ࡱ> q` bjbjqPqP .::+$$$8 9 9 9 9<:|8]6:p4;4;4;4;QSQSQS]]]]]]]$^hdad;]E$T]RQSTT;]4;4;)]!\!\!\T44;$4;]!\T]!\!\$!\4;: PlQ 9W!\]]0]!\a[:a!\a$!\QS0S"!\SSQSQSQS;];]\QSQSQS]TTTT888.58885888 Solutions 1) Solute the stuff you are interested in Solvent - that which dissolves the stuff Solution the result Solid/liquid sugar water Liquid/liquid alcohol in water Gas/liquid carbon dioxide in water (soda pop) Solid/solid gold ring Liquid/solid jello Gas/ solid pumice stone (??) Solid/gas smoke Liquid gas fog Gas/ gas air REMEMBER A solution is a homogeneous mixture. You can vary its composition and you can mechanically separate the components. 2) Solutes can be Slightly Soluble Soluble Very soluble Insoluble not soluble Miscible - two liquids that dissolve in each other when they are mixed (acetic acid in water) Immiscible - two liquids that do not dissolve in each other when mixed (vinegar and oil salad dressing) Emulsion two liquids that mixed together that are usually immiscible (mayonnaise) Emulsifying agent A substance the links the two immiscible components together forming an emulsion (egg whites used to link vinegar and oil together ( mayonnaise) REMEMBER Solubility deals with how much will dissolve. Conditions that affect solubility include: a) Temperature goes up ( Solubility of Gas goes down ( Solubility of Solid generally increases ( Solubility of Liquid has little effect b) Pressure goes up ( Solubility of Gas goes up (can of soda) ( Solubility of Solid has no effect ( Solubility of Liquid has no effect c) Nature of solute and solvent- Likes dissolve Likes Ionic compounds are soluble in polar solvents - (NaCl in H2O) Non-polar compounds are soluble in non-polar solvents- (Grease in gasoline) 3) Rate of solution How fast a substance will dissolve a) agitation stirring dissolves sugar faster in water b) temperature - sugar dissolves faster in hot water c) particle size- big particles of sugar dissolve slower d) concentration - sugar dissolves slower in a solution that already contain sugar 4) Concentration - How much solute is dissolved in the solution a) Percent composition b) Molarity (2.5 M HCl = 2.5 moles HCl/1 Liter solution) 5) Strength a measure of ability a) Strong acids- HCl(aq) , HNO3(aq) , H2SO4(aq) Weak acids HC2H3O2(aq) , H2CO3(aq) , any other acid b) Strong bases- NaOH(aq) , KOH(aq) (metal hydroxides from Group IA) Weak bases Al(OH)3(aq) , NH4OH(aq) , any other base Concentrated Coffee not strong Coffee Dilute Tea not weak Tea 6) Solution types a) Unsaturated solvent can still dissolve more solute b) Saturated solvent can not dissolve any more solute c) Super saturated Solvent has dissolved more solute than it normally holds at a given temperature (Honey) 7) Electrolytes Aqueous solutions that conduct electricity Strong electrolytes Strong acids & bases, soluble salts Weak electrolytes Weak acids & bases Non-electrolytes DI water & toluene (organic compounds) 8) Colligative properties are dependent on the number of particles present Lowering of the vapor pressure Lowering of freezing point Increasing the boiling point Increasing the osmotic pressure Osmosis- passage of solvent through a semi-permeable membrane Osmotic pressure-pressure required to halt the flow of solvent molecules through a semi-permeable membrane Reverse osmosis-solvent flows through the semi-permeable membrane in the reverse direction due to an increase in the osmotic pressure Living Cells Isotonic solution- solution on the out-side of a cell has same osmotic pressure as the inside the cell. No effect Hypotonic solution If cell is surrounded by a solution of lower concentration of solute particles (lower osmotic pressure), water flows into the cell (plasmolysis) Hypertonic solution If cell is surrounded by a solution of higher concentration of solute particles (higher osmotic pressure), water flows out of the cell (crenation) Phase Diagram- H2O  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  Freezing point same as melting point = 0oC for H2O Boiling point same as condensation point = 100oC for H2O Boiling point is the temperature where the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the applied pressure. DHfusion = amount of energy required to convert 1.0 gram of stuff from a solid to a liquid. DHfusion H2O = 80 calories /gram. DHvaporization = amount of energy required to convert 1.0 gram of stuff from a liquid to a gas. DHvaporization H2O = 540 calories /gram. Calorie = amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of H2O one degree Celsius. BTU (British Thermal unit) = amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one pound of H2O one degree Fahrenheit. Specific Heat (H2O/Solid) = Sp Ht (H2O/Gas) = 0.50 cal/( g x oC) Specific Heat (H2O/Liquid) = 1.0 cal/( g x oC) 9) Hard water specifically contains Ca+2, Mg+2 or Fe+3 ions - precipitates form between these ions and carbonates Temporary hard water - specifically contains bicarbonate ions (HCO3-1) - boiling will remove the hardness Ca(HCO3)2(aq) ( CaCO3(s) + (H2CO3 = H2O(l) + CO2(g) ) 10) Soap a link between polar water and non-polar oil drops acid + base ( salt + water Lard + boiled wood ashes ( soap + water stearic acid + sodium hydroxide ( sodium stearate + water C17H35COOH(s) + NaOH(aq) ( Na+1C17H35COO-1(aq) + H2O(l) The Effect of Hard water on soap 2Na+1C17H35COO-1(aq) + CaCl2(aq) ( Ca(C17H35COO) 2(s) + 2NaCl(l) Lost soap Bath tub Scum 11) Water of hydration CuSO4.5H2O copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate CoCl2. 6H2O cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate Hygroscopic gains H2O from atmosphere Deliquescent - gains H2O from atmosphere & turns to a liquid-like solution Efflorescent loses H2O to atmosphere Dessicant (Drying Agent)- used to keep chemicals dry in a dessicator 12) Acid-Base reactions Neutralization reactions Double Replacement Reactions Acid + base ( salt + water HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ( NaCl(aq) + HOH(aq) NaCl is the Salt of the Base NaOH NaCl is the Salt of the Acid HCl and Ba3(PO4)2 is the salt of the Base-Ba(OH)2 and the acid-H3PO4 Primary Standard- 1) Usually solid 2) High molecular mass 3) Stable at 100oC 4) High purity Indicator- Phenolphthalein Acid/colorless Neutral/colorless Base/pink Indicators tell when the titration is over 13) Buffers resist changes in pH (see pH/pOH calculations) a) Sodium bicarbonate neutralizes an acid NaHCO3 + HCl ( NaCl + H2CO3 ( H2CO3 ( H2O + CO2) b) Sodium bicarbonate neutralizes a base NaHCO3 + NaOH ( Na2CO3 + H2O In both cases the sodium bicarbonate either removes H+1 or OH-1 from the solution. This is how a buffer works. Blood is a very complex buffer system with a pH of about 7.4 The primary buffer is a mix of H2CO3 (H2O(l) and CO2(g) ) and HCO3-1. Stoichiometry a) Mass-Mass Problems 1) Balance the reaction 2) Calculate the molecular mass of the known and the unknown 3) Calculate the number of moles of known 4) Calculate the number of moles of unknown 5) Calculate the number of grams of unknown Grams known ( moles known ( moles unknown ( grams unknown  MM of Known Balanced MM of unknown Reaction Example Calculate the mass of nitrogen needed to make 34 grams of ammonia. 1) Balance the reaction: N2 + 3H2 ( 2NH3 2) Calculate the molecular mass of the known and the unknown: known  HYPERLINK "mailto:1N@14.0" 1N@14.0 = 14.0 unknown 2N @ 14 = 28 g N2  HYPERLINK "mailto:3H@1.0" 3H @ 1.0 = 3.0 1 mole N2 17 g NH3 mole NH3 3) Calculate the number of moles of known: (34 grams NH3)(1mole NH3/17 grams NH3) = 2 moles NH3 4) Calculate the number of moles of unknown: (2 moles NH3) ( 1 mole N2 / 2 moles NH3) = 1 mole N2 5) Calculate the number of grams of unknown: (1 mole N2)(28 grams N2/mole N2) = 28 grams N2 All Together grams N2 = (34 grams NH3) (1mole NH3) ( 1 mole N2) (28 grams N2) = 28 grams N2 (17 grams NH3) (2 moles NH3) (1 mole N2) b) Molarity = moles solute/ Liter solution 2.0 moles NaOH/ 1 Liter solution = 2.0 molar NaOH = 2.0 M NaOH Calculate molarity (moles/Liter) Convert: Liters ( moles ( grams Grams ( moles ( Liters c) Dilution Conc1 x Vol1 = Conc2 X Vol2 d) Percent composition = (grams solute/grams solution) x 100 Convert grams solute (( grams solution grams solute ( ( grams solvent grams solvent ( ( grams solution e) pH / pOH / [H+1] / [OH-1] 1) acid pH =-Log [H+1] [H+1] is the concentration of hydrogen ions in moles/Liter 2) base pOH =-Log [OH-1] [OH-1] is the concentration of hydroxide ions in moles/Liter  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  3) Acid [H+1] = 10-pH 4) Base [OH-1] = 10-pOH  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  5) acid/base pH + pOH = 14  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  Triple Point 4.58 mm of mercury 0.0098 oC Gas Liquid Solid Critical Temperature = 647.6 K Critical Pressure = 217.7 atm Vapor Pressure Temperature Calculator work 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