ࡱ> `` cbjbj 4Wj:j:j:j:><I2<p VFVFVF G#U2 Uad${hzfT#UffVF Gi hhhfVF Ghfhh J G< zj:yg:$0I ]yg`]t]$ffhfffffhfffIffffd!f'f' Linear Algebra Basics Introduction The name from matrix laboratory says it all: Matlab was designed from the get-go to work with matrices. It even treats individual numbers as matrices. The upside is that its easier to handle complex calculations, the downside is that you really need to have a certain comfort level with a few concepts and techniques from linear algebra. The following is intended provide you with what you need to know about matrix arithmetic, the matrix transpose, matrix inverses, and powers of matrices Matrices, vectors, and scalars A matrix is simply a rectangular (or square) array of numbers arranged in rows and columns. In fact, the term array is used pretty much interchangeably with matrix. Programmers tend to use array, while mathematicians and biologists tend to use matrix. The entries in a matrix are termed elements of the matrix. A general representation of a matrix (well call it A) would be:  EMBED Equation.3  where the as represent the elements, usually but not always numerical, of the matrix. The elements of a matrix are usually enclosed in brackets, as above, or sometimes parentheses. The subscripts r and c are used here to emphasize that the first number in a matrix elements subscript represents its row number and the second represents its column number. In the real world, i and j are the standard subscripts, and we will adhere to that usage from now on. Examples of matrices include:  EMBED Equation.3 : a 2(2 matrix; an example of a square matrix. EMBED Equation.3 :a 3(3 matrix; another square matrix. EMBED Equation.3 : a 2(3 rectangular matrix EMBED Equation.3 :a 3(2 rectangular matrix EMBED Equation.3 : a 1(4 matrix; an example of a row vector. EMBED Equation.3 :a 4(1 matrix; an example of a column vector. Once you start working with Matlab, you will quickly encounter the terms column dimension and row dimension. These terms are not part of standard linear algebra jargon, and their use in Matlab is perhaps unfortunate, because the term dimension has a specific and very different meaning in linear algebra (which you will also encounter when working with Matlab). Nevertheless, the terms are useful in the context of matrix manipulations, for example when applying the Matlab sum command to the matrix  EMBED Equation.3 , we can instruct Matlab to generate the three column sums as follows: sum(A,1) =  EMBED Equation.3  where we have summed along the row dimension ( = dimension 1) to produce a 3(1 row vector. Similarly, we can generate the three row sums by summing along the column dimension (dimension 2): sum(A,2) =  EMBED Equation.3  to produce a 1(3 column vector Something to note, here: youre probably accustomed to entering data into columns of an Excel spreadsheet, hitting the key after each entry to drop down to the next row. Data entry in Excel is thus equivalent to creating column vectors. In contrast, you will probably find that data entry in Matlab is best done in the form of row vectors, which brings us to an important Matlab technique: concatenation. Concatenation basically means the joining of two or more arrays to produce one. Thus, the matrix  EMBED Equation.3  could be thought of as the concatenation along the column dimension in Matlab-speak):of the three column vectors: a1 EMBED Equation.3 , a2 EMBED Equation.3  and a3 EMBED Equation.3 , or as the three row vectors: a1  EMBED Equation.3 , a2  EMBED Equation.3 and a3  EMBED Equation.3 . concatenated along the row dimension: Concatenation is readily accomplished in Matlab, and is typically used to merge complementary sets of data from different sources, including the results of calculations that have been performed by different programs or parts of programs. Youll be able to work with Matlab more efficiently if you can train yourself to think of matrices as concatenated column or row vectors, so lets concatenate:  EMBED Equation.3 , to see how concatenation works, and to get you started thinking in Matlab. The Matlab command cat(,A,B) concatenates matrices A and B along the dimension, row or column, that you specify. Thus, cat(1,A,B) causes concatenation of A and B along the row dimension and yields  EMBED Equation.3  while cat(2,A,B) concatenates along the column dimension and yields  EMBED Equation.3  If youve ever tried to work with arrays in a programming language such as C/C++ or Java, youre probably starting to appreciate how easy matrix manipulations are to