ࡱ>  a :BjbjbYQYQ / 3333xn! < xP8\LPg*:222jTd"4(((((((,A-R/X(9VffVV(n2247)tnnnV4 22(nt t(V(nn2|%D( '.D()g*>'0n0\D(nPPkjPP Chapter 6 The Athletic Department and the University Simply put, success in football is essential for the success of Louisiana State University. LSU Chancellor Mark Emmert There is an arms race in college sports the only thing worse than being in an arms race is not being in the arms race. Bob Bowlsby, University of Iowa Athletic Director Any time you can name the head of a university before you can name the head coach, youve got a problem at that football program. Danny Sheridan, sports analyst Positive name recognition [from athletics success] has been very helpful. But I wouldnt say it has been the main factor [in increased enrollment}. Steven Sample, President of the University of Southern California 6.1 Introduction In his presidential address to the 2005 NCAA convention (see Box 6.1), Myles Brand referred to the athletics spending spiral occurring at DI institutions. He voiced concern about the growing trend of athletic departments becoming financially independent from the university and he stressed that athletics must be fully integrated into the educational mission of the university. President Brands comments reflect the main concerns of this chapter: the apparent unrestrained growth in athletic department budgets, the consequences of that growth, and the proper relationship between the athletic department and the university. 6.2 Growth of the Athletic Department While operating expenditures of athletic departments at DI universities are a small percentage of total university spending (usually in the range of 1-4%), they are growing about twice as fast as university expenditures as a whole (Brady and Upton, 2005). Athletics budgets are increasing because athletics directors and coaches are convinced that greater spending results in greater sports success which then causes an increased flow of revenues to the university. The problem is that if the other schools are doing the same thing, then they will have to increase the budget even further to have the anticipated effect. As universities attempt to outspend one another, an arms race occurs. As noted in Chapter 2, it is not just athletic directors and coaches who advocate bigger sports programs; many university presidents also favor increased investment in athletics. The latter believe that greater investment in sports causes undergraduate enrollment and the academic quality of entering students to increase. In addition, alumni donations are expected to increase with athletic success. Thus, athletics is thought to generate revenues to both the athletic department, through sources such as increased ticket and merchandise sales, and to the university, from increased undergraduate enrollments and donations. For example, consider the football programs at Boise State University and the University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP). Because Boise States 11-0 record in 2004 resulted in considerable coverage by ESPN and other media, the university claimed that applications by out-of-state students rose 20%, donations to the university foundation rose, sales of university merchandise at the bookstore increased 66%, and season ticket sales for football increased roughly 60% (Buker, 2005). According to UTEP, three winning seasons, and a trip to the Houston Bowl in December 2004, helped contribute to a six-year increase in enrollment from 14,695 to 19,264 (Adams, 2005). Fast fact. Boise States participation in the 2007 Fiesta Bowl against Oklahoma was only the second time that a team from outside the six powerhouse conferences appeared in a BCS bowl game. In 2005, Utah played in the Fiesta bowl against Pittsburgh. Boise State is in the Western Athletic Conference and Utah is in the Mountain West Conference. Not everyone believes that athletics spending is a magic bullet that guarantees institution-wide success. Faculty members, arguing in terms of misplaced priorities and opportunity costs, often criticize the special status granted to sports and the size of athletics budgets relative to other departments. They suggest that an emphasis on sports can compromise the educational mission of the institution as well as its reputation. They also point out that every dollar from the universitys budget that supports the athletic department is one less dollar for academic programs. Expenditures that increase academic quality may have an even greater effect on enrollments and donations than dollars spent on athletics. This opportunity cost argument has become especially powerful at public universities where reduced support from state legislatures has placed them schools in a financial bind. Box 6.1 Excerpt from NCAA President Myles Brands 2005 address this mounting financial problem threatens the integrity of the university. When the public both local and en masse begin to believe that the value of the institution is to be measured by the success of its athletics teams, the core mission of the university is threatened. The central role of the faculty is ignored in favor of winning the big game or recruiting the next young man with athletics star potential. And the ability of the university to successfully educate and push forward the boundaries of knowledge and the creative arts is compromised. The popular view is that you have to increase spending to increase wins, and you have to increase wins to increase revenues. However, a major NCAA-funded economic study released last year shows no correlation at least over the medium term, that is, about a decade that this view is correct. The study found no correlation between increased spending and increased winning or between increased winning and increased revenues. But these data and results have made little difference. The spending spiral has not abated, and the strong if mistaken belief that spending more than your competitors will lead to increased winning has propelled athletics departments to increase expendituresno matter the facts. The behavior is irrational in light of the available evidence, but there it is, nonetheless. From a practical perspective, it doesnt work. About 40 of the approximately 325 Division I institutions claim that they operate athletics in the black. I am skeptical. When all the costs are taken into account, including facilities and physical plant, academic support, grants-in-aid partially absorbed by the general fund, and hidden subsidies, I suspect the number that genuinely balance expenses with revenues is not much more than a dozen. Source: Brand (2005) One prominent faculty critic is Murray Sperber, a former Professor of English at Indiana University, now retired. He not only challenges the belief that athletics benefits the university financially but he levels an even more serious indictment: universities promote athletics in order to distract undergraduates from thinking about the poor education they are receiving (we discuss Sperbers perspective, which he calls beer and circus, in Section 6.9). Advocacy groups such as the Knight Foundation Commission on Intercollegiate Athletics, the Coalition on Intercollegiate Athletics, and the Drake Group among many others offer numerous criticisms of the current state of collegiate sports and proposals to reform it (you will learn about the activities of these groups in Chapter 9). Even the broadcast and print media seem to be paying more attention to questions about the wisdom of pumping more and more resources into sports rather than academic programs (Bolt, 2001). One reaction by the athletic department is to insulate itself from, or deflect, these criticisms by attaining financial independence from the university. As an example, consider the University of Oregon. In the 1980s concerns about the financial health of the University led to speculation that drastic changes would soon be imposed on its athletic department, including a reduction in the number of varsity sports and dropping out of the Pac-10 Conference (Sperber, 2000, 57-59). Not only were these draconian proposals never implemented, the university instead committed to making sports one of its highest priorities. This strategy appears to be paying off; the University of Oregons athletic department currently has a budget of roughly $40 million a year, requires no financial support from the university, has significant donations from alumni and non-alumni (one of its biggest contributors is Phil Knight of Nike), and is one of the most envied and recognized sports programs in the nation. Given numerous concerns across the nation about college sports draining resources away from the university and compromising the academic mission of the school, you might expect Oregons initiative, and those of other schools, to be applauded by President Brand. Instead, he is critical even though he acknowledges that the philosophy of DI is that each member institution should strive to finance its athletics programs insofar as possible from revenues generated from the program itself. 6.3 The Athletic Department Budget Revenues Table 6.1 lists the revenue sources at the average DI school in fiscal year 2001. The six biggest items (not including the category miscellaneous) are ticket sales, cash contributions from alumni and others, institutional support, NCAA and conference distributions, radio/television broadcasting, and student activity fees. The same pattern generally applies to individual DI schools; for example, Table 6.2 presents revenue information for the University of Oregon in 2004-2005. Rather then discussing each budget item individually we will instead highlight those sources of revenue we believe are most important, the most interesting, or the ones that may be unfamiliar to you. Table 6.1 Revenue Sources for DI-A Institutions in 2003 Category Percent of Revenue Ticket Sales Public/Faculty/Staff 26 Students 1 Total 27 Postseason Competition Bowl games 2 Tournaments 1 Total 3 NCAA and Conference Distributions 9 Student Activity Fees 6 Appearance Guarantees 3Category Percent of Revenue Donations 18 Direct Government Support 1 Institutional Support 10 Other Concessions 2 Radio and Television 7 Program sales and advertising 0 Signage and sponsorships 4 Sports camps 1 Miscellaneous 7 Total 22 Total 100 Source: Fulks (2005, p. 45) Table 6.2 Revenues for the University of Oregon, 2004-05 Category Total Revenue Percentage Ticket Sales $12,151,382 30.4 NCAA and Conference Distributions $6,009,809 15.0 Student Activity Fees $1,369,845 3.4 Guarantees $1,498,129 3.7 Donations $11,651,406 29.1 Institutional Support $0 0 Other Concessions $1,001,138 2.5 Advertising and sponsorships $2,154,291 5.4 Investments and endowments $165,000 0.4 Sports camps $888,084 2.2 Miscellaneous $3,087,551 7.7 Total $39,976,635 100.0 Source: IndyStar.com (http://www2.indystar.com/NCAA_financial_reports/) The postseason is actually responsible for more than the three percent indicated in Table 6.1. Recall from Chapter 2 that the NCAA collects all the broadcast and ticket revenue for the lucrative mens basketball tournament. At the end of the fiscal year, the money is distributed to member institutions, with the largest share going to schools in Division I. While the NCAA uses a formula based in part on each schools recent performance in the tournament, the money paid to the schools will be reported as an NCAA distribution, not a direct payment for that years tournament appearance. For football bowl games, the money paid to participating schools usually turned over to the conferences. In most cases, a portion is set aside to reimburse the bowl participants costs and the remainder is shared with other members of the conference. For most schools, postseason bowl revenue will appear as a distribution from its conference. Revenue from television and radio also appears in more than one category. For the major football bowl games and the mens basketball tournament, television broadcast rights are the largest revenue source. As just noted, these payments can appear in either the Distributions or Postseason categories. For regular season games, the conferences and schools negotiate directly with the networks. Some games will be covered by contracts with the conferences (e.g., Pac 10 Game of the Week), but individual schools can sell the rights to the remaining games. As above, the conferences will use a formula to distribute the proceeds of their network contracts. This portion of a schools revenue will likely be reported as Conference Distributions, while payments from its own broadcast contracts will be in the Radio and Television subcategory. No matter how they are reported, broadcast rights are an important revenue source for athletic departments due to both their total magnitude and the fact that television revenue is predictable ... [while] other revenue streams, such as gate receipts are highly variable (Duderstadt, 2000, p. 128). Because of the significance of television broadcasting rights, and the complexities involved both in the evolution of the relationship between the NCAA and the television networks (and also between the NCAA and the conferences), we defer further discussion about the revenues generated from media broadcasting until the next chapter. Now we turn to ticket sales. 6.3.1 Ticket sales At the premier programs, tickets for football and mens and womens basketball are usually hard to come by. While most schools designate some tickets for students at little or nominal fee, athletics programs increasingly view ticket sales as a vital revenue stream, a flow of revenues that they seek to maximize with little regard for ticket availability to the student body. As other revenue sources have increased, the percentage of total revenue accounted for by ticket sales has decreased (from 59% in 1969 to 27% in 2003), but it is still the largest revenue line item. To maximize this revenue, universities are adopting many ticketing innovations pioneered by professional sports franchises. These innovations include personal seat licenses, differential pricing by opponent, club seating and luxury boxes. A personal seat license (or PSL for short) represents a payment for the option to buy a season ticket. For example, if you want to buy a season ticket for football at the University of Michigan you must first pay a fee of between $125 and $500. After buying the PSL you must still pay the per game ticket price of $50. Fans are usually required to buy a PSL for a minimum number of years, so a $500 annual fee can mean an up front payment of as much as $5,000. If the holder of the PSL decides to stop buying season tickets after five of the ten years, they forfeit the PSL with no refund. See Table 6.3 for more examples of prices of PSLs and game tickets. There are a number of variations on the basic PSL. In some cases, a PSL is required to buy a season ticket anywhere in the stadium or arena, while some schools only require a license for the best seats. For example, 25 percent of the seats in the Texas Tech basketball arena require a PSL. Season tickets for the rest can be purchased without a PSL, and any seats in the premium section that are not purchased by a PSL holder are sold on the week of the game (and at a higher price than the PSL holder paid). Table 6.3 Personal Seat Licenses School Annual PSL Cost Per-Game Ticket Price Iowa $50-600 $46 LSU 100-500 37 Miami 75-500 36 Michigan 125-500 50 Oklahoma State 100-2,500 49 Tennessee 250-2,500 42 Source: Adams (2006b). PSLs are an example of price discrimination. You probably recall from microeconomics that price discrimination occurs when the same product is sold to different buyers at different prices. If you take your Grandmother and your 8-year old niece to see a movie, the price for your ticket will be higher than those for Granny and your niece. This is because the movie theater recognizes that individuals have different price elasticities of demand. The group of customers that will not significantly reduce their quantity demanded if the price is increased (inelastic demand) will be charged more, while those that are most sensitive to the price (elastic demand) will be charged less. This strategy increases the theatres revenue and profits. This example of third degree price discrimination is illustrated in Figure 6.1. Your Granny and niece would be in group #2, while you are in group #1. The prices are set to maximize total profit (the shaded area), which corresponds to the point on each demand curve above the quantity where MR = MC. This situation could be applied to ticket sales for college football or basketball games, where the two groups of customers are adults and students. In this scenario, would the adults be group #1 or #2? Figure 6.1 Third Degree Price Discrimination  PSLs represent a two-part tariff, which is a type of second degree price discrimination. Suppose that a ten-year PSL costs $5,000 and the price of a season ticket is $1,000. If a fan buys just season tickets for all ten years, the total price per season is $1,500 (or ($5,000 + $10,000)/10). However, if the fan only buys tickets for the first five seasons, the price per season is $2,000 (or ($5,000 + $5,000)/5). The more you seasons you buy tickets for, the lower the price. This is an example of a quantity discount, which is the defining feature of second degree discrimination. Customers with higher and less elastic demand will buy a larger quantity, resulting in a lower price than that paid by those with lower and more elastic demand. What is the optimal combination of PSL and season ticket prices? A high PSL/low ticket price will lead to a significant decline in the total price per season as the number of seasons increases. This will convince more customers, particularly those that are price sensitive, to buy season tickets for all ten years. In economic terms, the low price per season ticket increases their quantity demanded (convinces them to attend for more seasons) and increases their consumer surplus. However, the school is able to turn around and extract much of the value of the increased consumer surplus by charging a high price for the PSL. Consumers are better off because of the lower ticket price, but must share all or part of that gain with the school. Figure 6.2 below shows