types of transactions that in different ways resemble this English auction. There are actually many examples of Internet marketplaces which may be operated by an independent intermediary or be set up by the party taking the initiative in the transaction. Example of interesting change sites are eBay, Bidlet, Goindustry.com, Metalsite, and Autodaq.  See M. D. GOODMAN and S. BRENNER, op. cit. p. 147.  Id.  Id.  Internet Fraud, How to Avoid Internet Investment Scams, available at: < HYPERLINK "http://www.sec.gov/investor/pubs/cyberfraud.htm" http://www.sec.gov/investor/pubs/cyberfraud.htm> (visited 26/03/2005).  Id.  Id.  Id.  See D. PAKER, op. cit. p. 123.  Id.  Id.  See Id p. 124.  In fact, the word stalk has the meaning of both the act of following ones prey and walking stealthily. To label someone a staker has been, at least from the sixteenth century, to imply he or she a prowler or a poacher. When the media appropriated the word to describe those who pestered and harassed others they provided a new focus for this ancient indictment. Stalking is now a part of our culture language. It has become a category with which we describe and understand our experiences. If someone is repeatedly followed by a stranger, or is distressed at receiving numerous unwanted letters from an estranged partner the, in todays world, they are likely to describe themselves as being staked. Looking back over their life they may now recall having been stalked in the past. In California, a 50-year-old former guardused the Internet to solicit the rape of a women who rejected his romantic advances[He] terrorized his 28-old-victim by impersonating her in various Internet chat rooms and online bulletin boards , where he posted , along with her telephone number and address, messages that she fantasized of being raped. On six occasions, sometimes in the middle of the night men knocked on womens door saying they wanted to rape her.  As US Attorney General Janet Reno noted in the report prepared by the Department of Justice in 1999, many of the attributes of the Internet low cost, ease of use and anonymous nature- make it an attractive medium for fraudulent scams, child sexual exploitation and cybertalking. She also noted that while some conduct involving annoying menacing behaviour may be a prelude to stalking and violence and should be treated seriously. On this point see J. BOON, Stalking and Psychosexual Obsession (UK, John Wiley), [2002] p. 202.  See P. MULLEN, Stalkers and their Victims (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press), [2000], p. 7.  Id.  Id.  See J. BOON, op. cit. p. 202.  Id.  Id.  See M. D. GOODMAN and S. BRENNER, op. cit. p. 149.  Id.  See D. DENNING, Cyberterrorism ( U.S.A, Special Oversight Panel on Terrorism), [ May 2000]  Id.  Id.  See Defining cyberterrorism, available at < HYPERLINK "http://www.asianlaws.org/cyberlaw/library/cc/def_ct.htm" http://www.asianlaws.org/cyberlaw/library/cc/def_ct.htm> (visited 28/03/2005).  Id. See A. NAGPAL, Cyberterrorism in the Context of Globalisation (India, UGC sponsored National Seminar on Globalization and Human Rights), [September 2001].  Id.  Id.  Id.  On this point see D. SHINDER, op. cit. p. 24.  For example an employee who uses his or her legitimate access to the companys computerized payroll system to change the data so that he is paid extra, or who move funds out of company bank accounts into his won personal account.  In fact, the unauthorised copying and use of computer programs often called theft of software or software piracy at first involved, in accordance with the historic development of computer technology, the copying of individual software which frequently contains important internal company know-how. Therefore software theft overlaps with computer espionage in many cases. For example, the German debit collection program case" is an example for the copying of individual software which led to the first decision of the Bundesgerichtshof concerning the possibility of copyright protection: Because of the copying of its central computer program and the following low-price sales by the perpetrator, the victimised debit collection company got into a situation that threatened its existence. See U. SIEBER, op. cit. p. 45.  