carry out with Matlab! Diagonal and Triangular Matrices These are special forms of square matrices. The elements of a matrix for which i = j are referred to as the diagonal elements of the matrix, while the other elements (i ( j) are referred to as the off-diagonal elements. Thus, in the matrix  EMBED Equation.3  the diagonal elements are 9, 7, and 2. A specific type of diagonal in which all of the off-diagonal elements are zero:  EMBED Equation.3  is termed a diagonal matrix. Diagonal matrices are extremely useful in a variety of modeling contexts. The trace of a matrix is the sum of its diagonal elements. Thus, the trace for the above matrix is 18. Triangular matrices come in two forms: upper triangular, in which all of the elements below the diagonal are zero,  EMBED Equation.3  and lower, in which zeros comprise all of the elements above the diagonal:  EMBED Equation.3  Although we will probably not have much use for triangular matrices in this course, execution of Matlab code can be dramatically increased by their incorporation into models. The Identity Matrix One especially important diagonal matrix is termed the identity matrix. The identity matrix is, of course, always a square matrix, and its diagonal elements are all ones, while its off-diagonal elements are all zeros. A 4(4 identity matrix would thus look like this:  EMBED Equation.3  The identity matrix is the functional equivalent of the number 1, because multiplying a matrix by its identity matrix yields the same matrix. I.e.,  EMBED Equation.3 . The Transpose of a Matrix The transpose of a matrix is an important construct that is frequently encountered when working with matrices, and is represented variously by AT, A(, Atr, tA, or rarely EMBED Equation.3 . Most linear algebra texts use AT, while Matlab and a number of publications use A(. For that reason, well generally use A( to represent the transpose of a matrix. Operationally, the transpose of a matrix is created by converting of its rows into the corresponding columns of its transpose, meaning the first row of a matrix becomes the first column of its transpose, the second row becomes the second column, and so on. Thus, if  EMBED Equation.3 , the transpose of A is  EMBED Equation.3  Depending on where you go with mathematical biology, you may not have much need for matrix transposes, but taking the transpose of vector is something you will do frequently when working with Matlab. For example, as stated earlier, its generally easier to enter data into Matlab as row vectors, but your model may require that your data be in column vector form or you may more simply be more comfortable working with column vectors. In either case, go ahead and enter your data as a row vector, then take its transpose to get your column vector. Practice Problems: Calculate the transpose of the following:  EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3  HYPERLINK \l "transpose_sol"solution Matrix Addition & Subtraction: Matrix addition is straightforward. Mathematically, we express C = A + B as  EMBED Equation.3  meaning you simply sum the corresponding elements of A and B to get the elements of C. Thus, if  EMBED Equation.3  and  EMBED Equation.3 , summing the two matrices yields  EMBED Equation.3  For subtraction, you simply subtract the corresponding elements:  EMBED Equation.3  Practice Problem Calculate  EMBED Equation.3 and  EMBED Equation.3 for the following:  EMBED Equation.3   HYPERLINK \l "addsub_sol" solution Matrix Multiplication: Scalar Multiplication In linear algebra, individual numbers are referred to as scalars, from the Latin word for ladder. Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar proceeds element-by-element, with the scalar being multiplied by each element in turn. Mathematically, we express multiplication of a matrix A by a scalar as  EMBED Equation.3  where c is the scalar. Thus, multiplication by the scalar 3 is accomplished as:  EMBED Equation.3  Multiplication of Matrices Multiplication of one matrix by another is more complicated than scalar multiplication, and is carried out in accordance with a strict rule. Mathematically, if C is a matrix resulting from the multiplication of two matrices, A and B, then the elements cij of C are given by:  EMBED Equation.3  Equation 1 where k = 1, 2,, n is the number of columns in A and the number of rows in B. Look carefully at the subscripts of a and b, and note that Equation 1 requires that the number of columns in the left-hand matrix must be the same as the number of rows in the right-hand