that setting the price for season tickets at the point where MR=MC and capturing the resulting consumer surplus via a PSL (Fig. 6.2a) results in less total profit than setting the price equal to marginal cost (the competitive price) and capturing the much larger consumer surplus (Fig. 6.2b). Profits directly from season ticket sales have dropped to zero, but they are more than replaced by the high PSL fee. Figure 6.2  The difficulty for colleges is that all fans do not have the same demand for tickets. Figure 6.3 compares two fans with different demand curves for season tickets. In both graphs, the price has been set equal to marginal cost, so they both the same amount for the tickets. If the PSL price is set equal to the first fans consumer surplus, the second fan will decline to pay it and will not buy any tickets. If the PSL price is set equal to the second fans consumer surplus, then the first fan will pay less than they would be willing to pay. With a large number of potential buyers, the school will have to strike the right balance between exploiting those who are willing to pay the most and losing sales to fans that are not willing to pay a hefty PSL fee. Figure 6.3  Another trend that has spilled over from professional to collegiate sports is the use of premium seating, more commonly called club seating. These are seats that are usually in better viewing locations (e.g., near midfield for football games) and also offer amenities like wider seats, more legroom, cup holders, and a server to bring food and drinks. Club seats are often located adjacent to a concourse, elevator or escalator that is restricted to the use of the occupants of the club seats. In some stadiums and arenas premium seats also include luxury suites or skyboxes, private rooms in which spectators may sit on cushy chairs and sofas while dining on catered food and watching the game through large sliding glass windows. These seating arrangements are expensive. For example, the renovation of 107,501 seat Michigan Stadium (The Big House) is expected to add 79 private suites that will lease for $45,000-85,000 per year starting in 2008 (Heuser, 2005). The 347 luxury box seats in the Bull Gator Deck of the University of Floridas Ben Hill Griffin Stadium bring in roughly $5 million every season (Twitchell, 2004, p. 114). Because universities are non-profit institutions, wealthy boosters, alums, or corporations can write off 80% of the cost from their income taxes when they purchase club seats and luxury suites. Another innovation is the use of differential ticket pricing by game. This system of premium ticket pricing was first adopted by several Major League Baseball teams, and requires fans to pay different prices depending on the opponent, regardless of seat location. As an example, for the 2006 football season, the University of Oregon posted reserved seat prices of $32 for home games against Division I-AA opponent Portland State, $45 for Arizona, Stanford and UCLA, and $60 for longtime rival Washington and national powerhouse Oklahoma. It is important to note that premium seating and premium ticket pricing are not examples of price discrimination. Prices are different, but so is the product that fans are purchasing. Fast fact. In September 2006, Nebraska played at USC. Some diehard Nebraska football fans purchased USC season tickets to guarantee seats to the game. What does this say about their elasticity of demand? Nebraska lost the game, 28-10. 6.3.2 Appearance guarantees Let us now consider some other interesting revenue sources besides tickets. Did you ever wonder why many top-ranked college teams play marshmallow opponents early in the season? As an example, on November 20, 2004 the Duke University Blue Devils basketball team demolished their non-conference opponent, the University of Tennessee-Martin Skyhawks by a score of 88-46. The purpose of such a mismatched contest is simple: Duke wants to fill in its schedule (preferably with home games), sell more tickets, and give the team an easy opponent early in the season to fine-tune the line-up before intra-conference competition begins (Duke belongs to the highly competitive Atlantic Coast Conference). What did the Skyhawks get, aside from a sound thrashing? They received a large check, their appearance guarantee, from Duke. We do not know the precise amount of that appearance guarantee, but it is common for these amounts to be in the range of $25,000-$300,000 for basketball teams (Armstrong, 2005). And it is not always weak teams that collect these guarantees. In September 2004, the Oregon State football team visited Baton Rouge to play the then top-ranked LSU Tigers. For Oregon State, this was a strictly win-win situation. The Beavers received an appearance fee of $1 million and the opportunity to garner some free publicity in a game broadcast nationally by ESPN. Since the Beavers were not expected to win, and this was a non-conference game, even a blowout victory by the Tigers would not have damaged Oregon States rankings or adversely impacted its standings in the Pac-10 conference. LSU paid OSU with the expectation of a win over a team with a decent reputation. The game also came with no strings attached, that is, OSU did not expect LSU to play a game in Oregon the following year, which would have used up one of LSUs valuable 12 games per season. OSU lost in overtime 22-21. Table 6.4 lists the top ten DI schools by appearance revenue collected. Table 6.4 Appearance Revenues for 2004-2005 School Total Guarantees 1. Michigan State University $4,145,025 2. University of Georgia $1,964,210 3. Louisiana Tech University $1,916,000 4. East Carolina University $1,820,580 5. University of Kentucky $1,780,929 6. Oregon State University $1,768,498 7. University of North Carolina $1,714,214 8. University of Louisiana-Monroe $1,630,137 9. University of Southern Mississippi $1,551,915 10. Florida State University $1,543,066 Source: IndyStar.com (http://www2.indystar.com/NCAA_financial_reports/) 6.3.3 Donations Philanthropic donations provide a vital source of funding for colleges and universities. These donations are often used to provide student scholarships or solicited for specific purposes such as construction of new campus facilities like libraries and computer labs, or to create endowed teaching positions to attract top-notch faculty. Table 6.5 shows that some schools have amassed incredible war chests from donations over time. Table 6.5 Market Value of University Endowed Assets in 2005 Institution 2005 Endowment Harvard University $25,473,721,000 Yale University 15,224,900,000 Stanford University 12,205,000,000 University of Texas System 11,610,997,000 Princeton University 11,206,500,000 Massachusetts Institute of Technology 6,712,436,000 University of California 5,221,916,000 Columbia University 5,190,564,000 Texas A&M System 4,963,879,000 University of Michigan 4,931,338,000 Emory University 4,376,272,000 University of Pennsylvania 4,369,782,000 Washington University 4,268,415,000 Northwestern University 4,215,275,000 University of Chicago 4,137,494,000 Source: National Association of College and University Business Officers (2006) Donations to athletics departments come from two sources, alumni and non-alumni. These contributions are important and provide an average of 18% of revenues (Table 6.1). Stinson and Howard (n.d., p. 9) indicate that patterns of donations from alumni are determined predominately by their undergraduate experience. If they valued academics more than athletics, they are likely to make donations for academic purposes such as a new library or scholarships for students with financial need. However, if they enjoyed attending athletics event, or were athletes themselves, they might choose to contribute almost exclusively to the athletic department. Some alums exhibit a combined pattern of philanthropy. Phil Knight, former CEO of Nike, donated $59 million to the University of Oregon when it renovated its football stadium. He has also earmarked tens of millions for academic purposes. Another example is Steve Smith, a former NBA player who attended Michigan State. He has donated more then three million dollars for academics and athletics. One type of donor is of special interest to athletics departments boosters individuals who restrict their donations to sports. Virtually every college sports program has a booster club. The club usually consists of alums, parents of students, people prominent in the local community like civic leaders and businessmen, and people who have no obvious ties to the school other than having a strong devotion to the football or basketball team. University athletic departments recognize that the members of these clubs have a pronounced willingness to pay for college sports, and the athletic department is eager to exploit this demand (to learn how such organizations operate, see Box 6.3). Box 6.3 Membership Requirements of the Sooner Club In 2005, the University of Oklahoma published a 24 page membership guide to the Sooner Club. The guide described the purpose of the club as follows: The University of Oklahoma Athletics Department is entirely self-supporting and receives no state funds. This reality creates a significant need for private contributions. Our reliance on private support increases each year as the cost of education and the resources necessary to maintain a quality athletics program continue to escalate. The athletics department is responsible for the educational expenses (tuition, fees, room, board, and books) of more than 400 student-athletes who receive scholarships to attend OU and represent the university in intercollegiate competition. The Sooner Club, as the principle [sic] fund-raising arm of OU Athletics, provides a way for individuals to help these talented young people receive a quality education from The University of Oklahoma while ensuring OUs tradition of excellence continues to grow. There are seven levels of membership available to boosters; they may choose to join the Century, Crimson, Coachs, Bronze, Silver, or Golden Circles for a minimum yearly donation of $100, 250, 500, 1,500, 3,000, or 5,000 respectively. The remaining level is the elite Bud Wilkinson Society, which requires a minimum annual investment of $10,000. Not surprisingly, greater donations translate into greater benefits for booster club members. Century Circle members get, among other things, a window decal, club magazine, and their name in the football game program. Bronze members get the same benefits plus a media guide and reserved parking for basketball games. Higher donations earn invitations to a complimentary tailgate buffet before football games, reserved parking at football events, and access to a members-only lounge located in the football stadium. Approximately 9,000 people belong to the Sooner Club. Since more than 300 people are members of the Bud Wilkinson Society, that generates revenues of upwards of $3 million per year. Note however, that not all benefits are guaranteed, and not all Sooner Club members are equal. Tickets to events for which demand exceeds supply, like the big football game vs. Texas, are allocated on the basis of priority points. These points are similar to other merchandising schemes like frequent flier miles or credit card usage. The guide mentions: In an effort to more equitably serve Sooner Club members, a system was developed and implemented in 1995 to determine [members rankings] for season ticket placement and acquiring tickets to high-demand events like the annual OU vs. Texas game, away games, post-season tournaments and championships, bowl games and other special events. The Priority Point System is also used to allocate Sooner Club benefits like priority parking and requests for seating upgrades. All donor requests are ranked, reviewed and considered in priority point order by annual giving level. This means that all requests from Bud Wilkinson Society members are considered in priority point order first, then the requests of Golden Sooner Club members, and so on. Points are accumulated based on current and past donations, frequency of season ticket purchases, number of season tickets purchased by sport, and donations for facilities and scholarships. Donations may be made in monetary or non-monetary (in-kind) forms. One notable example of the latter is automobiles. Local car dealers are encouraged to share in Sooner Club benefits by providing reliable transportation that is to say, new vehicles to OU coaches and administrators. At least 60 car dealers participate. This system is not unique to Oklahoma, virtually every DI athletics department utilizes a similar scheme. Source: http://www.soonersports.com Contributions from boosters are substantial. The University of Floridas boosters, Gator Boosters Inc., raised almost $24 million in 2002, approximately one-third of the entire budget for Gator sports. In 2003, Oklahoma completed a fund-raising campaign that collected $123 million for Sooner sports. The Longhorn Foundation, the booster club for the University of Texas, gathered $20 million in 2004. This money is used for a variety of purposes including capital expenditures, endowed athletics scholarships, and supplementary income for the coaching staff. Unlike the direct payments from boosters to athletes common in the past (recall the story of the old Pacific Coast Conference recounted in Chapter 2), the booster clubs of today usually channel their funds through the university. While athletic departments welcome contributions of this magnitude, they often come with strings attached and the resulting risk that the boosters group will become an 800-pound gorilla. Booster groups are affiliated with the university but are not formally part of the institution (notice the Inc. in the Gator Boosters name). Nevertheless, they often exert influence and wield decision-making power that may or may not be in the best interests of the athletic department or the university. Many boosters have no other ties to the university or an interest in academics. For example, only 54% of Michigan fans are actually alums (Michigan fan, n.d.). Since boosters are mainly interested in sports, they tend to focus on whether the team is winning or losing and have little tolerance for a coach who is not winning enough, regardless of his performance in other areas (e.g., the teams graduation rate). Putting the interest of athletes ahead of winning is unlikely to save a coachs job. As we saw in Chapter 5, boosters financial contributions supplement coaches salaries; consequently, they want influence over who gets hired and fired. The former president of the University of Michigan, James Duderstadt (2000, p. 10), mentions that if the team is losing boosters and alumni are not only likely to call for the firing of the coach, but will go after the athletic director and the president as well. Individual boosters are often involved in questionable activities concerning the recruiting of student-athletes; in some cases this is because boosters are nave or not aware of the NCAAs rules on recruiting. But in other cases their actions suggest they know the rules but choose to ignore them. In a recent case, University of Alabama football booster Logan Young was sentenced to six months in prison for racketeering. He paid high school football coach Lynn Lang an estimated $150,000 to convince star defensive lineman Albert Means to enroll at Alabama. Youngs actions major violations of the NCAA bylaws were also costly for the Crimson Tide; the NCAA cut 15 Alabama football scholarships and prohibited it from playing in any bowl games for two years. Boosters also often provide extra benefits to athletes (like the under the table payments to Chris Webber we described in Chapter 3). Because of potential for violations involving boosters, many schools provide boosters with information telling them what they can and cannot do (see, e.g., Box 6.4). Box 6.4 DePaul University, Information for Boosters According to the Athletic Department at DePaul University, Blue Demon boosters may not: 1. Provide cash or loans in any amount. 2. Sign off or co-sign a note with an outside agency to arrange a loan. 3. Employ relative or friends of a prospect as an inducement for the enrollment of the prospect at DePaul University. 4. Provide gifts of any kind (e.g. birthday, Christmas, Valentine's Day) or free services (e.g. clothing, airline tickets, laundry, car repair, haircuts, meals in restaurants). 5. Provide discounts for goods or services. 6. Provide use of an automobile. 