In March 2002, federal agents arrested a Jacksonville, Florida man for identify theft in connection with stealing personnel records of 60,000 Prudential Insurance Company employees from a computer database. The man was a former IT employee for Prudential, and he attempted to sell the database information over the Internet for the purpose of obtaining fraudulent credit cards using the stolen identities. See Press Release, U.S Department of Justice.  See D. SHINDER, op. cit. p. 50.  See D. PARKER, op. cit. p. 11.  M. D. GOODMAN and S. BRENNER, op. cit. p. 161.  See < HYPERLINK "http://www.cybercrimelaw.net/tekster/background.html" http://www.cybercrimelaw.net/tekster/background.html> (visited 31/03/2005).  M. D. GOODMAN and S. BRENNER, op. cit. p. 161.  D. GRIFFITH, The Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1986: A Measured Response to a Growing Problem, (43 VAND. L. REV), [1990] 453, 456.  See R. HOGGE et al., Computer Invasion of Privacy Under the Virginia Computers Crime Act [Jan. 2001]. Available at: (visited 31/03/2005). See also L. BECKER, Electronic Publishing: First Amendment Issues in the Twenty-First Century , 13 Fordham Urb. L.J. 801 [1985].  D. PARKER, op. cit. p. 11.  Id.  M. D. GOODMAN and S. BRENNER, op. cit. p. 162.  See U. SIEBER, Legal Aspects of Computer Related Crime (European Commission), [1998] p. 25.  Id. For detailed information see for Australia, the Freedom of Information Act of 9March1982, as amended and the Privacy Act 1988; for Austria, the Federal Data Protection Act of 18October1978, amended by laws Nos.370 of 1986, 605 of1987 and 632 of1994; for Canada, the Access to Information Act and the Privacy Act of 28June1982; for Belgium, the law for the Protection of the Private Life with Respect to the Treatment of Personal Data of 8December1992; for Denmark, the Private Registers Act of 8June1978 (Act No.293), amended on 1April1988 and the Public Authorities' Registers Act of 8June1978 (Act No.293), amended on 1April1988; for Finland, the Personal Data File Act No.471 of 30April1987, Personal Registers Act of 4February1987 and chapter38 of the Penal Code (as amended 1995); for France, the Act on Data Processing, Data Files and Individual Liberties (Act No.7817) of 6January1978, amended on 11March1988; for Germany, the Data Protection Act of 20December1990 (succeeding the Data Protection Act of 27January1977); for Greece, Data Protection Act (law2472/1997), passed in April1997 by the Greek Parliament; for Iceland, the Act Concerning the Systematic Recording of Personal Data (Act No.39/1985) of 25May1981; for Israel, the Protection of Privacy Law (Act No.5741/1981) of 23February1981, amended in 1985; for Ireland, the Data Protection Act (Act No.25/1988) of 6July1988; for Italy, Law No.675 of 31December1996, published in the Gazetta Ufficiale 8January1997; for Japan, the Personal Information Protection Act No.95 of 16December1988; for Luxembourg, The Act Organising the Identification on Physical and Legal Persons by Number of 31March1979, the Act Regulating the Use of Nominal Data in Electronic Data Processing of 31March1979 and the Act concerning the Protection of Privacy of 11August1982; for the Netherlands, the Law on the Protection of Privacy in Connection with Personal Registration of 28December1988; for New Zealand, the Privacy Act 1993, amended by the Privacy Amendment Act1993 and the Privacy Amendment Act1994; for Norway, the Law on Personal Data Registers of 9June1978 (Act No.48) amended by Law No.55 of 12June1987, Law No.66 of 20July1991 and Law No.78 of 11June1993; for Portugal, Law 10/91 of 29April1991 on the Protection of Personal Data with Respect to Informatics, amended by Law28/94 of 29August1994; for Spain, Art.18 para.4 of the Constitution and Law5/1992 for the Regulation of the Automated Processing of Personal Data (LORTAD) of 29October1992, and Article197 Criminal Code (Law No.10/1995 of 23November1995); for Sweden, chapter2 Article3 para.2 Instrument of Government (i.e., Constitution) as amended 1988; the Data Protection Act of 11May1973 (Law No.289), amended 1979, 1982, 1986, 1990 and1992); for Switzerland, Federal Data Protection Act of 19June1992; for the United Kingdom, the Data Protection Act of 12July1984; for the United States of America, the Privacy Act 1974 (5U.S.C. 552a) and the Electronic Communications Privacy Act 1986 (codified at 18U.S.C. 1367, 2232, 25102522, 27022711, 3117, 31213127).  