matrix. Also note that Equation 1 tells us that the product matrix has i rows and j columns. What does Equation 1 mean? Well, if we wish to calculate the product of two matrices A and B:  EMBED Equation.3  and  EMBED Equation.3 , then n = 3, and the product C = AB is defined by Equation 1 as:  EMBED Equation.3  In other words, you multiply each of the elements of a row in the left-hand matrix by the corresponding elements of a column in the right-hand matrix (thats why the number of elements in the row and the column must be equal), and then sum the resulting n products to obtain one element in the product matrix. The choice of the row and column to be used in the multiplication and summation is based on which element of the product matrix ( C ) that you wish to calculate: The left-hand matrix row you work with is the same as the row of the product matrix element you wish to calculate. The right-hand matrix column you work with is the same as the column of the product matrix element you wish to calculate. For example, suppose you define the matrix C as the product of the two 3(3 matrices, A and B, shown above. If you wish to calculate the value of  EMBED Equation.3 ,  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  you work element-by-element across the first row of the left-hand matrix and element-by-element down the first column of the right-hand matrix as follows:  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  Similarly, to calculate the value of  EMBED Equation.3   SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  you work across the second row of the left-hand matrix and down the third column of the right-hand matrix:  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  Example: find the product of two matrices, A and B. Let  EMBED Equation.3  and  EMBED Equation.3 . We first note that multiplication of A by B is allowed by Equation 1 because the number of columns in A is the same as the number of rows in B, which allows us to calculate C = AB as:  EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3  Example: What about multiplication of vectors? For example, suppose you wanted to calculate the product of two vectors, F =  EMBED Equation.3  and G =  EMBED Equation.3 . Well, a quick look at Equation 1 shows that the following possible setups cannot be used for vector multiplication:  EMBED Equation.3 ,  EMBED Equation.3 , and  EMBED Equation.3  because of mismatch between the number of columns in the left-hand matrix and the number of rows in the right-hand matrix. The only allowable combination is:  EMBED Equation.3  Note that we took the transpose of G in order to match the number of columns and rows, as required by Equation 1. Also note that the product of vector multiplication is a scalar. Finally, the two matrices being multiplied dont have to be square, or even the same size. All thats required is that the number of columns in the left-hand matrix be the same as the number of rows in the right-hand matrix. Practice Problems: For each of the following, determine whether the indicated multiplication is allowed and, if it is, calculate the corresponding product matrix: a.  EMBED Equation.3  b.  EMBED Equation.3  c.  EMBED Equation.3  d.  EMBED Equation.3  e.  EMBED Equation.3   HYPERLINK \l "mult_sol" solutions  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  There are certain situations in which matrix multiplication is commutative, such as multiplication of vectors and multiplication by the identity matrix.. But, except for those special cases, you have to be careful about how you set up any problem that involves matrix multiplication. If you arent, your Matlab program may crash or, worse, you may end up with results that look good but are not valid. You must write your Matlab code with this in mind. I cannot stress this too strongly. Practice Problem: Verify the non-commutivity of matrix multiplication for yourself by calculating AB and BA for the matrices:  EMBED Equation.3   HYPERLINK \l "mult_comm_sol" solution Now, just for fun, confirm the assertion that vector multiplication is commutative, using vectors of your own choosing, composed of at least 3 elements. Practice Problems: Multiplication By the Identity Matrix I earlier asserted that the identity matrix was the matrix equivalent of the number 1 because the result of multiplication of any matrix by its corresponding identity matrix is simply the matrix itself. That is, for any matrix A,  EMBED Equation.3 . Check this assertion by multiplying the following matrices by