7. Provide hospitality or lodging in your home. 8. Invite them to your summer home to go water skiing, sailing, etc. 9. Provide them transportation within or outside of the campus area. (e.g. from campus to your home, from the airport to campus, to summer job, etc.) 10. Entertain or contact a prospect or prospect's parents on or off campus. Source: http://www.depaulbluedemons.com Contributions are allocated in one of two ways; either it is designated for a dedicated expense (like construction of a new weight room) or it is invested in a financial portfolio (endowment) that generates a stream of revenue over time. Income from endowments is becoming increasingly important as a source of revenue; Table 6.6 lists the ten largest endowments held by athletic departments in the country. Table 6.6 Athletic Department Endowments for 2002-2003 Institution Endowment Stanford University $270,000,000 University of Notre Dame 130,000,000 University of North Carolina 106,000,000 University of Southern California 100,000,000 Duke University 63,000,000 Texas A&M University 45,000,000 University of Virginia 35,000,000 University of Michigan 31,700,000 University of Florida 24,100,000 Pennsylvania State University 21,300,000 Virginia Tech University 20,300,000 University of Texas 18,500,000 Florida State University 18,200,000 University of Georgia 18,000,000 University of Iowa 18,000,000 Source: various To help you understand the importance endowments can have for an athletic department, let us consider the $270 million endowment held by Stanfords Athletic Department. If this money is invested in a diversified financial portfolio it will generate, on average, a minimum return of 5% per year ($13.5 million). Assuming that a full-ride athletics scholarship at Stanford costs $35,000, income from the endowment would fully fund 386 scholarships every year. Given that there were about 724 male and female athletes at Stanford in 2004, these investment returns can cover the scholarships of one half of all Stanford athletes! Athletic departments originally used these endowments only to fund athletics scholarships. But some schools now indicate that they will use endowments to fund all athletic department expenses (including salaries), which increases the likelihood that they will become self-sufficient. Small wonder a University of North Carolina booster said, in the future, endowments are going to become a priority for everyone . Fast fact. According to the Philadelphia Inquirer (Gaul & Fitzpatrick, 2000c), Penn State quarterback Rashard Caseys athletic scholarship in 2000 was underwritten by a $250,000 contribution from Kerry Collins, a former Penn State quarterback. In 2000, Penn State had endowed scholarships for 16 positions. Athletic directors across the country dream of contributions like the $165 million gift T. Boone Pickens gave his alma mater, Oklahoma State University, in December 2005. His gift ranks 17th on a list of all donations to institutions of higher education since 1967. Of course, universities and their athletic departments will not spurn smaller donations either and many now target senior citizens (often alums) and ask them to consider purchasing an annuity or to leave money to the university in their will. Fast fact. You can now be buried in caskets in your school colors! Collegiate Memorials, a company in Forsyth, Georgia, manufactures caskets for die-hard college sports supporters. The top seller is the Oklahoma University casket which sells for $4,600 and features the school colors and the schools logo. The university earns a royalty of 8% for each casket sold. (Bailey, 2005) 6.3.4 Corporate sponsorships Another lucrative source of revenue for athletic departments are corporate sponsorships. The next time you attend a college game, or watch one on television, play close attention to the advertising displayed in the arena or stadium and in the game program, the corporate logos on player uniforms and coachs apparel, the advertisements featured during television or radio station breaks, and public announcements during the game. Visit the athletic department website and see if there is a link to corporate partnerships or sponsorships. We define sponsorships as monetary and non-monetary payments made by a company to a university. Monetary payments are a fixed sum of money for a period of time in which a company typically purchases the right to advertise in athletic department facilities (e.g., banners and signs at the football stadium or basketball arena), on player uniforms (usually in a logo). Corporations sponsor college athletics mainly as a marketing platform to promote the corporations products. As we discuss in the next chapter, the growth in the popularity of college sports is due in large part to television broadcasting. Every corporate logo or billboard displayed during a game broadcast on television translates into valuable exposure for that company. Corporations are also buying access to an affluent segment of the population. The University of Michigan says that 65% of Michigan fans have household incomes greater than $75,000 a year and 48% of their fans have incomes greater than $100,000 (Michigan fan demographics, n.d.). Fast fact. Penn State athletic facilities are now decorated with logos for AT&T, Hershey Foods, McDonalds, Nike, Pepsi and Toyota, among others. A huge new electronic scoreboard towering over the north end zone is being paid for with corporate advertising. Penn State also gets ad revenue from its new sports home page on the Internet. For a complete list of PSU sponsors go to http://www.gopsusports.com/portalMagic/index.cfm?list=1. Perhaps the best-known business partnerships are with sports apparel companies like Adidas, Nike and Reebok. These firms typically provide uniforms and equipment at no charge or else at minimal cost. In return, the corporate logo is prominently displayed on players uniforms, warm-ups, equipment bags, coaches apparel. Is your institution a Nike school? Reebok? Adidas? Why do athletic departments accept sponsorships? The answer is simple: money. The revenue potential is hard to resist, especially for the top-level programs where financial independence is the goal. For example, the University of Michigan struck a seven year deal with Nike in 1994 that paid it around $25 million and also provided apparel, equipment and footwear. Michigan is also sponsored by Pepsi, IBM, Microsoft, and many other businesses. A contract with Mattel Toys allows them to clothe Barbie dolls in Michigan cheerleader outfits (Adamy, 1997). Nike sponsors over 200 other athletics program across the nation. Fast fact. It is increasingly common for a university to outsource its sales of corporate sponsorships and media contracts to private firms. One such firm is ISP Sports, a North Carolina based company that has contracts with 27 DI institutions. ISP establishes sponsorship contracts with major corporations like Allstate Insurance and Chevron Oil. This provides each of ISPs university affiliates access to corporations that might be hard to negotiate with individually. Corporations benefit because they are able to leverage their marketing efforts across a geographically dispersed area. Another company that represents several DI-A schools is Host Communications. Host also has had a contract since 1976 with the NCAA to provide marketing services as well as to publish NCAA championship programs and guides (http://www.hostcommunications.com). To gauge the importance of marketing to the NCAA you need look no farther than the mens and womens basketball championships (Coca-Cola, The Official Soft Drink of NCAA, has an eleven-year, $500 million contract. Other major sponsors of March Madness are Cingular and General Motors). Sponsorships can also generate controversy. Some people are wary about any relationship between business and academia. This concern extends beyond the athletic department. It is argued that the academic mission of an institution may be compromised by its links to corporations. For example, in Oregon there are claims that corporate support by the timber industry unduly influences academic research at Oregon State Universitys nationally recognized School of Forestry (Forestry Dean, 2006). Chemistry departments at U.S. universities are sometimes criticized for accepting financial support from the pharmaceutical industry. But others have argued that for public institutions in particular, decreased financial support from state governments forces universities to seek funding elsewhere or risk having to cut programs and staff. Some sponsorships attract more criticism than others. Perhaps the most publicized recent example is related to the sweatshops issue. Factories in less-developed countries like Pakistan and Vietnam manufacture sports apparel and shoes for corporations like Nike. In November 1997, a confidential report prepared for Nike by the consulting firm Ernst & Young was leaked to the New York Times. The report claimed that workers at a Nike facility in Vietnam worked 65 hours a week, received low wages, and were subject to unsafe working conditions. As a consequence, many colleges and universities choose to ally themselves with an organization called the Workers Right Consortium, a labor organization affiliated with the AFL-CIO and a strident critic of Nike and other multinational corporations. One university that considered joining the Workers Right Consortium was the University of Oregon. Oregon has a unique relationship with Nike because Nikes founder and CEO, Phil Knight, is an Oregon alumnus and an individual who had donated millions of dollars to the university and the athletics department. In response to the threat of Oregons alliance with the Workers Right Consortium, Knight retracted a $30 million gift. His donation was later restored after the University agreed to end its support of the Workers Right Consortium. This generated even more debate. Suppose a student-athlete is involved in a campus group like the Workers Right Consortium. Would that student put her athletics scholarship in jeopardy? Will her coaches try to get her to shut-up? Will she be cut from the team? It is possible. A Reebok contract with Wisconsin prohibited any university employee or representative from disparaging Reebok (Zimbalist, 1999, pp. 144-145). After catching considerable flak, Reebok eliminated the clause but it raised the question of whether accepting a college athletics scholarship requires students and staff to give up their constitutionally guaranteed rights to free speech. What if a student-athlete refuses to wear corporate provided apparel or footwear, or covers up the corporate logos on her jersey or shoes? In the fall of 2005, Arkansas State basketball player Jerry Nichols refused to wear Adidas sneakers because he hurt his knee while playing in them. He preferred Nikes instead. Because the university had a contract with Adidas, the athletic director told Nichols he had to wear Adidas provided shoes or else he would not play (Adidas says, 2005). Adidas told Arkansas State to grant Nichols an exemption. He later tore a ligament in his knee and was finished for the 2005-2006 season. Fast fact. Utah basketball coach Rick Majerus gets $500,000 a year from Reebok. He reportedly turned down a job offer from Arizona in part because it is affiliated with Nike, not Reebok. (Slater, n.d.) 6.3.5 Naming rights The final source of revenue we discuss, one that overlaps with corporate sponsorships, is naming rights, a marketing tool in which the right to name an existing, renovated, or new college sports facility is offered to the highest bidder. Naming rights are another example of athletic departments adopting marketing techniques from professional sports. Until quite recently, most college athletics facilities had a functional, if non-descript, name (e.g., Ohio Stadium at Ohio State University), or else they were named in honor of a former athlete or coach (e.g., Jesse Owens Memorial Stadium or Woody Hayes Athletic Center, also at Ohio State). For a substantial donation an individual or corporation can buy the right to have their name displayed on an athletics facility. The Jerome Schottenstein Center at Ohio State University, which hosts basketball and ice hockey, is named for the Schottenstein family who contributed $12.5 million toward its construction. The University of Louisville football stadium is called the Papa Johns Stadium after the pizza baron who paid the university $5 million. And the recent donation by T. Boone Pickens to Oklahoma State, the largest single athletics donation to a university, will be used to create an athletics village next to the football stadium. The stadium is already named after Pickens because of earlier donations to the school (Pickens donates, 2006). Fast fact. Penn State (Naming rights, 2006) publishes a price list of 203 athletic naming gift opportunities ranging from $1,000 for a small plaque at Lubrano Baseball Stadium, $25,000 to fund one mens football locker or a womens swimming coachs office, $100,000 for the womens lacrosse locker room or the recruiting lounge in the already named Lasch Football Building, $1 million for the softball diamond to $4.5 million for the indoor tennis complex, $5 million for the Mount Nittany Lounge in the football stadium, to $22 million for a new natatorium. If every one of these naming rights requests was fulfilled, Penn State would raise $119 million. 6.4 The Athletic Department Budget Expenditures Now let us turn to the expenditure side of the budget for a typical DI-A institution. Table 6.7 lists the most common expenditure items ranked by magnitude. As we did with the revenue side of the budget, we will focus on only a couple of the most important line items: grants-in-aid, (athletics scholarships), salaries and benefits, and recruiting. A few words of caution before we begin. First, the reported expenditures are for only the 117 DI-A institutions, which make up approximately one-third of Division I. Second, as we discuss below, the information may be inaccurate. And third, the information usually omits many expenses, including fringe benefits for athletic department staff, legal, accounting and computer services, janitorial and maintenance services, and perhaps most importantly the costs of construction of new athletics facilities and the renovation of existing facilities. Table 6.7 Athletic Department Operating Expenses at DI-A Universities for 2003 Percentage of Category Total Expenses Salaries and Benefits 32 Grant-in Aid 18 Travel 7 Contract Services 5 Equipment 4 Guarantees 4 Recruiting 2 Fund-raising 1 Game Officials 1 Sports Camps 1 Other 25 Total 100 Source: Fulks, (2005, pp. 46-47) Table 6.8 Athletic Department Operating Expenses at University of Oregon for 2004-05 Category Expenses Percentage Salaries and Benefits $9,688,918 24.1 Facilities Maintenance 6,675,536 16.6 Grants-in Aid 5,519,836 13.7 Game Expenses 1,851,312 4.6 Travel 2,397,397 5.9 Guarantees 1,718,525 4.3 Medical 1,364,017 3.4 Promotions & Fund-raising 1,309,106 3.3 Sports Camps 886,407 2.2 Recruiting 832,184 2.0 Memberships 510,217 1.3 Spirit Groups 340,614 0.8 Equipment 296,035 0.7 Other 6,717,732 16.7 Total 40,107,833 100.0 Net Revenue $-131,198 Source IndyStar.com (http://www2.indystar.com/NCAA_financial_reports/) To illustrate the variation in the size of budgets among major programs, Table 6.9 shows the ten largest and ten smallest Division I-A athletic departments. Some members of DI-AA and DI-AAA will have even smaller budgets than the smallest DI-A program. Table 6.9 Largest and Smallest DI-A Athletic Department Budgets for 2004-05 (in millions) Institution Budget Institution Budget Ohio State University $89.6 Florida Atlantic University $12.9 University of Texas at Austin 74.4 University of North Texas 12.9 University of Florida 73.5 Northern Illinois University 12.7 University of Tennessee 71.5 New Mexico State University 12.6 University of Oklahoma 62.9 Utah State University 10.4 University of Michigan 61.4 Troy State University 10.0 University of Southern Cal 60.7 Louisiana Tech University 9.8 Penn State University 60.2 Arkansas State University 9.4 University of Wisconsin 59.5 University of Louisiana-Lafayette 8.0 Texas A&M 57.4 University of Louisiana-Monroe 5.5 Source: Department of Education, Office of Postsecondary Education (n.d.). 6.4.1 Salaries and benefits We stated at the beginning of this chapter that the operating expenditures of athletic departments at DI universities is a small percentage of total university spending, but is growing more rapidly than university expenditures as a whole. The Wall Street Journal (Adams, 2006a) recently published financial information about big-time basketball programs, including a comparison of the growth in basketball revenues and expenses between 2004 and 2005. For example, UConns revenues increased 44% while its expenses rose 104%. Duke had a 17% revenue increase and a 51% rise in expenses. Tennessees expenses climbed by 62% but its revenues dropped 21%. Some schools, like Arizona saw no increase in expenses but a 23% increase in revenues. According to Adams (2006a) the largest, and fastest growing, category is salaries and benefits. At the average DI-A athletic department it makes up 32% of all expenses. Only spending on facilities (up 31%) comes close. Given what we saw in Chapter 5, it should not be a revelation that the NCAA says that increases in coaching compensation is the fastest growing line item in athletic department budgets. But it is not just coaches who pull in the big bucks. Before getting a large raise, Kansas football coach Mark Mangino earned $600,000 while Athletic Director Lew Perkins earned $458,651 per year and collected another $100,000 in benefits, almost as much as Coach Mangino. The Chancellor of the University, Robert Hemenway, only earns $306,153. Ten other senior athletic department employees earn between $97,000 and $191,000 (Perkins Gets Raise, 2006). This pattern of compensation for athletic department staff is common among DI schools. 