Id.  Id.  Id.  Id.  See U. SIEBER, Legal Aspects of Computer Related Crime, op. cit p. 28. Also see for Austria, the Criminal Code Amendment Act of 1987 (Bundesgesetzblatt 1987/605); for Australia, Section408e of the Queensland Criminal Code as amended in 1979, Sections222, 276 of the Northern Territory Criminal Code as amended in 1983, Section115 of the New South Wales Crimes Act 1900 in its application to the Australian Capital Territory, as amended in 1985, the Crimes (Computers) Act No.36 of 1988 of Victoria, as well as additional legislation passed in the Australian Capital Territory, the Commonwealth, New South Wales, the Northern Territory, South Australia and Victoria; for Canada, The Criminal Law Amendment Act 1985 (S.C.1985, c.19); for Denmark, the Penal Code Amendment Act of 6June1985 on Data Criminality; for Germany, the Second Law for the Suppression of Economic Crime of 15May1986 (BundesgesetzblattI, 1986, p.721); for Finland, the Laws Amending the Criminal Code No.769/1990 of 24August1990 (first phase of the total reform of the Criminal Code), and No.578/1995 of 28April1995 (second phase of the total reform of the Criminal Code); for France, the Law on Infringements in the Field of Informatics of 5January1988; for Greece, Law No.1805/88 of 30August1988; for Italy the Amendment of 1978 to Section420 Penal Code (concerning attacks to public utility plants and research or data processing facilities); for Luxembourg, Law of 15July1993 Aiming to Reinforce the Fight Against Economic Crime and Computer Fraud; for Malaysia, Computer Crime Law of1997; for the Netherlands, Dutch Computer Crime Act of 23December1992, as amended in 1994 and 1995; for Japan, the Penal Code Amendment Act of 1987; for Norway, the Criminal Code Amendment Act of 12June1987; for Spain, Criminal Code 1995 (Law No.10/1995 of 23November1995), especially Articles248.2, 256, 264.2, 278 etseq.; for Sweden, Section21 Data Protection Act of 4April1973, and the Criminal Code Amendment Act of July1986 (Law No.123); for Switzerland, 1994 Revision of Property Crime Provisions; for the United Kingdom, the Forgery and Counterfeiting Act of 1981, and the Computer Misuse Act 1990 of 29June1990, draft for a new Section15a Theft Act1968; for the United States of America, the Credit Card Fraud Act of1984 (Publ. L.98473) and the Counterfeit Access Device and Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of1984 and the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1986 (both codified as amended at 18U.S.C.10291030) as well as State legislation in every state but Vermont. For a comparative analysis of the various laws see Sieber, The International Handbook on Computer Crime, [1986], pp.42 and seq.  Id.  Id.  See U. SIEBER, Legal Aspects of Computer Related Crime, op. cit p. 29.  In Europe, methods for performing mental acts are not regarded as patentable inventions. Due to this principle, Article52(2) and (3) of the European Patent Convention (EPC, Munich, 1973) excludes patentability of computer programs as such. In most European countries this limitation of patentability can be found in the national patent legislations. See, for example, for Austria, Section1(2)No.3 Patent Law, amended 8June1984 (Bundesgesetzblatt1984/234); for France, Sections6 and11 Patent Law No.681 of 2January1968, modified by Law No.78742 of 13July1978 and Law No.84500 of 27June1984; for Germany, Section1(2) No.3 and(3) Patent Law of 5June1936, amended on 16December1980; for Italy, Section12 Patent Law No.1127 of 29January1939, modified by Law No.338 of 22June1979; for the United Kingdom, SectionI(2)(c) of the Patents Act1977. See Id.  