their corresponding identity matrix (while youre at it, check to see if multiplication involving the identity matrix is indeed commutative):  EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3   HYPERLINK \l "mult_inv_sol" solutions Question: how are those last two matrices related? Also, convince yourself that multiplication by the identity matrix is commutative Matrix Division In terms of the way we usually think of division of numbers, there really isnt such a thing as matrix division. That is, in contrast with the quotient EMBED Equation.3 , the matrix quotient  EMBED Equation.3  isnt defined. To see why this is true, suppose you were presented with the following:  EMBED Equation.3  How would you proceed? Well, you might think that, analogous with the operation of addition, dividing each element of A by the corresponding element of B might be the way to go. Lets try it, using  EMBED Equation.3  and  EMBED Equation.3  Element-wise division of A by B yields  EMBED Equation.3  which might seem a reasonable result. However, recalling that if  EMBED Equation.3 , then  EMBED Equation.3  (or,  EMBED Equation.3 , since matrix multiplication isnt commutative), lets check our result by carrying out both possible multiplications of B and C. This results in the following:  EMBED Equation.3  and  EMBED Equation.3  Clearly, element-wise division of two matrices does not accomplish what we intended when we set up the quotient  EMBED Equation.3 . It turns out that the functional equivalent of matrix division is defined, but its even less straightforward than multiplication. To understand matrix division, recall that there are three ways that division of numbers may be represented. For example, division of 7 by 3 can be represented (and carried out) as follows:  EMBED Equation.3  Likewise for variables:  EMBED Equation.3  And therein lies the clue to how we can accomplish matrix division: with  EMBED Equation.3  undefined per se, we take advantage of the fact that matrix multiplication is defined and carry out matrix division by multiplying the dividend matrix by the inverse of the divisor matrix. Thus, we express the quotient of two matrices, EMBED Equation.3 , as  EMBED Equation.3  where  EMBED Equation.3 represents the inverse of matrix B. Lets illustrate this using A and B. First, we need the inverse of B. You can HYPERLINK "matrix_inverse.doc"calculate the inverse for yourself, or you can accept my word that the inverse of B is:  EMBED Equation.3  With B-1 in hand, we then accomplish the division of A by B as follows:  EMBED Equation.3  and, if we check our result by carrying out the multiplication CB, we get:  EMBED Equation.3  So, the technique works. The technique is readily extended to larger matrices; all you need is the inverse of the divisor matrix. And therein lies the rub: not all matrices are invertible, so not all matrices can be used as divisors. First of all, only square matrices can be inverted. Inverses of vectors and rectangular matrices are not defined, so division involving vectors or rectangular matrices is not possible. But, theres a more insidious problem, one that can and probably will give you fits from time-to-time when youre developing and running models. Consider the following:  EMBED Equation.3  If you try to HYPERLINK "matrix_inverse.doc"calculate the inverse of matrix F, you will find that the result is  EMBED Equation.3  which renders the product  EMBED Equation.3 meaningless, because its a matrix whose elements are all precisely zero, no matter what the values of the elements of the E might be. A matrix such as F whose inverse consists entirely of infinite elements is said to be singular, and mathematicians, clever devils that they are, sidestep the problem by stating that a singular matrix cannot be inverted, or equivalently, that its inverse does not exist. Fortunately, truly singular matrices are not frequently encountered in mathematical biology. But, matrices that are close enough to singular to cause significant problems can be produced under many modeling scenarios. To appreciate this, lets look at the result of telling Matlab to divide E by F as presented above. Do that, and instead of a numerical result you get the following message: >> C = E/F Warning: Matrix is singular to working precision. ans = Inf Inf Inf Inf indicating that you have tried to divide one matrix (E) by a singular matrix (F) whose inverse doesnt exist. So far, so good; Matlab has made you aware of the problem. But, theres potential for disaster lurking in that phrase