6.4.2 Athletics scholarships Currently, the average DI school spends about 18% of its budget on scholarships. This percentage is growing but it is not due to an increase in the number of scholarships. Remember that the NCAA limits the number of full grants in aid in both head count and equivalency sports (e.g., 85 in DI-A football and 13 in DI basketball). Instead, the dollar value of each scholarship is increasing rapidly due to increases in tuition, on-campus housing and dining, and textbooks. Also, when an athletic department like Washington says that it is spending $1.9 million on scholarships, how accurate is that number? How is the cost of a scholarship determined? How close is that accounting cost to the economic cost? Why might there be a difference between the accounting and economic costs? Suppose that the value of a full grant-in-aid at Duke University is $45,000. That figure represents the accounting cost and includes tuition, housing, meals, and the price of each of these items is listed in the college catalog and in other university print and electronic documents. The grant-in-aid will also include a stipend for other incidental expenses. But is $45,000 equal to the true cost the economic or marginal cost of educating the student-athlete? Maybe. Imagine that you are sitting in your Economics of College Sports class. It is the first week of the semester and there are 40 students enrolled in class. Each of the 40 students, including you, is paying $500 in tuition for the class. Suppose another student, Mia Hamm, comes into the room hoping to add the class. The Professor agrees to let Mia add the class provided that she registers and pays the university $500. Now the crucial question: did the cost of teaching the class rise when student enrollment increased from 40 to 41? If it did, by how much? In other words, is the marginal cost equal to $500? The accounting cost is an average cost that the university calculates based on an approximation of the total costs of educating a specific number of students. But it is not the same thing as marginal cost. You remember the difference between average and marginal costs; average cost is total cost divided by total output and marginal cost is the change in total costs (or variable costs) from producing one more unit of output. As you can see from the short run cost curves in Figure 6.2, marginal costs can be higher, lower or equal to, average costs depending on the amount of output produced. But usually they are not equal to one another. Figure 6.2 Average and Marginal Cost Curves  Understanding the difference between the two costs is very important. On most college campuses across the country, the cost of educating one more student (marginal cost) is likely to be less than average cost. The main reason for this is excess capacity (such as at quantity Q1 in Figure 6.2). Universities usually have considerable flexibility in determining the maximum number of students that can be taught each semester. Simply put: most universities have room to add more students. Marginal cost will equal average cost when the university has a strict limit on the number of students who can attend each semester. This usually only occurs at highly selective private institutions like Harvard, Princeton, or Yale. Every year Harvard has more applicants than it has room to admit. Suppose Harvard is considering admitting only one of two students. Student X is not an athlete and Student Y is an athlete. If student X is accepted, the student will pay the list price of $50,000 per year. If student Y is admitted, the student will receive a full grant-in-aid from the university valued at $50,000. Student Y will not pay a penny to attend Harvard. If Harvard admits Y instead of X, then the average and marginal costs are the same because Harvard gave up the opportunity to collect $50,000 from Student X. (what would happen if Student X could only pay $25,000 and asked for the remaining financial aid from Harvard? The opportunity cost would fall from $50,000 to $25,000). Let us summarize. At a university with excess capacity, the marginal cost will be less than the average cost, the list price. Only a handful of selective institutions will have no excess capacity. In that case, the marginal cost is determined by the cost of prospective students who are denied entry (displaced) because an athlete was admitted. In some situations, marginal cost may be close to, or equal, the average cost (list price). But in either case it is marginal cost that represents the true economic cost of educating a student. When an athletic department reports the cost of a scholarship it uses average not marginal costs. As Goff (2000, p. 87) notes, this inflates the expenses side of its budget since the marginal cost of educating, housing, and feeding a student-athlete is lower than list price if the university has excess capacity. This raises the question whether the athletic department is distorting its budgetary numbers on purpose or if it is simply following the accounting rules established by the university. 6.4.3 Recruiting Recruiting the best available athletes is one of the coachs most important jobs. Every coach wants to attract as many top caliber athletes as possible. Two things are striking about the recruiting process: the amount of resources that athletic departments are willing to spend, and the innovative recruiting techniques used to attract athletes. The recruiting process is hyper-competitive. It is not uncommon for a high-school All-American to be coveted by dozens of DI-A programs. Since there are no NCAA regulations on the amount of money a school can spend on recruiting only rules on specific forms of recruiting it should not be surprising that many schools pull out all the stops to convince a talented football player or woman basketball player to sign their national letter of intent with them. The situation is analogous to what happens when there is a shortage of a product, such as the latest video game console or must-have toy for Christmas, and sellers are unwilling to raise the price. Consumers will go to great lengths, including camping out in front of the store, to be among the lucky few to buy the product. Some enterprising people will buy as many as possible and immediately put them up for sale on eBay for a quick profit. In the case of athletes, the NCAA does not allow colleges and universities to offer more than a full scholarship. The fact that recruiting is so competitive is an indication that the NCAA is operating as an effective cartel and keeping the price far below the amount that would equate supply and demand. One of the most aggressive institutions is the University of Oregon. In 2004 the University of Oregons football recruiting budget was approximately $600,000. During one weekend in January 2004, Oregon hosted 24 recruits for a visit that cost the athletic department $140,875 for transportation, lodging, meals, and entertainment. That represented 25% of the entire recruiting budget and was an average of $5,635 spent on each recruit during a three-day period. Most of Oregons prospects came to campus via regularly scheduled commercial flights but a few fortunate athletes flew on a chartered Lear Jet. Once the recruits arrived in Eugene they were shuttled around campus in the athletic departments vehicles, including a bright green and yellow Hummer. The recruits left with personalized posters, videos, and comic books (Bachman, 2006b). Were these expenses worth it? Twelve out of the 24 recruits signed letters of intent with Oregon. At that time, none of Oregons recruiting activities violated NCAA rules (Section 13 of the bylaws). However, several of these activities the use of private jets and the provision of any personalized recruiting aid were subsequently prohibited by the NCAA. This is another example of the little Dutch boy story we introduced in Chapter 1; schools use innovative, and sometimes questionable, recruiting techniques. If the NCAA later bans these tactics, the schools simply find other means. Athletic departments are aggressively adopting technologies that help them gain a recruiting advantage. Before recruits choose the campuses to visit they are bombarded with various publications often sent by express mail videos, emails, and phone calls from their suitors. Some of these mailings were produced using specialized software provided by Recruiting Pro, located in Madison, WI, or Scoutware in Aurora, IL. These programs cover every facet of the recruiting process and allow each school to produce customized communications and marketing information to attract recruits. Sometimes this aggressiveness can backfire. Since NCAA rules limit the number of contacts that can be made in person and by telephone, coaches quickly adopted email and text messaging as a way to circumvent the rules and provide a more personalized communication with the prospective athlete. Some prep athletes now complain about the deluge of emails and text messages they receive from schools, particularly because the recipient of the message often has to pay the cost of the communication (Bachman, 2006a). The NCAA is already discussing ways to restrict this communication (ONeil, 2006). 6.5 Are Athletic Departments Profitable? Having examined the major sources of revenue and the primary expenditures for athletic departments, it is time to see how many operate with a profit or a loss. Using freedom of information requests, the Indianapolis Star gained access to the financial data reported to the NCAA from 164 public universities in Division I. None of the 112 private universities in DI, which are not obligated to disclose financial information, provided any data. Table 6.10 shows the ten most- and least-profitable athletic departments. Table 6.10 Net Revenues for 20 DI Institutions for 2004-05, from highest to lowest. Institution Net Revenues 1. University of Georgia $23,854,329 2. University of Michigan 17,037,042 3. University of Kansas 10,064,665 4. Virginia Tech University 8,265,356 5. University of Texas 7,250,853 6. University of Iowa 6,693,599 7. Kansas State University 5,489,598 8. Texas A&M University 5,307,357 9. University of Alabama-Tuscaloosa 5,297,584 10. Louisiana State University 5,080,280 155. North Carolina State University -1,255,124 156. University of Nevada -1,800,138 157. University of Hawaii -2,157,665 158. University of Washington -2,225,382 159. West Virginia University -2,312,383 160. University of South Carolina -2,655,084 161. University of North Texas -3,106,546 162. University of Cincinnati -4,123,348 163. University of California-Berkeley -7,887,612 164. University of Arkansas-Little Rock -8,698,807 Source: IndyStar.com (http://www2.indystar.com/NCAA_financial_reports/) While the NCAA does not disclose financial data for individual members, it does report average revenue and costs for all schools in each division. Table 6.11 shows average revenue, costs, and net revenue in DI-A for selected years from 1985 to 2003. In 2003, the average revenues and expenses were $29.4 and $27.2 million, respectively, leaving an accounting profit of $2.2 million. This profit, however, is illusory; once the average amount of institutional support (the budgeted subsidy from the university to the athletic department) of $2.8 million is subtracted, the profit turns into a average loss of $600,000. You can see similar results occurring in 1993, 1997, and 2001. Only in 1999 did the average school break even. In all years, a majority of schools had negative net revenue when institutional support is excluded. Table 6.11 Reported Revenue, Expenses, Profits, and Deficits for Division I-A (amounts in thousands) 1985 1989 1993 1997 1999 2001 2003 Average Revenue $6,900 $9,700 $13,600 $17,700 $21,900 $25,100 $29,400 Average Expenses 7,000 9,700 13,000 17,300 20,000 23,200 27,200 Average Net -100 0 700 400 1,900 1,900 2,200 Average Net w/o Institutional Support N/A N/A 200 800 0 600 600 % Reporting Profit w/o Institutional Support N/A N/A 51% 43% 46% 35% 40% Average Profit N/A N/A 1,700 1,700 3,800 5,260 5,000 % Reporting Loss w/o Institutional Support N/A N/A 49% 57% 54% 65% 60% Average Loss N/A N/A 2,100 2,800 3,300 3,770 4,400 Source: Fulks (2005, pp. 30, 39) Fast fact. A November 2005 report concerning intercollegiate athletics programs in Montana reported revenues of $32.2 against costs of $29.3, yielding a profit of $2.9 million. Yet the revenues included $13.2 million in institutional support, or 41% of total revenue. In addition, student fees provided an additional $2.3 million (Johnson, 2005). Who covers losses when they occur? Sometimes it is the athletic department itself; a deficit is paid out of a reserve fund from surpluses in previous years. If reserves are not available, the university will have to provide additional unbudgeted support. Recently, Peter Likins, the President of the University of Arizona and the Chairman of an NCAA committee on fiscal responsibility, was quoted as saying the most rapidly growing revenue stream is the transfer of funds from the parent university. (Brady and Upton, 2005) As first mentioned in Chapter 2, athletic departments can engage in creative accounting to make their profits and losses appear smaller or larger than they really are. Why might an athletic department want to declare smaller profits or larger losses? One possibility is that the athletic department wants to keep all its profits to itself; that is, to avoid losing money via a cross-subsidy to the universitys general fund. Alternately, it may inflate its losses in order to increase its subsidy from the university. However, large losses may invite unwanted scrutiny by the administration that might mandate cost-cutting measures to the athletic director. To avoid this scenario, the athletic director may be tempted to deflate its losses to avoid administrative interference and potential negative repercussions from alumni or, in the case of public institutions, taxpayers. As indicated in Section 6.3.2, how scholarships are accounted for can make a big difference to an athletic departments bottom line. Goff (2000) mentions other sleight-of-hand tricks, such as assigning athletics revenues like the sales of souvenir jerseys and hats to the universitys general fund or charging athletics expenses (for example, janitorial serves at the football stadium) to the general fund rather than the athletic department. The most common source for university athletics budgetary information is the Office of Postsecondary Education of the U.S. Department of Education. Postsecondary institutions are required by law to submit a report every year, including the number of undergraduates attending the institution, the name of the athletic director, the NCAA division (if applicable), a list of intercollegiate sports offered to men and women, the total number of athletes by gender, operating expenses per team, revenues for football, mens and womens basketball and all other sports combined, the dollar amount of athletics scholarships awarded, and recruiting information. Given this source, why are we relying on data collected by the staff of a newspaper? The reliability of the information disclosed to the Department of Education was recently called into question. An article in USA Today (Upton and Brady, 2005) determined that 41 out of 119 DI-A schools reported inaccurate financial information. While some of these errors were minor others were major, including a $34 million error by the University of Texas. The article noted that the NCAA was aware of the problem but was unwilling to provide the correct figures to the DOE because of privacy considerations. These kinds of problems with financial information are well recognized (Lombardi, 2003, Appendix 3) and imply that those of us interested in athletic department budgets must exercise caution when using that information. 6.6 Causes of Athletic Department Losses We do not expect businesses to earn a profit every year, as long as they are profitable over the long term. Losses in one year can be offset by profits in other years. What we observe in college sports is persistent losses for many athletic departments. It is natural to ask how this came to be such a common occurrence and why it is tolerated at those schools. We will consider several possible explanations, including schools trying to enter the big time in college sports, cross subsidization within the athletics department, and the arms race among programs already in the big time. 6.6.1 Moving up to the big time In Section 10 of Chapter 2, we introduced you to the president of a DI-AA university who was contemplating a move to DI-A. His hope was that spending more on athletics would eventually enhance the status of the institution and create enough new revenue to pay for the increase in expenses. The same logic can be used by DII schools that want to move up to DI. The problem is that not everyone can develop consistently winning programs (for every winner there must be a loser), and many of these efforts will end with less than the expected results. Consider the case of Portland State University, a former DII institution that joined DI-AA in the fall of 1996. Table 6.12 shows PSUs Athletic Department revenues and expenses in 1996 and 2005. Total revenue and expenses doubled in that period, with expenses rising slightly more than revenue. Appearance guarantees, post-season income, and donations all rose substantially. But notice two quirks; ticket sales revenue fell and subsidies to the athletic department (student fees and institutional support from the universitys general fund) rose. In fact, the institutional support had the single largest increase. Now look at expenses. Payroll doubled and scholarship expenses more then tripled. Given this information, what was the financial justification for PSU moving from DII to DI? Table 6.12 Portland State University Budget (Dollar figures are in thousands) 1996 2005 1996-2005 2007 Category Amount Percent Amount Percent % change (Projected) Revenue Tickets $444 13 $393 5 -11 $350 Guarantees 136 4 349 5 157 400 Post-season 0 0 0 0 0 15 Donations 209 6 571 7 173 580 Lottery 413 12 358 5 -13 400 Other 382 11 645 8 69 655 Student Fees 1,408 41 2,339 30 66 2,710 General Fund 904 26 3,056 40 238 2,996 Total 3,881 100 7,711 100 94 8,106 Expenses Payroll $1,493 38 $2,969 38 99 $3,211 Scholarships 743 19 2,483 32 234 2,634 Guarantees 174 4 160 2 -8 50 Travel 477 12 862 11 81 910 Depreciation 0 0 27 0 100 27 Other 1,004 26 1,324 17 32 1,255 Total 3,891 100 7,825 100 101 8,087 Net Income -$10 -$114 $19 Source: Oregon State Board of Education (2005) Now look at the last column, which projects the budget into fiscal year 2007. It suggests that the Athletic Department will be breaking even (earning zero accounting profits). Pay attention to the projected student fees and institutional funds subsidy. What happens to the bottom line if either of those revenue items, or both, are eliminated? Once you remove the subsidies, which provide 70% of revenues, you are left with a $5.7 million loss. Imagine that you are PSU President Daniel Bernstine. How would you explain to students and taxpayers why their contribution is so important for the Athletic Department and the University? Is it possible that PSUs sports program is responsible for the universitys growth in enrollment (10,268 in 1996 and 18,891 in 2006)? Is it possible that the sports program enables the school to attract better students and higher quality faculty? Does the PSU sports program enhance the quality of life in the Portland metropolitan area? What gives schools like PSU the hope that more spending will translate into athletic success and eventually profitability? We do not have to look far to see the answer. Just 110 miles down I-5 from Portland is Eugene, home of the University of Oregon. As we noted in Section 6.2, Oregon has reaped significant rewards from its investments in athletics. A report by the American Association of University Professors (Stern, 2003) notes that as some smaller institutions have coveted the potential revenues and public notice associated with high-profile sports programs, the temptation for these institutions to promote athletics has been intense and at times irresistible. Some recent examples, discussed in a Wall Street Journal article (Armstrong, 2005), include Longwood University (see Box 6.7), Texas A&M-Corpus Christi, University of California-Davis, and Indiana University-Purdue University-Fort Wayne. Box 6.7 Longwood University moves from DII to DI. Longwood, a school of approximately 4,300 located in Farmville, Virginia, had a highly successful athletic program in DII, notably in mens basketball. Nevertheless, the administration decided in 1999 to jump to DI. President Patricia Cormier said We have made our first successful step to Division I and this is a natural and logical move for Longwood. Our academic profile has been raised over the past few years and we believe that Division I status will enhance both our institutional image and our recruitment efforts. Athletic Director Rick Mazzuto commented [w]e want people to have heard of Longwood. New DI members are typically required to play as independents, schools not affiliated with a conference and they must meet extensive compliance requirements over a five-year period. Without being able to share in conference revenues, DI independents must travel extensively and rely heavily on the appearance guarantees we discussed in Section 6.3.2. Between December 26, 2004 and January 11, 2005, the mens basketball team traveled 7,850 miles to play seven games. The team lost all seven and finished the season with a record of 1-30. Will Longwoods strategy to enhance both our institutional image and our recruitment efforts prove successful? Sources: NCAA Division I update (2003) and NCAA Division I reclassification timeline (2005). 