Id.  M. D. GOODMAN and S. BRENNER, op. cit. p. 164.  Id.  See U. SIEBER, op. cit p. 32.  Id.  See U. SIEBER, op. cit p. 64.  Id.  Id.   HYPERLINK "http://www.garanteprivacy.it/garante/frontdoor/1,1003,,00.html?LANG=2" \t "_blank" Law no. 675 of 31 December 1996, on the protection of individuals and other subjects with regard to processing of personal data Italian Data Protection Act, governs the processing of personal data, when the processing takes place Italy. The Italian Data Protection Act ensures the respect of the rights, fundamental freedoms and dignity of natural persons, particularly with regard to privacy and personal identity.  See U. SIEBER, op. cit p. 68.  Id.  Most of the respective provisions are contained in the general data protection acts cited by U. SIEBER in chapterI, fn. Id. For more information see, for Austria, Section50(1) of the Data Protection Act; for Denmark, Section27(1)No.1 and2, Section27(2)No.4 Private Register Act; for Germany, Section44 of the Federal Data Protection Act of 1990; for France, Sections41 and42 of the Act on Data Processing, Data Files, and Individual Liberties; for Italy, Sections3439 of the Data Protection Act; for Luxembourg, Sections32, 37 of the Act Regulating the Use of Nominal Data; for Sweden, Section20(1), (2), (6) Data Act; for the UK, Sections5(5); 6(6); 10(9); 12(10) of the Data Protection Act; for the USA, Section522a para.i(2) of the Privacy Act 1984.  See Luxembourg section 34 of the Act Regulating the Use of Nominal Data. For Sweden, see section (20) 5 Data Act.  See, for the USA, the Freedom of Information Act 5U.S.C.552.  See Denmark, section 27(1) no. 2 Private Registers Act. Luxembourg, section 36 of the Act Regulating the Use of Normal Data. Also see for Italy, article 36 of Data Protection Act, article 36(2) of the new Italian Data Protection Act.  See U. SIEBER, op. cit p. 69.  Such as computer softwares.  M. WASIK, Crime and the Computer (Oxford, Rendon Press Oxford), [1998] p. 70.  Id.  In fact, the definition of the term computer in most countries often suffers from overbreadth. It includes for example handheld calculators, new kitchen stoves and electronic typewriters. These problems are avoided in a 1983 Tennessee statue which defines computer in terms of function as a device that can perform substantional computation, including numerous arithmetic or logic operations, without intervention by a human operator during the processing of a job. See Tennessee Code An. Section 39-3-1403(2).  It became quite clear after the decision of the House of Lords in Gold and Schifreen that there was no specific criminal offence en England which could be used to deal with the unauthorized use of a legitimate users password or the use of a false password to gain access to information stored in a computer. There is no general offence of impersonation in English law and none of the traditional property offences in the Theft Act 1986 and 1978 can be made out on these facts. It had been through by some ( R.A.BROWN) that an offence under the Forgery and Counterfeiting Act 1981 might be utilize in such a case, but a prosecution under this statue, while proving successful at trial, ultimately resulted in the convictions being overturned on appeal. This meant a substantial limitation on the prospects for successful prosecution of the hacker or other computer misuser, where no dishonest or malicious intent at the time of access could be proved, and where no offence consequent upon access had been committed. On this point see M. WASIK, op. cit. p. 71.  