ࡱ>   [@ kbjbj44 2ViViCbC  eee8eZfL $hg4h"VhVhVh|4|| $Rޚɖ _|"|__ɖVhVh-ޖӊӊӊ_@Vh Vhӊ_ӊӊ:],* Vhg 9Qye ϒ0$.rr  r 4|ngӊ#d|||ɖɖ  ;E(  E Guidelines for College-Level Nitrogen Budgeting Suzanne Savanick Science Education Resource Center Carleton College Northfield, MN 55057 (507)646-5749  HYPERLINK "mailto:ssavanic@carleton.edu" ssavanic@carleton.edu Table of Contents Page Introduction..2 Advice for Campus Researchers..5 Useful Conversions...6 Near Surface Atmospheric Subsystem..7 Human Metabolism Subsystem.9 Animal Metabolism Subsystem....10 Landscaping Subsystem....12 Conclusion.....16 Introduction The nitrogen cycle is one of the most important global cycles for terrestrial organisms. Nitrogen is used by living organisms to produce organic molecules, including protein. It is abundant in the atmosphere in the gaseous state. However, nitrogen often the limiting nutrient for plant growth and is only available to plants when is fixed. The following diagram shows the nitrogen cycle pathways. Fig 1: Nitrogen Cycle  Source: Navy Guidance for Conducting Environmental Risk Assessment (2004) Humans have drastically altered the nitrogen cycle by using commercial fertilizers and burning fossil fuels. Nitrogen fertilizer runs off agricultural and urban landscapes and in to surface and ground water, causing eutrophication and nitrate pollution. Burning fossil fuels releases nitrogen in to the atmosphere and subsequently deposits excess nitrogen on the on the terrestrial and aquatic environments. While nitrogen inputs and outputs have been well studied in agricultural and ecological research, little research has been completed on the urban environment and even less on the campus scale. Baker et al.( 2001) developed an urban nitrogen budget for Phoenix, Arizona. Savanick (2004) developed a campus nitrogen budget (Fig 2) schematic diagram and used this concept at the University of Minnesota, Twin Cities campus. These guidelines are based on that experience. Fig 2: Campus Nitrogen Budget Campus Nitrogen Budget  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  Campus Nitrogen Budget. Adapted from (Savanick 2004). Inputs and outputs to the campus N budget are shown via arrows; dashed lines represent a transfer between subsystems. By developing a campus nitrogen budget, researchers may link campus sustainability efforts explicitly with global biogeochemical cycles. For example, reductions in energy use and commuters driving to campus reduce the nitrogen output of the campus. The nitrogen budget of a campus can also show the effect of campus sustainability efforts and examine the sources of human-induced nitrogen pollution on a scale that is understandable and familiar to students. The project can be used as a teaching as well as an analytic tool. In the campus N budget, the campus is divided into four subsystems: near surface atmosphere, animal metabolism, human metabolism, and landscape. All of the nitrogen that is imported to and exported from the campus goes through of these subsystems. To develop a nitrogen budget, all of the inputs and outputs need to be described in kilograms (kg) N, or megagrams (Mg) N ( 1 Mg = 1000 kg). Very large campuses will likely use megagrams; smaller campuses will likely use kilograms. The following guidelines offer suggestions on how to collect data on the nitrogen inputs and outputs for a higher education campus. The research process is described by subsystems. How to collect data on inputs, outputs and transfers among systems are described. Not all subsystems are included in all schools. Institutions without agricultural or veterinary schools will not have significant nitrogen inputs and outputs from animals. Advice for Campus Researchers Finding the required data may take a significant amount of time, depending on what kind of records are kept by the university. For those venturing in to this project, I offer these suggestions: Keep very good records. Make hard copy files for each type of data collected. Keep a log of phone calls, with names and phone numbers of each person contacted. Organize the data in a spreadsheet and keep track of data sources. Make contact with supporters in facilities management. Ask staff who would be the best person to contact for different types of data. If possible, have faculty contact a supervisor in facilities management to explain the project and get the buy in from the facilities management hierarchy. Prepare a short description of what data you are looking for and what you will do with the data to be included in email correspondence. Give yourself enough time. It may take some digging to find out who has the data you need. Make sure to ask for information well ahead of deadlines. Prepare to make assumptions. Some data is not available in the detail needed for this analysis, so estimating the data will be needed. Use an appropriate scale. Small schools may be able to collect and compare data by kilograms (1000 g) For very large schools, megagrams (1,000,000 g)) may be a best measure. Define the campus boundaries. Deciding where to draw the boundaries of the study will impact the results. I recommend using the buildings and grounds that are maintained by the schools facilities management department as one place to start. Including the combustion emissions from energy generation for energy used on the campus should be included, as is the