6.6.2 Cross subsidization within the athletic department A different explanation will have to be used for one of the biggest money losing institutions, the University of California at Berkeley. It is one of the best-known universities in the world, consistently ranked as a top Tier 1 school by the US News and World Report and other surveys. Cal has a reputation for undergraduate and graduate academic excellence and the faculty currently consists of six Noble Prize winners as well as numerous recipients of other prestigious academic awards. Judged by undergraduate admissions it is one of the most selective of any institutions, public or private. It is a member of the Pac-10 and finished the 2006 season with a 10-3 record and a win over Texas A&M in the Holiday Bowl. Why does Cal feel compelled to invest over $50 million in athletics and run an $8 million athletics deficit? Will Cals reputation suffer if athletics spending is reduced and the school decides not to try to mimic a football school like Alabama or a basketball school like Arkansas, schools that are consistently ranked far lower than Cal in every academic category possible? We need to dig a bit deeper into Cals athletic department budget to find a possible explanation. According to the IndyStar.com database, their football and mens basketball programs generated positive net revenues of $3.3 and $2.8 million, respectively. Investments in these programs were apparently successful. So how did they end up with an $8 million deficit? By spending $14 million more on other sports than those programs generated in revenue. Without the profits from their revenue sports, other programs would have to be reduced or the institutional support increased. It is common for supporters of mens basketball and football to insist that since those sports subsidize the others, more financial resources must be identified in order to not jeopardize sports like softball and wrestling. In other words, the pursuit of increased revenues by the athletic department is justified on the grounds that not doing so will imperil many sports for both genders. As University of Tennessee Athletic Director Doug Dickey put it, [t]he biggest fans of our football program are the volleyball coach and the crew coach (Weiner, 2002). Most athletic departments engage in interdepartmental subsidization across sports, as is readily apparent from the revenue and expense data we saw in Table 3.4 in Chapter 3. At a typical institution, most college sports both mens and womens lose money. While mens programs as a group typically generate an overall profit, it is due almost entirely to football and basketball. In 2003, football and mens basketball accounted for 70% and 23% of the entire revenue for mens sports and 56% and 18% of the costs. Other mens sports generated just 5% of total revenues and 21% of total costs. However, with many athletic departments operating in the red, it should not be surprising that some subsidized sports programs are in peril. Between 2001 and 2003, the average DI-A school reduced the total number of sports from 19 to 16 and DI-AA and DI-AAA institutions went from 19 to 15, and 16-14 (Fulks, 2005, p. 18). It is commonly asserted that these cuts fell predominately on mens sports and were necessary in order to protect womens sports and comply with Title IX legislation. Bill Moos, former Athletic Director at Oregon, cited this concern when arguing for further investments in the revenue sports of football and basketball: The need to secure additional revenue streams in order to ensure our continued success is important to the future of all our sports programs. In addition, the need to add an additional sport, or perhaps sports, will be necessary in order for us to comply with Title IX requirements. The areas of access, improved amenities, and overall comfort for our fans were also important in the decision process (Munsey & Suppes, 2006). A counterargument is that many schools have cut sports even during periods of increased revenues to the athletic department. We return to the issues surrounding Title IX in greater detail in Chapter 8. 6.6.3 The arms race The NCAA cartel has been spectacularly successful at generating huge revenues for its members, primarily through broadcasting rights for bowl games and post-season basketball competitions. The universities have supplemented this windfall with the various marketing innovations discussed in Section 6.2. On the cost side, the NCAA achieves similar success by restricting price competition for athletes. With the possible exception of graduate students in academic departments, no other unit on campus is able to hire employees without paying them a market determined wage. At the same time, the NCAA has been spectacularly unsuccessful in restricting non-price competition and the ability of member institutions to earn durable profits. As we described in Chapter 2, an inherent problem with any cartel is that by increasing the profit per unit the incentive to steal customers from other members of the cartel increases. A firm may cheat on the cartel by charging a slightly lower price or it may engage in non-price competition, such as advertising or improving product quality. Cheating can lead to the collapse of the cartel, and non-price competition can increase costs to the point that cartel members may earn only normal profits or, remarkably, a loss. As discussed earlier, this is exactly what happened to the airline industry during the era of government regulation. Until 1978, the Federal government did not allow the airlines to charge fares lower than those set by the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB). These fares were higher than levels that would have prevailed in a competitive market. The government was essentially forcing the airline industry to act as a cartel. To get a bigger share of this lucrative market, each airline tried to offer more of the amenities that appealed to customers, such as hot meals and free movies. They also appealed to business travelers by scheduling frequent flights, even if meant that most of their planes were only half full. Because all of the airlines engaged in this type of non-price competition, their costs went up but market shares stayed the same, resulting in lower profits for everyone. This example provides an important lesson for the NCAA. The NCAA schools are prohibited from paying large amounts to the best student-athletes, but they still want to recruit these players in order to maximize their chances of winning. How does the University of Oregon football team convince a high school all-American running back to play for the Ducks rather than some other DI-A team? The answer is simple: shock and awe. As Christine Plonsky, associate athletic director at the University of Texas said, It's all about recruiting [w]hat you want is for kids to walk into your place and say, Wow! This is nicer than any other place I've been (Gaul and Fitzpatrick, 2000b). When a high school football recruit makes a visit to Oregons campus in Eugene, Oregon, his tour will include stops at Autzen Stadium, the Moshofsky Center and the Casanova Center. Autzen is the universitys 54,000 seat football stadium, originally built in 1967 but renovated several times since then. The most recent refurbishment, begun in 1999 and completed in 2002, cost $90 million and expanded seating by 12,000 (including 3,200 club seats), added 32 luxury boxes (which generate $1 million in revenues each year) and the 10,000 square foot Club at Autzen (access restricted to premium seat ticket holders and boosters), and installed FieldTurf, a state-of-theart artificial playing surface (Autzen Stadium, 2006; Munsey & Suppes, n.d.). The Moshofsky Center, which cost $15 million to construct, is notable because it was the first indoor practice facility in the Pac-10. It contains a regulation sized synthetic turf football field and a four-lane track, classrooms, a souvenir shop and concession facilities open to the public during games at Autzen Stadum. An adjacent outdoor practice field includes soccer and football fields designed for year round use (Autzen Stadium & Moshofsky Center, 20026). The 102,000 square foot, $12 million Casanova Center houses the football locker room, weight room, a kitchen for training table meals, trainers room, as well as offices for coaches and athletic department administrators, conference rooms, and media studios (Casanova Center, n.d.). The $3.2 million football locker room features a two-story atrium lounge and includes personalized lockers, Internet hookup, satellite television on 60-inch plasma screens, high-tech stereo equipment, an Xbox game machine, climate controls, calibrated lighting and leather couches (Vondersmith, 2003). The lavishly appointed weight room cost $4 million. If that is not enough, a fingerprint scanning system, right out of a Mission Impossible movie, controls access to the building. Facilities are a major component in the arms race and Oregon is not the only university that is actively upgrading its athletics faculties. Here are just two of many examples: % Penn State built the $14.7 million football facility  the Lasch Football Building  a  wood-paneled locker room that some say is nicer than any in the NFL, a two-story weight room, a spa, and a 180-seat auditorium for viewing game film (Gaul and Fitzpatrick, 2000b). Penn State s football stadium was renovated at a cost of $85 million. The renovation included the installation of 60 luxury suites that rent for $40,000-65,000 per year. % The University of Wisconsin opened a $76 million multipurpose arena, the Kohl Center in 1998. A university publication describes the facility as featuring 39 luxury suites that rent for $35,000 annually a 2300 square foot sports medicine facility [as well as a] 1600 square foot strength and conditioning room eight state-of-the-art-locker rooms designed with the needs of student-athletes in mind including team organizational meetings, an athletes social area, and study carrels. The athletes have a lounge area with sound system, video room, computers available in the study room, and, of course, a spacious dressing and shower area complete with multiple outlets and lighted mirrors (The Kohl Center, n.d.). Facilities expansion as part of the recruiting strategy is not limited to practice and playing facilities. As an administrator at Michigan State noted, [t]he athletics arms race has moved to academic support (Alexander, 2004). For example, Texas A&M spent about $8 million on the Center for Athletics Academic Services to provide services such as tutoring, academic advising, and a computer lab for student-athletes (Texas A&M, n.d.). The University of Florida has a $4.5 million Academic Advisement Center and spends $1.2 million each year for tutoring, note-takers, counseling, and learning disabilities services for the approximately 450 Gator athletes (Gaul and Fitzpatrick, 2000a). The fact that institutions spend money on recruiting visits and the construction and renovation of facilities is not conclusive evidence of excessive non-price competition. Periodically, existing facilities need to be refurbished and new buildings need to be erected. And every year athletes need to be recruited. But at what point does a reasonable and necessary expenditure by the athletic department become part of excessive spending to attract top athletes? One way to understand this issue is to ask the following question: if universities paid athletes an amount equal to their marginal revenue product would expenditures on state-of-the-art facilities and campus visits remain the same? It is likely that athletic departments would be guided by the reasonable and necessary principle rather than a policy of spend more than competing DI-A institutions. The arms race continues because no school has an incentive to stand down unilaterally. The net result is that profits for athletic departments are continually eroded, to the point that some schools may contemplate abandoning their football program or divert funds from other areas of campus. As University of Oregon Professor James Earl (2003), a member of the Coalition on Intercollegiate Athletics, put it, [a]s in the Cold War version, everyone involved seems to realize its danger but no one sees a way out. And no school can slow down unless all the others do, too, or risk a disadvantage on the playing field. Antitrust laws even prohibit any agreement to limit spending. Increased non-price competition is not inherently unprofitable. If the airline industry can attract more total passengers as a result of airlines competing to make the flying experience better (wider seats, frequent flights), then revenues increase along with costs. Unfortunately, this is not the case with the arms race in college football. Schools are competing for a limited number of top athletes, and NCAA rules put a limit on the number at each school. Further, the very nature of athletic competition makes it a zero-sum game. For every winner there is a loser. To understand this, consider the following example provided by Robert Frank (Frank, 2004), an economist who has studied winner-take-all markets in considerable detail. Suppose that 1,000 universities are considering whether or not to start an intercollegiate athletics program at a cost of $1 million per year. Each university knows with certainty that every year the universities with the ten best winning percentages will each collect $10 million in the form of a payoff. In essence, each universitys decision is a gamble and a decision to gamble or not is influenced by the expected value of the gamble. Suppose further that each universitys athletic program is identical in terms of the quality of its athletes, coaches, and facilities to every others. Should a university participate? The answer is no because in any given year the expected value is negative $890,000! The only way for the average university to at least break even would be if only 100 schools competed for the ten prizes of $10 million. In that case, each university would, on average, collect 10 million once every ten years, the amount exactly equal to the cost of running the program for that period of time. Of course, some schools can benefit from participating in the arms race, particularly those that make the first move. The President of the University of Oregon, David Frohnmayer said that Oregon athletics provide the institution with national exposure, attracts the attention of prospective students and their parents, and generates donations for both sports and academics. Earlier in the chapter we told the tale of the University of Oregon. Oregons president at that time fought tooth and nail not only to prevent budgets cuts to the athletic department but also to increase athletics funding. The president believed that a higher profile athletic department would pay dividends in terms of increased applications and admission. And he was right, Oregon athletics is now nationally recognized and the university is larger and better known. Who was Oregons president at that time? None other than Myles Brand! 