See for Canada, Article342.1 Criminal Code ; for Denmark, Section263(2) and (3) Penal Code, for Germany Section202a Penal Code; for Finland, chapter38 Section8 of the Penal Code (as amended 1990); for France, Article4622 Criminal Code, amended in 1988; for Greece, Article370 C(2) Criminal Code, as amended in 1988; for the Netherlands, Article138a(1), (2) Criminal Code, amended 1992; for Norway, Section145 Penal Code, amended 1987; for Spain, Article256 Criminal Code 1995; for Sweden, Section21 Data Protection Act; for the UK, Sections1, 2 Computer Misuse Act 1990; for Switzerland, Article143bis Criminal Code; for the USA, the Electronic Communications Privacy Act of 1986 (18U.S.C.25102521, 27012710, 3117, 31213126), the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1984 and 1986 (codified at 18U.S.C.1029, 1030) as well as different state laws.  Australia, Denmark, England, Greece and the majority of states of the United States of America.  Germany, the Netherlands, Norway.  Canada, France, Israel, New Zealand, Scotland.  Some states of the USA.  Spain.  Finland, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom.  The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language defines information as knowledge of specific events or situations that has been gathered or received by communication, intelligence, or news.  Evidence is a thing or things helpful in forming a conclusion or judgement.  See J. McNAMARA, Secrets of Computer Espionage (USA, Wiley), [2003], p. 2.  Id.  In August of 2002, several dozen FBI agents raided the offices of Business Engine, a Silicon Valley software company specializing in Web-based collaboration tools. The raid was prompted when computer Niku Corporation discovered in its server logs that someone with an IP address that mapped back to business Engine had used Niku passwords to access the companys network more than 6,000 times. More than 1,000 documents had been downloaded during the intrusions, including information about upcoming features, lists of potential customers, pricing and sales call schedules. Subsequent investigations revealed that since October 2001, outsiders had logged onto the internal Niku network, using up to 15 different accounts and passwords to access proprietary documents. As of late September 2002, the once-thriving Niku was on the brink of being delisted by NASDAQ because of its low stock value. It does not take a Harvard MBA to speculate that an extensive economic espionage campaign could have contributed to Nikus ill fortunes. Niku has filled suit against Business Engine, and it will be interesting to watch the details of this case emerge.  Consider a study released in 2002 by the American Society for Industrial Security, U.S Chamber of Commerce, and PricewaterhouseCoopers, a survey of Fortune 1000 corporations and 600 small to mid-sized U.S companies: (a) Forty percent of the companies that reported to the survey reported having episodes of known or suspected loss of proprietary data; (b) Proprietary information and IP losses accounted for between $53 billion and $ 59 billion; (c) Economic spies are looking for information; they most commonly target research and development, customer lists and related and financial data; (d) Despite the potential impact of possibly successful attacks, only 55 percent of the responding companies aid their management was concerned about information loss and were taking precautions to prevent it. The implication of this is a significant number of managers underestimate or dont understand the risks and costs of data theft. See Id, and for more information on the differences between legitimate competitive intelligence and illegal espionage, visit the Society of Competitive Professionals Web Site at < HYPERLINK "http://www.scip.org" http://www.scip.org>.  In 1995, a subsidiary of Chevron was sued for sexual harassment over an e-mail that circulated through the company entitled 25 Reasons Why Beer is Better Than Women. The case was settled out of court for $2.2 million, and Chevron now monitors employee e-mail. In July 2000, Dow Chemical fired 50 employees and disciplined 200 others for accessing online pornography. In October 1999, 40 employees at Xerox were fired fir surfing forbidden Web sites. Whether employees like it or not, employee monitoring has become a commonly used management tool. See Id.  Id.  See for Belgium section 461 Penal Code; for Italy sections 624, 646 Penal Code.  