singular to working precision. It refers to the inherent limit on the accuracy of computer arithmetic that results from the way computers store and work with numbers, a topic that well delve into deeply during lab sessions next fall. Suffice for now to point out that if we were to increase just one of the elements of F by only 2(10-15, say from 5.4 to 5.400000000000002, Matlab will blithely go ahead and calculate an answer that might look reasonable at first glance, and give no warning at all that theres a potential problem. Because of its significance for computer modeling well spend a fair amount of lab time investigating the causes and ramifications of this situation. One consequence is that you need to be extremely wary when your models include operations involving matrix division. Powers of Matrices The need to take powers of matrices arises frequently in biological models, for example in models of population dynamics and models involving Markov processes. We will confine ourselves to the situation where the power is a integer, positive or negative, and proceed by first recalling that the nth power (n a positive integer) of a number or a variable is simply the number multiplied by itself n - 1 times. Similarly, the nth power (n a negative integer) of a number or a variable is simply the reciprocal, or inverse, of its nth power (n positive). Thus,  EMBED Equation.3 ,  EMBED Equation.3 ,  EMBED Equation.3 ,  EMBED Equation.3 , while  EMBED Equation.3 ,  EMBED Equation.3 , and so on.. Its pretty much the same when working with matrices. If A is a square matrix, then  EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3  and so on. (why wont it work with a rectangular matrix?) Also, as with numbers and variables,  EMBED Equation.3  and  EMBED Equation.3  Sources for more information: If you want to learn more about linear algebra, or just would like an alternate presentation of any of the above topics, here are some useful URLs:  HYPERLINK "http://www.sosmath.com/matrix/matrix.html" http://www.sosmath.com/matrix/matrix.html  HYPERLINK "http://www.math.ucdavis.edu/~daddel/linear_algebra_appl/OTHER_PAGES/other_pages.html" http://www.math.ucdavis.edu/~daddel/linear_algebra_appl/OTHER_PAGES/other_pages.html  HYPERLINK "http://pax.st.usm.edu/cmi/mat-linalg_html/linal.html" http://pax.st.usm.edu/cmi/mat-linalg_html/linal.html And, of course, Googling the appropriate terms or phrases will bring up a wealth of information, especially with respect to applications, Matlab scripts, etc. Solutions to Practice Problems Matrix transpose  EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3   HYPERLINK \l "transpose" return Matrix addition & subtraction  EMBED Equation.3   HYPERLINK \l "addsub" return Matrix Multiplication a. Multiplication is allowed: answer =  EMBED Equation.3  b. Multiplication is allowed: answer =  EMBED Equation.3  c. Multiplication is not allowed. d. Multiplication is allowed: answer =  EMBED Equation.3  (what kind of matrix is this? What does this result suggest about the relationship between the two matrices?) e. Multiplication is not allowed.  HYPERLINK \l "mult" return Matrix multiplication isnt commutative  EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3   HYPERLINK \l "mult_comm" return Multiplication by the identity matrix AI =  EMBED Equation.3  AI =  EMBED Equation.3  AI =  EMBED Equation.3   HYPERLINK \l "mult_inv" return  EMBED Equation.3  EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3  (  EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3  EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3  (  EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3  IMPORTANT Commutivity of Matrix Operations This may strike you but as a little arcane ok, perhaps as a lot arcane but its essential that you understand the concept of commutivity. A mathematical operation applied to two or more numbers or variables is said to be commutative if the result is independent of the order in which the operation is carried out. Thus: 3 + 4 = 4 + 3 = 7 3 - 4 = -4 + 3 = -1 3 ( 4 = 4 ( 3 = 12 which we take for granted in our everyday lives. The same is true of matrix addition and subtraction, but and this has important ramifications for your work with Matlab matrix multiplication is generally not commutative: that is, if A and B are two matrices, in general  EMBED Equation.3 . The significance of this is that the ordering of matrices is important when youre setting up the calculation of their product. 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