6.7 Why Stay in the Game? If a typical athletic department is losing money, or facing that prospect in the near future as the arms race continues to escalate, why do they stay in the game? Reducing spending on football and mens basketball is not an easy solution, since the school will be unable to recruit good athletes and will end up losing most of their games, but there is always the option to move down to a lower division or even drop those sports. Put another way, why do schools engage in a gamble with a negative expected value? Franks explanation is similar to one we encountered in Section 5.8, the tendency for individuals to overrate their chances for success. As Frank (2004, p. 9) mentions, since it is unpleasant to think of oneself as below average, a solution is simply to think of oneself as above average. It should come as no surprise that the kinds of psychological bias we introduced in the previous chapter also apply to university administrators and athletic directors when they are estimating the anticipated revenues and publicity. Consequently they tend to step into the same trap; as Frank (2004, p. 10) states, the university administrators who decide whether to launch [or continue to support] big-time athletic programs are like normal human beings they are likely to overestimate the odds that their programs will be successful. Advocates for intercollegiate sports also raise a legitimate question when they ask if the library, or the registrars office, or the chemistry or history departments are not required to show a profit, why should the athletic department be treated any differently? The library does not charge students or faculty for their services, and yet few complain about its large annual deficit. At the same time, academic departments that attract few students are likely to suffer a reduction in their staffing. The point is that balancing dollars against services provided is far from an exact science. Few would deny that athletics provide a real benefit to academic institutions. The entertainment and pleasure derived from college sports plays a unique role on campuses across the nation. Consider the following perspective: The vast majority of faculty members in a university are intellectual workers, specialists, professionals, whose work is as grubby as that of other workers in society and just as practical Most, indeed, think their work is more important than that of coaches and players. Economically and socially, however, it would be difficult for them to prove that their work does have larger public significance Were I the president of a new state university or private college, or a member of the faculty, I would strongly encourage the development of a high-level athletic program within the realistic means of the school. The costs are great, but so are the returnsthe rejoicing of the human spirit, the unifying of many Universities that have turned away from intercollegiate sports seem to suffer from a lack of lightness and fun; a kind of stuffiness and arrogance surround them There are not many activities that can unite janitors, cafeteria workers, sophomores, and Nobel Prize winners in common pleasure. (Novak, 1994, pp. 290-300) Our point is not to begin a which is more important, sports or academics debate because we know education is far more valuable to society than sports (see Box 6.8). Like it or not, most of us understand that intercollegiate sports is an important part of university life and that many people, not just students, derive considerable utility from watching sports, reading about sports, and talking about sports. It is part of our culture. Moreover, sports and academics are not an either/or proposition; men and women can enjoy sports while simultaneously understanding and appreciating the value of higher education. That is the essence of the quotation above. Box 6.8 The Diamond-Water Paradox Applied to College Sports The diamond-water paradox (also referred to as the paradox of value) was of interest to the classical economists including Adam Smith. In Smiths The Wealth of Nations (Book I, Chapter IV, 13), he wrote that Nothing is more useful than water; but it will purchase scarce anything; scarce anything can be had in exchange for it. A diamond, on the contrary, has scarce any value in use; but a very great quantity of other goods may frequently be had in exchange for it. The question Smith was asking is simple: why is the price of water so cheap and the price of diamonds so expensive when the value of water to us is far greater than the value of diamonds? The paradox is easily resolved using the graphs below. The demand curve for water is drawn much farther to the right than the demand for diamonds because the demand for water is greater than for diamonds. The supply curve for water is drawn farther to the right because it is abundant while diamonds are scarce. Based on the configuration of the demand and supply curves, the equilibrium price (P*) of diamonds is greater than that of water. That should make sense: how much would you have to pay for one gallon water? For one carat of diamonds?  The net benefit to consumers derived from diamonds and water can be shown using the concept of consumer surplus, represented by the shaded area between the horizontal line at the equilibrium price and the demand curve. Notice that the value of consumer surplus for water is much higher than for diamonds. If you think of college sports as diamonds and undergraduate education as water, then the value of education far exceeds that of college sports. Finally, even with rising costs due to the arms race many members of DI are profitable, just not the majority. We saw in Table 6.11 that 35-40% of DI-A athletic departments reported a profit in the early 2000s even when excluding institutional support. This gives those athletic departments a degree of financial autonomy. While the university administration may favor a move to drop out of the arms race, it is less likely that they could influence an athletic department that is not dependent on financial support. How can the president complain about a $4 million salary package for a head football coach if the athletic department can claim that it will be entirely funded by revenue generated by the football program, and they will be able to subsidize non-revenue sports as well? 6.8 Can Athletics Be a Good Investment? Why does a university want to promote its intercollegiate athletics program? The President of the University of Oregon, David Frohnmayer said that Oregon athletics provide the institution with national exposure, attracts the attention of prospective students and their parents, and generates donations for both sports and academics. Recall at the beginning of the chapter we told the tale of the University of Oregon. Oregon ran into financial difficulties and there was pressure to drop out of the Pac-10 and reduce its financial commitment to intercollegiate sports. Oregons president at that time fought tooth and nail not only to prevent budgets cuts to the athletic department but also to increase athletics funding. The president believed that a higher profile athletic department would pay dividends in terms of increased applications and admission. And he was right, Oregon athletics is now nationally recognized and the university is larger and better known. Who was Oregons president at that time? None other than Myles Brand! It may seem ironic that Brand is now condemning the arms race a Pandoras Box he helped to open but the empirical evidence supports his criticisms. Research indicates that spending more on athletics does not lead to more on-the-field success. During the period 1993 to 2003, Orszag and Orszag (2005, p. 6) indicate, [w]e continue to conclude that increased operating expenditures on football or basketball are not associated with medium-term increases in winning percentages, and higher winning percentages are not associated with medium-term increase in operating revenue In addition, [o]ur statistical analyses suggest that between 1993 and 2003, an increase in operating expenditures of $1 on football or mens basketball in Division I-A was associated with approximately $1 in additional operating revenue, on average. The implication is that spending an extra $1 was not associated with any increase or decrease in net revenue (Orszag and Orszag, 2005, p. 5). This describes exactly what is happening at institutions like the University of Buffalo, Portland State University, and many other wannabe universities, especially those DI institutions outside the BCS. Why are the Buffalos and Portland States trying to run with big dogs like Alabama or Auburn? While there are many possible explanations, we will finish this chapter by exploring one with troubling implications for the state of higher education. 6.9 Beer & Circus The films Ben-Hur, Gladiator, and Spartacus, depict the citizens of Rome being entertained with gladiatorial combat and chariot races, spectacular and violent entertainment provided by the Roman government. The Roman politicians believed that if the people were well fed, and amused by the brutal spectacles in the Circus Maximus and the Colosseum, they would be disinterested in current events like the consolidation of political power in the hands of the Emperor and military threats to the Republic. Hence the phrase bread and circus came to symbolize the victuals and entertainment provided to keep attention diverted from more pressing matters. In his book Beer and Circus, Murray Sperber (2000) suggests something similar is happening in American universities. Sperber has long been a critic of the empire building and the arms race mentality demonstrated by the big-time sports programs. Unlike other critics who claim that out-of-control athletic department spending needs to be brought under control by university administrators, he refuses to hold administration blameless. In fact, his belief is that university presidents, board of directors, and other officials actively encourage and collaborate to increase athletics spending to increase the visibility of the athletics program and the university. Sperber claims that the modern day equivalent to bread and circus is beer and circus. Instead of Roman emperors it is university presidents, and instead of Roman citizens it is undergraduate students. But the goal is the same: keep Romans happy and preoccupied so that they do not notice the corruption and social decay in Roman society and politics, and keep students drunk and preoccupied so they will not notice the fact that they are getting little in the way of an education. Beer and Circus encourages students to place little value on their education. After all, you are going to spend the rest of your life working, paying taxes, bills, and running in the rat race. Why not party for four or five or six or seven years? What attracts a student to a university? Reputation? Faculty? Location? Size? Quality of academic programs? The library and other academic resources? Low tuition? Some combination of all of the above? According to Sperber, the most important factor is whether the university is considered to be a party school a college town atmosphere with plenty of bars and clubs, a Greek system, and a big-time sports program. While preparing his book, Sperber did a survey of college students around the nation. One question was How important a factor in your decision to attend your university was the fame of the schools intercollegiate athletic teams? One woman responded by saying, What kind of dumb-ass chooses their college on the basis of its sports teams? As it turns out, 56% of the male students and 26% of the women surveyed said that the prestige of the universitys athletic department was very or moderately important. If you are the president or a member of the administration at Arizona, Florida State, Oregon, or any other DI institution, this can actually be welcome news. How do you get a college-bound student to apply to your school? Convince them that they will be happy partying in Tucson, Tallahassee, or Eugene and rallying around the Wildcats, Seminoles, or Ducks. As far as their education we will come back to that. The beer and circus story consists of two assertions: first, greater investment in sports causes undergraduate enrollment, and the academic quality of entering students, to increase; second, donations increase with athletic success. We examine these ideas in turn. 6.9.1 Beer & Circus Does athletic success increase enrollment? The first assertion is that a successful athletic department increases awareness of the institution. This is like a form of advertising. Advertising is designed to increase applications, student enrollment, and academic quality (a university can be more selective in admissions). Athletic success also attracts a specific kind of student, one who places considerable value on the sports program. This student may not be of higher quality he may be a dumb-ass but he may be paying list price. Either way, whether more smart students apply to your institution, or more dumb-asses apply, enrollment increases. The idea that athletic success causes increases in admissions is famously expressed as the Flutie effect. On November 23, 1984, Boston College upset defending national champion Miami 47-45 in a nationally broadcast football game. This victory was largely the result of the last minute heroics of the quarterback, five-foot nine-inch Doug Flutie (who went on to win the Heisman Trophy). Admissions applications rose 12% at Boston College the following year and university presidents around the country started to ask themselves if they could accomplish the same result by plowing more resources into their sports program (Johnson, 2006a). Similar enrollment increases occurred elsewhere, including Georgetown when the basketball team was dominant in the mid-1980s, and at Northwestern when the football team made a surprising appearance in the 1996 Rose Bowl (Wharton, 2005). Does an emphasis on a winning sports program actually increase enrollment? And if it does, are better students enrolling or is it the dumb-asses (or some combination of both)? Put another way: while athletics success and enrollment appear to be positively correlated, is there any evidence that athletic success causes enrollment to increase? A study by Evan Osborne suggests that university administrators may be on to something. More spending on athletics is positively correlated (and statistically significant) with the SAT scores of incoming freshmen, suggesting that demand had indeed increased. Osborne (2004, p. 61) notes that universities with more resources spend more on athletics, and get better students as a result [s]chools spend resources on athletics because it, along with better education, is what students want. The implication is that college and universities must compete with each other for students. If students view athletics as an integral part of the college experience, colleges must offer sports to attract students. But heres a sobering thought: what happens to applications when the schools [athletic] performance drops off (Zimbalist, 1999, p. 170)? In other words, does the Flutie effect work in both directions? How long can any one team win? For each conference it is a zero sum game. Suppose the PAC 10 has 10 teams who play each other once. Can all the teams have winning records? How many teams get to the championships? Osborne (2004, pp. 55-56) echoes this concern, one could infer that the pursuit of athletic success by many schools simultaneously will create many losers for every winner, damaging the vast majority of schools that spend liberally in an attempt to achieve athletic success. Perhaps more importantly is evidence about the Flutie effect from Boston College itself. An administrator at Boston College said his personal impact on enrollment during this period has been exaggerated. Applications did rise, 16% in 1984 and 12% in 1985. But such increases were not unusual, applications increased twelve times in a thirteen year period (1970-1983) and, following a 4-7 season by the football team, 17% in 1999. The college claims that aggressive marketing, networking with alumni, and improvements to non-athletics physical capital were mostly responsible for an increase in applications and enrollments (McDonald, 2003). Other researchers have examined the relationship between expenditures on athletics and academic quality. For example, a recent survey of this research by Frank (2004, p. 25) concluded that the existing empirical literature suggest that success in big-time athletics has little, if any, systematic effect on the quality of incoming freshmen Orszag and Orszag (2005, p. 7) indicated that no relationship exists either positive or negative between spending on football and mens basketball and the academic quality of undergraduate applicants. In other words, every year a few schools will experience the Flutie effect but the majority of them will not. As we noted in Chapter 2, Section 2.9, the most severe penalty ever inflicted by the NCAA was the death penalty applied to Southern Methodist University in 1987. While there is some evidence that SMUs athletic department has never fully recovered from that sanction, it remains less clear if the death penalty hurt the institution as a whole. The table below shows undergraduate enrollment trends at SMU from 1987-2005. Also, Goff (2000, p. 100) indicates that the death penalty did not reduce SMUs ability to attract funds other than those funds that were attracted due to its becoming a national football power. Year Enrollment Year Enrollment 1987 8,794 1997 9,708 1988 8,944 1998 10,038 1989 8,924 1999 10,361 1990 8,798 2000 10,064 1991 8,746 2001 10,266 1992 8,978 2002 10,961 1993 8,931 2003 11,161 1994 9,014 2004 10,901 1995 9,172 2005 11,152 1996 9,464 Source: Mr. John Kalb, SMU Office of Institutional Research 6.9.2 Beer & Circus Does athletic success increase donations? The second assertion is that a high profile athletic department increases donations to the academic mission of the university. This relationship continues to be vigorously debated by scholars. The suggestion is that athletics donations cause a positive externality; even if donors are interested in athletics and not academics, their donations trigger additional donations by others. To put it in plainer economic terminology: athletics donations and academic donations are complements; not only do they tend to increase in the same direction, contributions to the athletic department increase athletics success and increase the publicity for the institution. This, in turn causes increased contributions for academic purposes as well as for sports, and some statistical evidence supports this assertion. Other researchers disagree. They argue that athletics endowments are substitutes for academics, and that every $1 donated to the athletic department causes $1 less to be directed to academics. For example, Zimbalist (1999, p. 168) argues that no studies show a statistically significant relationship between athletic success and general endowment gifts. Orszag and Orszag (2005, p. 7) find no relationship between increased spending on football and mens basketball and alumni donations. Frank (2004, p. 26), suggests while the overall net effect of athletic success on alumni giving is positive, it is likely to be small. And Lombardi (2003, p. 12) notes, [w]hile it appears that highly successful athletic programs can enhance giving to sports, it is not at all clear that sports success contributes to academic fund-raising. Even if donations for academics and athletics are complements, not substitutes, there are other issues to consider. If athletic success does lead to increased contributions then a lack of success could reduce both kinds of contributions. Access to philanthropic donations by academic programs may be jeopardized simply because of a losing season or bad publicity about the athletic department. 