See SIEBER, Legal Protection of Computer Data, Programs and Semiconductor Products A Comparative Analysis with Suggestions for Legal Policy, in International Chamber of Commerce [1988], pp. 7 et seq.  Id.  Id.  On this point this e.g., for Denmark, the qualifications in Section263 and 264 Penal Code, amended in 1985; for Germany, Section17 of the Act Against Unfair Competition, amended in 1986; for Sweden, Section21 Data Protection Act, chapter10 Section5 Criminal Code, Protection of Trade Secrets Act 1990; for Switzerland, Article143 Criminal Code; for the USA, The Economic Espionage Act of 1996 (18 U.S.C.18311839). Id.  See U. SIEBER, op. cit p. 85.  Id.  Id.  Id.  C. REEDS, op. cit. p. 246.  Id.  See Recommendation No. R (89) 9 adopted by the Council of Ministers on 13 September 1989.  Id p. 28. C. REEDS, op. cit. p. 246.  See U. SIEBER, op. cit p. 81.  For example the USA.  For example Greece, Luxembourg and Germany.  For example Germany and the United States of America.  See [1984] 1 WLR 962 at pp. 967-8, in C. REEDS, op. cit. p. 248.  C. REED, op. cit. p. 104.  Id.  See U. SIEBER, op. cit p. 84.  Id.  See Council Directive of 14 May 1991 on the legal protection of computer programs  See U. SIEBER, op. cit p. 85.  C. REED, op. cit. p. 104.  Id.  Id.  Id.  91/250/EEC, OJ L122, 17 May 1991, p. 42.  Council Directive 92/100/EEC of 19 November 1992 on rental right and lending right and on certain rights related to copyright in the field of intellectual property (OJ L 346, 27.11.1992, p. 61). Directive as amended by Directive 93/98/EEC.  Council Directive 93/83/EEC of 27 September 1993 on the coordination of certain rules concerning copyright and rights related to copyright applicable to satellite broadcasting and cable retransmission (OJ L 248, 6.10.1993, p. 15).  Council Directive 93/98/EEC of 29 October 1993 harmonising the term of protection of copyright and certain related rights (OJ L 290, 24.11.1993, p. 9).  Directive 96/9/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 March 1996 on the legal protection of databases (OJ L 77, 27.3.1996, p. 20).  Available at < HYPERLINK "http://www.fipr.org/copyright/eucd.html#note7" http://www.fipr.org/copyright/eucd.html#note7> (visited at 01/04/2005).  Fifth generation computing devices, based on  HYPERLINK "http://www.webopedia.com/DidYouKnow/Hardware_Software/2002/artificial_intelligence.html" artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there are some applications, such as  HYPERLINK "http://www.webopedia.com/DidYouKnow/Hardware_Software/2002/voice_recognition.html" voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of  HYPERLINK "http://www.webopedia.com/DidYouKnow/Hardware_Software/2002/parallel_processing.html" parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.  HYPERLINK "http://www.webopedia.com/DidYouKnow/Hardware_Software/2002/quantum_computing.html" Quantum computation and molecular and  HYPERLINK "http://www.webopedia.com/DidYouKnow/Hardware_Software/2002/nanotechnology.html" nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to  HYPERLINK "http://www.webopedia.com/DidYouKnow/Hardware_Software/2002/natural_language.html" natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.  See U. SIEBER, op. cit p. 85.  Id.  See D. LADD and al.  HYPERLINK "http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/wcpa/servlet/OUFrame;jsessionid=CD20087625A1302FAC15D444D4E9C23F.two?url=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.yahoo.com%2Fsearch%3Fcsz%3D%26ei%3DUTF-8%26fr%3DFP-tab-web-t%26cop%3Dmss%26tab%3D%26toggle%3D1%26dups%3D1%26p%3Dprotection%2B*%2Bsemiconductor%2Bchip%2Bsite%253Aworldcatlibraries.org&title=title+search+&linktype=subject&detail=yahoo%3Aprotection+*+semiconductor+chip%3Anoframes" \o "Search for more with this title" Protection for semiconductor chip masks in the United States : analysis of the Semiconductor Chip Protection Act of 1984 ( USA, Munich : Deerfield Beach), [2004].  For a comparative overview see Sieber, Legal Protection of Computer Data, Programs and Semiconductor Products A Comparative Analysis with Suggestions for Legal Policy, in: International Chamber of Commerce (ed.), International Contracts for Sale of Information Services [1989] , pp. 7 et seq.  See the Austrian, Dutch, Finnish, German, Japanese and Swedish laws.  C. REEDS, op. cit. p. 200.  Id.  Id.  Id.  M. TAYLOR, ChildPornography: An Internet Crime ( NY, Maw Taylor), [ 2003]  Id.  The Convention on the Rights of the Child is the first legally binding international instrument to incorporate the full range of human rights civil and political rights as well as economic, social and cultural rights. Two Optional Protocols, on the involvement of children in armed conflict and on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography, were adopted to strengthen the provisions of the Convention in these areas. They entered into force, respectively on 12 February and 18 January 2002.  M. TAYLOR, op. cit. p. 3.  For example erotica can be described sexually explicit material that depicts adult men and women consensually involved in pleasurable, non-violent, non-degrading, sexual interactions. Whereas pornography might be thought to be depict activity that is non-consenting.  M. TAYLOR, op. cit. p. 75.  See Id.  See M. FREEARO, Investigating Child Exploitation and Pornography: The Internet, Law and Forensic Science (Elsevier Academic Press, London), [2005] p. 15.  Id.  Id.  For example Germany, Spain, Italy and Belgium.  For example the UK and the Republic of Ireland.  For example the USA.  Miller v. California. 314 US. 15 [1972].  Obscenity is a legal determination. For material to be absence, it must appeal to prurient interest: portray sexual conduct in a patently offensive manner as measured by community standards; and lack serious literary, artistic, political, scientific or other social value.  See M. FREEARO, op. cit. p. 16.  NewYork v. Ferber 458 US. 747.  See M. FREEARO, op. cit. p. 16.  Osborne v. Ohio 458 US. 103  See M. FREEARO, op. cit. p. 16.  E.g. Italy, Finland, and Luxembourg.  See U. SIEBER, op. cit p. 93.  E.g. Canada and Germany.  U. SIEBER, op. cit p. 93.  E.g. Germany, UK and Ireland.  E.g. Germany, Denmark and Norway.  E.g. Belgium, Austria and USA.  See U. SIEBER, op. cit p. 93.  M. D. GOODMAN and S. BRENNER, op. cit. p. 165.  See U. SIEBER, op. cit p. 33.  See M. D. GOODMAN and S. BRENNER, op. cit. p. 165.  See U. SIEBER, op. cit p. 33.  See United Nations Manuel on the Prevention and Control of Computer Related Crime, II (c) (2) 117 (1995).  Id.  See Council of Europe, Recommendation no. 4(89) 9 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on Computer-Related Crime.  Id.  See U. SIEBER, op. cit. See Eighth U.N Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders. Doc. A/CONF.144/L.11 of 4 September 1990 section 2.  On this point see OECD Recommendation on the Council concerning Guidelines for the Security of Information Systems [1992].  See OECD, Recommendation of the Council Concerning Guidelines for the Security of Information Systems [1992].  Id.  See United Nations Manuel on the Prevention and Control of Computer Related Crime.  Id.  See U. SIEBER, op. cit.  On this point see, Council of Europe adopted Recommendation No. R (95)13 of the Committee of Ministers to Member states, [1995].  Id.  See U. SIEBER, op. cit.  See Communication From the European Commission of the Council and the European Parliament Creating a Safer Information Society by Improving the Security of Information Infrastructures and Combating Computer Related Crime, [2000].  See M. D. GOODMAN and S. BRENNER, op. cit. p. 171.  Id.  See the Convention at: < HYPERLINK "http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/185.htm" http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/185.htm>.  Id.  See Group of Eight Meets to Discuss International Cooperation on Cybercrime, at: < HYPERLINK "http://www.computing.co.uk/news/1101275" http://www.computing.co.uk/news/1101275> (visited 06/04/2005).  See M. D. GOODMAN and S. BRENNER, op. cit. p. 173.  Id.  Id.  Id.  Id.  See D. SHINDER, op. cit. p. 35.  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