6.9.3 Beer & Circus How does an emphasis on athletics compromise the quality of education? Sperbers argument goes beyond the fact that university administrators think the sport is a good investment. He also states that the fixation on sports is accompanied by a profound lack of interest in undergraduate education. There are many ways the educational mission of a university can be compromised. It may be unable to attract good faculty or not have enough resources for the library, science labs, language labs, or tutoring centers. Its classes may be too large or crowded, and classes may not be offered or offered often enough. And the quality of the education provided in class may be poor. Sperber emphasizes the last possibility. What is the key component in determining the quality of your education? It is probably what goes on in class. That raises the question: what is the contribution by the professor? What does a typical professor at a major research university want out of life? She wants a big salary and fame, and time to pursue her research interests. She wants to travel to academic conferences and take frequent sabbaticals. She wants to experience the satisfaction of pursuing her own interests and the prestige from publishing articles in academic journals and books. She wants promotions, to earn tenure and then eventually become a full professor. With promotions comes higher salary. Her research can open up other sources of revenue like financial support (grants) from foundations and government. Her research activity can become self-reinforcing; grant money can be used to buy out from teaching (hire a temporary replacement), which leaves more time for research. More research results in more prestige, more money, and promotion. If she achieves all of these things she will live a pretty good life. Unfortunately, there is a major drawback to being a professor. She must teach. Even professors who are not economists understand the concept of opportunity cost. They know that every hour in class (or preparing for class) is an hour not spent on research. They know that less research=less prestige=less money=less satisfaction=less of everything. They have to ask themselves: do I want more or less? Professors are like other homo sapiens, they are rational and self-interested beings who want to maximize their utility. Maximization of utility requires they respond to the incentive structure of the university. What is the incentive structure in a modern university like Arizona, Florida State, or Oregon? It is exceedingly simple: research matters and teaching does not. If you are a professor who publishes often you will be rewarded with promotions, higher salary, a reduced teaching load, opportunities to travel, and greater prestige. You will be held in great esteem by the administration at your university, even if you are a poor teacher. But suppose you are an excellent teacher but not a very good researcher. What happens? You get no rewards and probably will not get tenure. Once you get denied tenure you are like the woman in The Scarlet Letter. No one in the academic world wants anything to do with you. What leads to a lack of research by a professor? Sometimes it is sloth, other times incompetence. But it usually comes from insufficient time. We already said that every hour in class (or preparing for class) is an hour not spent on your research. How do you capture time for research? You make it. You work evenings, you work weekends, and you reduce your commitment to your classes. You use the same notes, the same text, the same examples, the same exams, year after year after year. You reduce your office hours. You offer multiple choice exams rather than essays. You assign no writing assignments. Every hour you can reclaim is an hour for research, for your future success, for prestige, promotion and higher salary. Every hour in class, or preparing for class, or talking to students outside class, is like digging another foot deeper in your grave. Thats the way the system works. Are all schools like this? Absolutely not. But the schools that are most like this tend to be the same schools with a big-time sports program. And that is Sperbers point. These schools are research universities that reward faculty if they are accomplished scholars, not if they are accomplished teachers. But here is the catch, these schools cannot subsist solely from foundation and government grants, tuition from graduate students, and public subsidies; they need undergraduate tuition to survive even though they have no interest in educating undergraduates. So, how do they keep the undergraduates contented and unaware that the degree they are earning will be of little value? By encouraging them to party until the day they graduate. What are the students perspectives? According to Sperber, with a few exceptions, most students understand that there is a non-aggression pact a live and let live policy between faculty and undergraduate students. This is also known as the I pretend to teach if you pretend to learn phenomenon. I will make this class as easy as possible for you. I will put a copy of my lecture notes on library reserve (the same notes I prepared 10 years ago). I will ask the same exam questions I have been asking for the last 10 years. All exams will be multiple-choice. I will do nothing to deter cheating. We will watch at least one video every week. I will use a very generous curve and most of you, regardless of whether youve learned anything, will get an A or B. If you want to use class time to read a magazine, talk to your friends, pass notes, eat your lunch, check text messages, or listen to your iPod, go ahead. In fact, if you prefer skipping class entirely, please do so, because I really do not care. I discourage questions and I will be impossible to find outside of class. Go ask the teaching assistants; that is why they are here. And by the way, I have tenure so you are stuck with me, I cannot get fired. Do not ask me about a letter of recommendation for a job or grad school because I do not know anything about youyou are just one of 499 other students in this classand I thats the way I like it (over 80% of DI-A schools have enrollments in excess of 20,000). Hopefully, you can party a lot, watch the Wildcats, Seminoles or Ducks play, and leave with a completely worthless degree. Just be sure to pay your tuition on time. As John Belushis character in the film Animal House said, seven years of college down the drain. Is the Beer and Circus story accurate? We will leave that to you to decide. But Sperber is not the only person suggesting that undergraduate education is being compromised by athletics (see, e.g., Twitchell, 2004, pp. 167-191; Gerdy, 2006). What do you think? Do you believe that athletics are over-stressed at your university? Do you have large classes taught mostly by teaching assistants? Are your professors hard to find and uninterested in talking to you? Are your fellow students attending the university mainly for the booze, parties, sex, and sports? When you are in your Wednesday morning macroeconomics class with Professor Tedious, do you find yourself dreaming about the weekend and the big game and the keggers? Are you getting a good education? Do you care? Does the faculty at your university care? Does anyone? 6.10 Chapter Summary We began this chapter by introducing you to some common kinds of athletic department revenues and expenses. Then we presented evidence that suggests that with only a handful of exceptions, the typical DI-A athletic department loses money and requires subsidies, usually from student activity fees and the universitys general fund. We stressed that subsidization is not inconsistent with university policy. Operational units like academic departments, administration, or the library are not required to show a profit; why should sports? However, unlike other units, athletic departments are engaged in an arms race, a race in which there are more losers than winners. What should be done about the profligate spending at DI-A institutions? We will get to that in Chapter 9. But first we want you to learn about two more important issues: the role of the media in college sports, and gender, race and legal aspects of intercollegiate athletics. 6.11 Key Terms Appearance guarantee Arms race Average cost Beer and circus Boosters Complements Corporate sponsorship Deregulation Endowment Excess capacity Expected value Flutie effect Marginal cost Marginal revenue product Naming rightsNon-price competition Normal profits Personal seat license Positive externality Premium seating Premium ticket pricing Price elasticity of demand Second degree price discrimination Special interest groups Substitutes Sweatshop Third degree price discrimination Utility Willingness to pay Zero sum game 6.12 Review Questions 1. Other than tickets for college sports games, what other examples of second degree price discrimination can you think of? What other businesses use second degree price discrimination by charging a fixed fee (a license to buy) and a separate usage fee? 2. What are the pros and cons of booster contributions? If you were a university president, what restrictions, if any, would you impose on booster contributions? 3. Apply the diamond-water paradox to a concept covered in Chapter 5. 4. Why is it important to differentiate between average costs and marginal costs when determining the cost of an athletics scholarship? 5. If the NCAA allowed student-athletes to be paid the value of their MRP, what impact would this have on the importance of campus visits for recruiting? 6. Summarize reasons why an athletic department might want to inflate its losses or deflate its profits. 7. Describe how non-price competition can decrease the profitability of an athletic department. 8. Suppose that there are 100 schools competing for the ten prizes of $10 million each, and that the cost of competing is $1 million per year. Calculate the expected value of the gamble. 6.13 Discussion Questions 1. How much of a subsidy does the athletic department at your school receive from the schools general fund? How much from student fees? 2. Choose any DI school. Go to the athletic department or athletics web page and see if there is a link to a booster club. What sort of benefits do boosters get that are unavailable to the average student at that school? 3. What national sponsorships does your schools athletic department have? What local sponsorships? 4. If you were a university administrator, what rules would you impose on corporate sponsorships of athletics? 5. Should athletes be forced to wear athletics apparel and equipment provided by corporate sponsors? If you were a student-athlete, can you think of circumstances in which you might be reluctant to support a corporate sponsor of your team? 6. Do naming rights only apply to sports facilities? Can you think of any non-sports facilities or academic programs on your campus that are named? 7. Is athletic department independence from the authority of the university desirable? You may remember from your macroeconomics or money and banking classes that the Fed does not rely on Congressional appropriations (unlike, e.g., the Department of the Treasury). The Fed generates its own income from interest earned on government securities and payments for services provided to banks and other financial institutions. The Fed has freedom to act with less political interference. This independence is generally thought to be beneficial for our country because it prevents monetary policy from becoming politicized (for example, it prevents Congress from manipulating the money supply and interest rates to serve its own interests). Is athletic department independence from the authority of the university similarly desirable? 8. Should an athletic department show a profit? Describe reasons why it may be unnecessary or undesirable for the department to earn a profit. Describe reasons why it may the department should earn a profit. 9. You are the President at a DI-A public university like UC-Berkeley. Your athletic department is losing millions of dollars each year. You and the AD must prepare a plan to bring athletics to a point where it is close to breaking even. What actions will you take in the short run to achieve the objective. What actions in the long run? 10. Assume that there are two universities, the University of Boregon and Boregon State University. Use the prisoners dilemma model from Chapter 2 to show why schools have an incentive to engage in the arms race. Your available strategies are spend high and spend low. For the payoffs use the net revenue the athletic department expects to receive depending on the outcome of the game. 11. How would the quality of education change if professors at DI universities were paid to teach rather research? 12. At your school, and in your experience, is there any evidence that Sperbers Beer and Circus story is true? 13. Can a Beer and Circus environment exist without a Greek system and/or a college town atmosphere? Can you think of any other factors that contribute to Beer and Circus? 6.13 Assignments/Internet Questions 1. Go to the IndyStar.com database (www2.indystar.com/ NCAA_financial_reports/) and select a university. Scroll through the menu to find football revenue and mens and womens basketball revenue. Then scroll through expenses to find the amount of money spent on scholarships. Divide the scholarships figure by the programs revenue. 2. Go to the IndyStar.com database and select any DI-A institution. Download the athletic department financial information (revenues) and compare it to Tables 6.1 and 6.2. Do the same with expenses and compare to Tables 6.7 and 6.8. 3. Go to the IndyStar.com database and select any DI-A institution. Download the athletic department revenue and expenses. Now go to the OPE database (www.ope.ed.gov/athletics) and find the revenue and expense data for the same institution. How similar are the two reports? 4. If your library subscribes to the Sports Business Journal, skim the last three issues and see what new marketing innovations are being used by pro sports franchises and by college athletic departments. Are any of the new pro innovations not yet at the college level? 5. Choose any three DI schools of your choice. Go the athletic department or athletics web page and see if there is a link to a booster club. Download the information for all three schools and compare and contrast. 6. Go to www.ballparks.com, select football and then NCAA. Choose a conference and then a particular stadium. Have there been any major renovations in the past ten years, including the addition of luxury boxes and other amenities? 6.14 References Adams, R. (2005, November 12). Why your school has hope. Wall Street Journal. Retrieved August 6, 2006, from http://online.wsj.com/public/article/ SB113174157617795065f9lKtBJ5ZyxlE44iTr6fMNSCsqQ_20061114.html? mod=rss_free Adams, R. (2006a, March 11). College basketball: Pay for playoffs. Wall Street Journal, p. P1. Adams, R. (2006b, August 12). Deep in the pocket. Wall Street Journal, p. P3. Adamy, J. (1997, October 17). Coporate sponsors invest in U. Michigan Daily. Retreived January 12, 2006 from http://www.pub.umich.edu/daily/1997/oct/10-17-97/news/news2.html. Adidas says it wont make Arkansas player wear its shoes. (2005, October 20). Retrieved August 12, 2006, from http://www.sportsline.com/collegebasketball/story/8987679 Alabama banned from bowl games for two years. (2002, February 1). Retrieved September 8, 2006, from http://espn.go.com/ncf/news/2002/0201/1321198.html Alexander, C. (2004, September 18). Tutors serve as a new recruit tool: Sports arms race touts academics. News & Observer, p. XX. Armstrong, D. (2005, March 14). Winning by losing. Wall Street Journal, p. R10. Autzen Stadium. (2006, August 31). Retrieved September 5, 2006, from http://www.goducks.com/ViewArticle.dbml?SPSID=3802&SPID=252&DB_OEM_ID=500&ATCLID=22175 Autzen Stadium & Moshofsky Center. (January 14, 2006). Retrieved September 5, 2006, from http://www.goducks.net/sports/football/autzen.shtml Baade, R., & Sundberg, J. (1996, December). Fourth down and gold to go? Assessing the link between athletics and alumni giving. Social Science Quarterly, 77, 789-803. Bachman, R. (2005, April 30). NCAA fears sports departments getting too big for own budgets. The Oregonian, p. A01. Bachman, R. (2006a, January 29). E-mails: To measure the interest of prospects, coaches are turning to companies that utilize modern technology. The Oregonian, p. C01. Bachman, R. (2006b, January 29). UOs creative recruiting. The Oregonian, p. C07. Bachman, R. (2006c, July 31). Building costs drive up price tag for splashy arenas. The Oregonian, p. D01. Bailey, B. (2005, October 23). Sooner born, Sooner dead. Retrieved August 10, 2006, from http://www.oudaily.com/vnews/display.v/ART/2005/10/13/434f2a222197a Beseda, J. (2006, July 30). Bob the builder. The Oregonian, p. B1. Bolt, G. (2001, May 31). Athletic department subsidy at university to be phased out. The Eugene Register-Guard, p. XX. Brady, E., & Upton, J. (2005, November 17). NCAA recognizes growing problem with costs. USA Today. Retrieved XXX XX, XXX, from http://www.usatoday.com/sports/college/2005-11-17-financial-report_x.htm Brand, M. (2005). NCAA president calls for value-based budgeting for intercollegiate athletics programs. Retrieved December 6, 2006 from http://www2.ncaa.org/ media_and_events/press_room/2005/january/20050108_soa_speech.html). Buker, P. (2005, September 6). Broncos bid to take it up a notch takes a hit. The Oregonian, p. D01. Casanova Center (n.d.). Retrieved September 5, 2006, from http://www.goducks.com/ ViewArticle.dbml?SPSID=3802&SPID=252&DB_OEM_ID=500&ATCLID=22183 Coroner examining brutal death of Alabama booster. (2006. April 12). Retrieved September 10, 2006, from http://www.cstv.com/sports/m-footbl/stories/041206aao.html Duderstadt, J. J. (2000). Intercollegiate athletics and the American university. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. Earl, J. W. (2003, August 10). The athletics arms race. The Oregonian, p. F01. Fish, M. (2005, October 22). The Crimson Hide: How Vols boosters dug up the dirt that sent Bamas biggest braggart to the big house. Retrieved July 18, 2006, from http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/eticket/story?page=crimson Forestry dean at Oregon State U. draws fire for role in research controversy. (2006, May 19). The Chronicle of Higher Education News Blog. Retrieved May 25, 2006 from chronicle.com/news/article/464/forestry-dean-at-oregon-state-u-draws-fire-for-role-in-research-controversy Frank, R. (2004). Challenging the myth: A review of the links among college athletic success, student quality, and donations. Knight Foundation Commission on Intercollegiate Athletics. Retrieved May 10, 2005, from http://www.knightfdn.org/ default.asp?story=publications/2004_frankreport/index.html Fulks, D. (2005). 2002-2003 NCAA revenues and expenses of divisions I and II intercollegiate athletics programs report. Indiana, IN: National Collegiate Athletics Association. Gaul, G., & Fitzpatrick F. (2000a, September 12). Academic-support efforts helping to win recruiting wars. Philadelphia Inquirer , p. A21. Gaul, G., & Fitzpatrick F. (2000b, September 12). On campus, an edifice complex. Philadelphia Inquirer, p. A01. Gaul, G., & Fitzpatrick F. (2000c, September 10). Rise of the athletic empires. At schools such as Penn State, corporate sponsors and boosters fund an athletic juggernaut. Philadelphia Inquirer, p. A01. Gerdy, J. (2006). Air ball: American educations failed experiment with elite athletics. Jackson, MS: University of Mississippi Press. Goff, B. (2000). Effects of university athletics on the university: A review and extension of empirical assessment. Journal of Sport Management, 14, 85-104. Grimes, P. W., & Chressanthus, G. A. (1994). Alumni contributions to academics: The role of intercollegiate sports and NCAA sanctions. American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 53(1), 27-40. Heuser, J. (2005, January 20). Massive renovation for Michigan Stadium. Ann Arbor News. Retrieved August 15, 2006, from http://www.mlive.com/wolverines/aanews/ football/index.ssf?/stories/wolverines/20050120_mainstory.html Johnson, C. S. (2005, November 10). U-system athletics makes $3 million profit in 05. Retrieved December 18, 2005, from http://www.montanaforum.com/ modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=4089&mode=thread&order=0&thold=0. Johnson, G. (2006a, July 31). The Flutie effect. NCAA News, p. 5. Johnson, G. (2006b, December 22). Football success gives schools reason to cheer. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved December 24, 2006, from http://www.latimes.com/sports/ college/football/la-sp-bcs22dec22,1,4920072.story?coll=la-headlines-sports Lombardi, J. V. (2003). The sports imperative in Americas research universities. Gainsville, FL: University of Florida, TheCenter. Retrieved April 10, 2005, from http://thecenter.ufl.edu/TheSportsImperative.pdf#search=%22The%20Sports%20Imperative%20in%20America%E2%80%99s%20Research%20Universities%22. Lovaglia, M., & Lucas, J. (2005, Winter). High visibility athletic programs and the prestige of public universities. The Sport Journal, 8. Retrieved December 17, 2005, from http://www.thesportjournal.org/2005Journal/Vol8-No1/michael_lovaglia.asp McCormick, R., & and Tinsley, M. (1987). Athletics versus academics? Evidence from SAT scores. Journal of Political Economy, 95, 1103-1116. McDonald, B. (2003, Spring). The Flutie factor is now received wisdom. But is it true? Boston College Magazine. Retrieved May 12, 2004, from http://bcm.bc.edu/issues/spring_2003/ll_phenomenology.html Michigan fan demographics. (n.d.). Retrieved February 20, 2006 from http://www.mgoblue.com/document_display.cfm?document_id=10571. Munsey, P., & Suppes. C. (n.d.). Autzen Stadium. Retrieved December 6, 2006, from http://football.ballparks.com/NCAA/Pac10/Oregon/index.htm Naming opportunities. (2006).. Retrieved July 8, 2006, from GoPSUsports.com web site: http://www.nlclub.com/naming.cfm National Association of College and University Business Officers. (2006). 2005 NACUBO endowment study. Washington, DC: Author. NCAA Division I update for Longwood University. (2003). Retrieved May 5, 2005, from http://www.longwoodlancers.com/Sports/gen/2003/Division%20I%20Update.asp NCAA Division I reclassification timeline. (2005). Retrieved August 10, 2006 from http://www.longwoodlancers.com/Pdfs/gen/2005/11/6/NCAADIReclassification.pdf Novak, M. (1994). The joy of sports: Endzones, bases, baskets, balls and the consecration of the American spirit (Rev. ed.). Lanham, MD: Madison Books. ONeil, D. P. (2006, August 8). Blackberry whine: Text messaging by overzealous recruiters getting out of hand. Philadelphia Daily News. Retrieved August 20, 2006, from http://www.philly.com/mld/dailynews/sports/15225729.htm Oregon State Board of Higher Education. (2005, January 6). Fiscal status of intercollegiate athletics as of June 30, 2005. Other info?? Orszag, J. M., & Orszag, P. R. (2005). The empirical effects of collegiate athletics: an update. Washington, DC: Competition Policy Associates. Osborne, E. (2004). Motivating college athletics. In J. Fizel and R. Fort (Eds.), Economics of college sports (pp. 51-62). Westport, CT: Praeger. Perkins gets raise of $20K. (2006, August 3). Lawrence Journal-World. Retrieved August 10, 2006, from http://www2.ljworld.com Pickens donates record $165 million to Oklahoma State. (2006, January 10). Retrieved December 5, 2006, from http://sports.espn.go.com Pittman, Alan. (2001, June 21). Inflated Ducks. Eugene Weekly. Retreived December 6, 2006, from http://www2.eugeneweekly.com/2001/06_21_01/coverstory.html. Slater, J. (n.d.) Sneak attack: Exploring the effects of Nike and Reebok sponsorships on two college athletic programs Unpublished manuscript. Retrieved July 30, 2006, from http://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~slaterj/sneak.htm Sperber, M. (1998). Onward to victory: The creation of modern college sports. New York: Henry Holt. Sperber, M. (2000). Beer and circus: How big-time college sports is crippling undergraduate education. New York: Henry Holt. Stern, C. S. (2003). The faculty role in the reform of intercollegiate athletics: Principles and recommended practices. Academe, 89(1), 64-70. Stinson, J. L., & Howard, D. R. (in press). Athletic success and private giving to athletic and academic programs at NCAA institutions. Journal of Sport Management. Texas A&M University Center for Student-Athlete Services. (n.d.). Retrieved August 5, 2006, from http://www.aggieathletics.com/academics/index.php The Kohl Center. (n.d.). Retrieved September 5, 2006, from http://www.uwbadgers.com/ facilities/kohl_center/index_47.html Twitchell, J. (2004). Branded nation: The marketing of megachurch, college inc., and museumworld. New York: Simon and Schuster. Upton, J., & Brady, E. (2005, October 18). Errors mar equity reports. USA Today Retrieved August 12, 2006, from http://www.usatoday.com/sports/college/2005-10-18-equity-reports-cover_x.htm. Vondersmith, Jason. (2003, November 7). Duck vets have known good and bad. Portland Tribune. Retrieved March 10, 2004, from http://www.portlandtribune.com/sports/ story.php?story_id=21238 Weiner, J. (2002, August 18). College football 2002 arms race: Gophers trail in arms race. Star Tribune. Retrieved XXX from http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-90510383.html Wharton, D. (2005, December 30). Success yields few startling admissions. The Los Angeles Times, p. D1. Zimbalist, A. (1999). Unpaid professionals: Commericalism and conflict in big-time college sports. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.  According to Orszag and Orszag (2005, p. 2), approximately three percent of a DI-A university budget was spent on athletics in 1997. By 2001, spending on athletics had increased to approximately four percent. It is important to note that their estimates did not include capital (i.e., facilities) spending. Frank (2004, p. 3) notes that during the period 1995-2001, spending on athletics rose about two and one-half times as rapidly as overall institutional spending. Bachman (2005) reports that In the Pacific-10 Conference seven athletic departments doubled their budgets between 1997 and 2003. Three California, the University of Southern California and Oregon State tripled theirs.  For example, University of Oregon Professor Jim Earl suggests there is a big clash of values between the megabucks athletics at Oregon and the core academic mission of the university (Pittman, 2001).  As Brand (2005) noted, [i]t is critical to note that these budgets have risen at the same time higher education has gone through a series of economic downturns. The financial pressures of maintaining and enhancing large physical plants, competing for, hiring and retaining faculty and staff, and increased technology demands have exacerbated the problem.  Frank (2004, p. 3), claims student fees generally generate 20% of athletic department revenue. About 60% of all DI institutions rely on student activity fees.  A more complete treatment of third degree price discrimination in college sports would include the effect of capacity constraints and the fact that the cost of providing a seat for an additional fan is essentially zero until the point of capacity is reached.  See, among others: (Fish, 2005) and (Alabama banned, 2002). Young was murdered while awaiting sentencing (Coroner examining, 2006). Means played one season for Alabama and transferred to Memphis where he finished his football career. Does your school have its own College Barbie? See some examples at http://www.rbdolls.com/dolls/college.html.  Information about the WRC is available at: http://www.workersrights.org/  For a partial list of naming rights for professional and collegiate sports facilities around the world: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sports_venues_with_sole_naming_rights  For an extensive list of expenses that are often omitted from athletic department budgets see Lombardi (2003, p. 21).  . Of the 50 schools included in the article, roughly one half had expenses rising more rapidly than revenues.  Heres proof of excess capacity: http://www.nacacnet.org/MemberPortal/ForStudents/ 2006SpaceAvailabilityResults.htm  In a free market, a rising price will eliminate any temporary shortage. In the case of the latest hot toy, by not choking off the shortage with a higher price the manufacturer can actually encourage even greater demand. A gift that required a great deal of effort to buy may mean more to a recipient, who can proudly show off their new toy to their envious friends.  The IndyStar.com information is the most up to date and detailed for public DI institutions. Data are available for football, mens basketball, womens basketball, all other sports combined, and the total. Revenue categories include ticket sales, student fees, guarantees, donations, government support, institutional support, NCAA and conference distributions, media rights, concessions, advertisements and sponsorships, and endowments and investments. The expense categories are scholarships, salaries, guarantees, severance payments, recruiting, travel, equipment, games expenses, promotions, sports camps, facilities maintenance, spirit groups, medical and memberships. The database is at: http://www2.indystar.com/NCAA_financial_reports/.  Also, publicly supported institutions must broach the issue of the extent to which taxpayers should finance the expansion of athletics departments rather than academic programs or facilities.  Goff (2000) mentions that when more transparent, and theoretically sound, accounting estimates were applied to the athletics budget at Western Kentucky University, a $1.2 million surplus was reduced to $300,000. An apparent $700,000 loss at Utah State was actually a $366,000 profit.  Some exceptions exist. For example, mens and womens ice hockey at WisconsinMadison and womens basketball at Connecticut are profitable programs.  Recruits are not the only ones who are impressed. Mitch Barnhart, Athletic Director at Kentucky, recounts a trip he made while he was working at Oregon State. Barnhart and Bob De Carolis, Oregon States Athletic Director, went to Eugene, Oregon to look at new athletics facilities on the University of Oregon campus. He said they were amazed and wondered [w]hat have we got ourselves into (Beseda, 2006).  In a few years, basketball recruits at Oregon should be able to tour a new arena, designed to seat 12,500 and with construction costs estimated at $160 million (Bachman, 2006c).  Heres the math. EV=(.0.01)(+$10,000,000)+(0.99)(-$1,000,000) = $890,000.  Sperber (1998) quotes a university official at a school with a big-time program: We certainly cant give our students a quality degree but at least we can encourage students to have fun, and identify with our teams while theyre here Football Saturdays are great here, and so are winter basketball nights. In our Admissions Office literature, weve stopped saying that we provide a good education our lawyers warned us that we could get sued for misrepresentation (p. 509).  A recent study by Lovaglia and Lucas (2005) buttresses Sperbers survey. However, there is evidence to the contrary. A survey of 500 high school seniors in 2000 (Intercollegiate athletics, 2000) suggested that only 10-15% considered intercollegiate sports to be a significant consideration in their choice of college or university. Of greater weight were job and internship opportunities, student organizations, community service opportunities, and intramural sports. The report also suggested that students who most considered intercollegiate sports to be an important consideration had significantly lower SAT/ACT scores and household incomes than those who did not (p. 3).  In fairness to high school seniors everywhere, they might choose a school based partly on its athletic programs even if they have no intention to party before, during and after big games. A record of winning sports teams may convince the general public that all of the universitys programs are of high quality, including academics. If employers are influenced by a schools reputation as a winner or loser, even subconsciously, then it makes sense for prospective students to take this into account. Sperbers survey did not ask students why they valued athletic success.  Rarely mentioned is that if you can show that you can pay list price tuition, especially if you are an out-of-state student, you will be admitted to virtually every public? college or university in the country regardless of your GPA or your SATs.  Sperber suggests that a beer and circus campus environment may be necessary for the Flutie effect to work. Economist Victor Matheson argues that the Flutie effect may operate in a manner similar to loss leaders at retail stores, schools use athletics to get prospective students in the door (see Johnson, 2006b).  See, e.g., McCormick & Tinsley (1987), Grimes and Chressanthis (1994), and Baade and Sundberg (1996).  Grimes and Chressanthis (1994) found that bad publicity, especially major violations of NCAA rules, cause donations to fall. This literature is summarized in a study by Stinson and Howard (n.d., p. 16). They differentiate between alumni and non-alumni donations to academic and athletics. Their results point to some of the complexities involved in attempting to predict how athletic performance will impact giving. They suggest that variations in athletic success tend to impact alums and non-alums giving about the same, team success does appear to influence donors to athletics programs more than donors to academic programs.  Sperber does mention some exceptions; heres one: In my four years at Michigan State, I have had exactly four classes under twenty-five students and a real professor in charge. All the rest of my courses have been jumbo lectures with hundreds of students, and a professor miles away, or classes with TAs, or not regular faculty, people who come in off the street and teach a course or two (Sperber, 2000, 78).      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Athletic Dir-[)e-)ctor-` >)G ( -*;Any-)F -) t-[) i-)me-[)4 -) you-[)B -) can-[)B -) n-[)a-)me-[)4 -) the-[)8 -) head-[)Y -) of-[)$ -) a-[) -) university-[) -) befor-)ae-) -) you can name th-[(e -(% head coach-[),-)  you-[)M-)ve-)( -) got-[); a-)# probl-[)oe-)m-)  -) at-[)$ -) that-)H -) football-[) -) prog-)Wr-)am.-P )B -(_) -[) D-)!anny-)Y -) S-[)h-)eridan-[)r,-)  sports-)y -) analyst-P ) -` >( -*:Positive-[) -) n-[)a-)+me recognition [from athletics success] has-[( -) been very -[)h-)elpful. (But -[)JI-) wouldnt-) -) sa-[))y-) it-)% -) has-[)@ -) bee-[)?n-) the main-) -) factor-[)n -) [in-)6 -) incr-[)Je-)ased-)T -) enrollment-[)}-).-P )  -(IH) Steve-[)pn-) S-[)$a-)mple-[)[,-)  -[) P-)resident-) -) o-[)f-) the University-(I -) o-[)f-) South-[)ve-)rn-)& -[) C-) alifornia-` >) ( -*:6.1 -[)OI-)ntr-[)<o-)du-[)2c-)tion-P )L -(In-)& -) his presi)dential-)} -)address to the 2005-[( -)N-[) CA-)@A-)  -)conven-[)t-)ion-); -) (see Box -[)6-).1)-[)1, -(KMyles-")r -)B-[)r-)and-)B -)re-[)#f-)erred-)] -)to-[)$ -)the-)8 -) athletics-[) -) spending-) -)spiral-[)z -) occurring-) -)at-)! -)D-[) I -(instit-)]u-)tions.-)e -)He-)4 -)voice-[)cd-U) -)conc-[)Ve-)rn- )& -)about-[)f -)the- )8 -)gr-[)&o-)win-[)Dg-U) -)trend )xof-U)& -)athleti-[)sc -( departments-) -)bec-[)?o-)ming-})^ -) financially-[) -) independent-}) -)from-[)X -)the-})8 -)uni);versity-)} -)an-)+d -(he-})+ -)3stressed that athletics must be fully integrated i-(n-)to-)$ -)the-)8 -) educational-[) -(4mission-) -)of the university.-[(4 -) President-) -)Brand-[)~s-) -)c-[)o-)m-[)#m-)$ents-)J -)reflect-[)t -)th-[)$e-) -[)m-)$ai-[)!n -(oconcerns - P) -)*of this chapter: the apparent unrestrained-(o -)growth - @D) -)in-)$ -)athletic-[) -( department - `) -)budgets-[), - `)  -)the con)seq-[)=u-)ences -p3)e -)o-[)f - `) -)that gr-[)o-)w-[) t-)h, -p3)" -)and-[)B -)the -p3)8 -[)p-)rope-[)Qr -(relationship betw-[(e-)en-)+ -) the-)8 -) athletic- J) -) depar-[)et-)ment and-) -) the-[)8 -) u-[)n-) iversity.-` >) (   ! ! !!  ! !!  ! !!  ! !!  ! !!  ! !!  ! !!  ! !!  ! !! ՜.+,D՜.+,x hp  X'Linfield Collegez! 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