transportation emission from commuters and university airline travel for conferences, research and study abroad programs. Define the time frame. An annual analysis may need to done by academic, fiscal or calendar year, depending on the availability of data. Useful Conversions .454 kg = 1 lb NO2 = 14/48 g N N/No3=14/62 (amount of N in NO3) N/NH4=14/18 (amount of N in NH4) 1 KWH = 3413 BTU 1.6 km = 1 mile 1 gallon = 0.0038 cu meters 1 cu yd = 0.76 cu m 1 animal unit = 1000 lbs = 454 kg (Minnesota Pollution Control Agency) 1 acre = .405 hectare Near Surface Atmospheric Subsystem Nitrogen Input: Abiotic Fixation Although N was not a significant component of fuel, N is fixed abiotically during the combustion process; therefore N inputs are a function of combustion and are equivalent to the output from combustion, detailed below. Nitrogen Output: Combustion Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are released to the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels. A university burns fuels to heat campus buildings and buys combustion-produced electricity from local utilities. In addition, fossil fuels are burned by students, staff and faculty traveling to the campus, by moving personnel around campus on the campus buses by use of campus vehicles and by airplane travel for University business. Combustion Emissions: Energy Generation Nitrogen oxides produced from off-site energy sources supplied to the University is considered an N input. Personnel in charge of utilities will have data on the amount of electricity bought from the local utility, usually in kilowatt hours (KWH). The source of energy has an impact on the amount of NOx produced. This energy use mix is available from the local utility; the utility company should also be able to provide you their system- wide NOx emission rate. It is usually given in g NO2/KWH. (g NO2 = 14/48 g N) # g NO2/KWH * KWH purchased * g N/g NO2 * 1 kg/1000 g = kg N from electricity Many schools also produce steam for heating and cooling buildings. This energy generation produces nitrogen oxides in the combustion process. Staff will have records of BTUs generated. The university will also be required to notify the local state of pollution from their NO2 emissions from the campus steam plants, as it is considered a point source of pollution. If so, then this data will be available from the local state department of environmental quality. Combustion Emissions: Commuter Transportation The administrator in charge of parking or transportation will hopefully have an estimate of the number of commuters to campus, the distances they travel as well as the mode of transportation used. However, this data is sometimes not available an estimate may need to be made. Often the distances commuted are difficult information to obtain. Single-Occupant Vehicle (SOV) Emissions: Single-occupant vehicle (SOV) commuters are estimated to emit 0.44 g N/km driven (Minnesota Pollution Control Agency 1999). Km driven by SOV commuters * 0.44 g N/km *kg/1000g = kg N emitted from SOV Carpool Emissions: Assume a number of people per carpool. Typically this is two or three. If your school has parking for carpools, use the number of people required for the parking. Divide the number of km driven by carpoolers by the number of people per carpool. Km driven by Carpool commuters * 0.44 g N/km *kg/1000g = kg N emitted from SOV Bus Commuter Emissions: An estimate for bus emissions is also needed. You will need to know how many people take the bus to campus, for what distance, how many people are on each bus, and an estimate of bus emissions. The campus transportation office should be able to tell you how many students, staff, and faculty ride the bus. The bus service company should be able to tell you an average length of a bus ride, if you do not have data on the distances of commuter travel by bus, and an estimate of the average number of people on each bus. The bus company may have an estimated NOx emission rate per mile traveled. # of bus riders * km traveled by bus/ bus rider= passenger km by bus # passenger km by bus /# of passengers per bus * g NO2 /km * g N/gNO2 = g N If the bus company has no data on average NOx emissions, according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, (1995) large diesel and light diesel vehicles generate 8.75 g NOx /km. This conversion could be used to estimate NOx emissions from buses. Combustion Emissions: University Vehicles The administrator in charge of transportation will know how many and what type of campus vehicles are used to transport students, staff and faculty around the campus and for off campus field trips. Campus buses: The transportation administrator should be able to give you the number of miles driven in campus buses. Average NOx emissions for large diesel and light diesel vehicles generate 8.75 g NOx /km  ADDIN EN.CITE United States Environmental Protection Agency199528510United States Environmental Protection Agency,1995Nontampered Exhaust Emission Rates for Low Altitude Heavy Duty Diesel Powered Vehicles(United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1995). Campus cars/vans: The administrator in charge of transportation should also be able to tell you the number of miles driven in campus cars and vans. Km driven in campus vehicles* 0.44 g N/km *kg/1000g = kg N from campus vehicles Combustion Emissions: Airline Travel Nitrogen emissions from airline travel may be significant. This data may also be difficult to estimate. A university travel office, or the college bursar at the university may be able to tell you how many trips are taken by staff and faculty per year, if airline travel is reimbursed by the college. Often no information is available about distances traveled by campus personnel. If this is the case, a travel agent may be able to tell you an industry average domestic and international flight distance from the local airport. Average NOx conversion rate is 0.425 g NOx per passenger km  ADDIN EN.CITE Roos199727410Roos, J.H.J, A.N. Bleijenberg, W.J. Dijstra1997Energy and Emission Profiles of Aircraft and Other Modes of Passenger Transport Over European DistancesCommissioned by the Directorate-General, The Netherlands82(Roos, 1997). Students also travel for study abroad programs. The student abroad office will be able to tell you how many students traveled abroad for school-sponsored programs. If you know where they go, then you can calculate the distances traveled. If not, use and estimated international round trip distance and a conversion rate of 0.425 g NOx per passenger km, Km of airline travel * 0.425 g NOx/passenger km * g N/g NOx = g N from airline travel Human Metabolism Subsystem Nitrogen Input: Human Food N is imported to campus in protein for human food, either purchased on campus or brought to campus by students, staff or faculty. Some assumptions are needed to estimate this amount of N. Using full-time equivalent (FTE) data for staff, faculty and student populations, assume that personnel on campus consume 1/3 of their food on campus. Thus, campus N demand is assumed to be 1/3 of each FTE N daily average requirement, for five days a week, 52 weeks per year. Estimate that protein intake for individuals over 20 years old (most students, faculty and staff) was 95 grams/day for males and 63 grams/day for females  ADDIN EN.CITE Borrud L.199624413Borrud L., Wilkingson E., Mickle S.1996What we eat in America: USDA surveys food consumption changesFoods RevSept. - Dec.14-19.(Borrud 1996). Convert to N by dividing protein by 6.25. Males 1/3 * 95 g protein/day * 5 days/week * 52 weeks/year *1kg/1000g = kg protein/year Females 1/3 * 63 g protein/day * 5 days/week * 52 weeks/year *1kg/1000g = kg protein/ year Nitrogen Output: Human Waste Humans also excrete nitrogen while on campus. This nitrogen is collected in the sanitary sewer system and treated at a municipal sewage treatment plant before discharging in to a water body. Following (Baker et al, 2001), about 90% of N consumed by humans enters the sewage system. Therefore, 90% of the nitrogen eaten on campus is assumed to be excreted. Total N consumed on campus * .90 = amount N exported to sewage treatment system Animal Metabolism Subsystem Nitrogen Input: Animal Food Nitrogen is imported to campus in protein in animal feed. Universities often have both research agricultural animals (i.e. dairy cows and beef cattle) and non-agricultural animals (research mice, rats, dogs, and cats). The number of animal on campus is usually easy to find by talking to administrators in the agricultural, veterinary and biology departments. The challenge is how to convert the numbers of animals to the amount of N in food and waste. This can be completed in two ways: 1) find out the amount of protein in feed 2) find out how much waste is produced and calculate the amount of feed needed to produce that amount of waste. Typically, the amount of N in food is most easily accomplished for non-agricultural animals. Converting from waste to food is more easily accomplished for agricultural animals. Calculating N in Animal Feed: To calculate nitrogen in feed, average protein content from commercially available pet food is needed along with feeding guidelines. Nitrogen is considered 16% of protein (Ensminger 1992). Table 1 shows some nitrogen requirements for typical animals that are on campuses. Table 1: Protein and Nitrogen Requirements for Selected Animals Animal Protein requirement (kg/day)Nitrogen requirement/ day (kg/day)mice0.001420.0002272rats 0.002840.0004544rabbits 0.018160.0029056hampster 0.003090.0004944dogs0.0320.00512cats 0.0090.00144guinea pigs 0.018160.0029056 Data from Savanick (2004). Amount of Nitrogen needed/day/ animal on campus* 365 days/year = kg N in animal food Calculating N in food from Animal Waste: Because manure is used as a source of fertilizer for farms, the amount of nitrogen in different types of animal manure is a common agricultural statistic. Table 2: Daily Production of Nitrogen in Selected Animal Manure Animal Manure (kg N/ animal/day)Dairy Cows 0.25878Beef Cows 0.15436Swine0.04086Chicken0.001362Source: Minnesota Department of Agriculture (1993) # of animal * kg N/animal/day * 365 days/year = kg N/year in animal manure Using a protein conversion ratio (Hammond 1991), it is then possible to convert the amount of protein needed in feed to produce that amount of N in waste. Protein conversion ratios are the amount of protein in feed divided by the amount of protein in meat, milk and eggs produced. Table 3: Protien Conversion Ratios for Selected Animals Animal Protien Conversion Ratio (%)RuminantBeef14.1Sheep6.9Dairy24.4Average Ruminant11.7NonruminantSwine16.9Broilers25.6Layers25.6Average Nonruminant21.8Source Hammond (1991) # kg N in animal waste * 1/ protein conversion ratio = # kg N in feed Nitrogen Transfer to Landscape Subsystem: Animal Waste Fertilizer Manure may be spread on fields as a fertilizer. The administrator in charge of the agricultural fields will be able to tell you how much manure is spread. Nitrogen Output: Animal Waste Removal If agricultural animals are present on campus, agricultural waste is likely stored in an animal waste handling facility. In a large institution, a staff may be responsible for reporting agricultural waste to a state agency. Some manure is often used as fertilizer on the agricultural fields (a transfer to the Landscaping Subsystem). The rest is likely composted on or off-site. The agricultural administrators will know what is done with the animal manure. N in non-agricultural research animal feces may be assumed to enter the solid waste disposal system. Depending on the method of waste disposal, an additional source of Nitrogen may be present due to incinerator emissions. If incinerated, then the campus emissions may be calculated as a percentage of the total nitrogen emissions from the plant. The local incinerator will have this data. Calculating the amount of N in animal waste is described above. Protein conversion ratios can be used to calculate the amount of waste from the amount of N in animal feed (often used for non-agricultural animals). See table 2 for waste output per agricultural animal. Nitrogen Output: Animal Agricultural Output If the university has a dairy, often dairy products from research animals are sold to the public at a campus Dairy Store. Sometimes milk and meat produced on campus will also be sold as a commodity. As estimate of the amount of agricultural output, use the protein conversion rates (Table 3) described above. N in feed = N in waste + agricultural output. Landscape Subsystem Nitrogen Input: Biological Fixation Biological fixation is the nitrogen fixed by plants on the campus. Alfalfa and soybeans are typical nitrogen fixers in agricultural fields. The campus administrator in charge of agricultural research plots will be able to tell you how many acres of alfalfa and soybeans are on campus. For Minnesota, the nitrogen credits for soybeans are 40 lbs N/acre and 100 lbs N/acre for alfalfa (assuming 2-3 alfalfa plants per sq foot). (Farm Nutrient Management 1993). This information changes depending on the yield of the field. # of acres * lbsN/acre *.454 kg/lb = kg N on campus from biological fixation Nitrogen Input: Commercial Fertilizer Nitrogen is imported to campus in commercial fertilizer for crops and turf. The campus administrator in charge of agricultural research plots should be able to tell you how much fertilizer is applied in a year on the agricultural lands. The administrator in charge or grounds should be able to tell you what rate fertilizer was used on the campus lawns are grounds. Use acres of land in crop or turf to calculate the amount of N in fertilizer. # kg N in fertilizer/acre * # of acres = kg N from commercial fertilizer Nitrogen Input: Deposition N deposition on campus can be assumed the same as that at the closest monitoring station of the National Atmospheric Deposition Program. Data can be accessed at http:// http://nadp.sws.uiuc.edu/ . NH4 and NO3 data are collected by the monitoring stations. Conversions needed: 1 acre = .405 hectare N/No3=14/62 (amount of N in NO3) N/NH4=14/18 (amount of N in NH4) # kg NO3/hectare * 14 N/62 NO3 * .405 hectares/acre * # acres on campus = kg N from NO3 deposition # kg NH4/hectare * 14 N/18 NH4 * .405 hectares/acre * # acres on campus = kg N from NH4 deposition Nitrogen Output: Agricultural Output Removing crops from agricultural fields exports N. Although the agricultural fields are experimental plots, assumed that crop removal rates were similar to those of production agriculture. You will need to find out the agricultural statistics for your county to find out the yields for your local area. Table 4 shows the amount of N removal per unit yield for typical crops. Table 4: Nitrogen Removal in Crops Crop Crop N removal per unit yieldSoybeans188 lbs/50 bushels grainCorn90 lbs/100 bushels grainBarley44 lbs/50 bushels grainWheat63 lbs/50 bushels grainOats62 lbs/100 bushels grainRye44 lbs/50 bushels grain dAlfalfa45 lbs/1 ton hayMinnesota Department of Agriculture (1993) Nitrogen Output: Surface Water Typically, fertilizer runs off agricultural fields through a tile drainage system that connects to the storm water system and drains to surface water. Management, soil type and other local conditions affect rates of runoff and subsurface flow. Average worldwide N use efficiencies have been reported to be between 33 and 50%  ADDIN EN.CITE Delgado20022980Delgado, J.A.2002Quantifiying the Loss Mechanisms of NitrogenJournal of Soil and Water Conservation576389(Delgado, 2002). You will need to find out an estimate of nitrogen run off from agricultural fiels in your area. Storm water also runs off the lawns and urban areas of campus. Brezonik and Stadelmann (2002) estimate that urban stormwater in Minneapolis exports about 20 kg N/ha-yr. This rate will vary depending on the location of the school. Nitrogen Output: Volitalization Typically, ten percent of the N in fertilizer applied to agricultural fields volatilizes  ADDIN EN.CITE Schlesinger19922610Schlesinger, William H.1992A Global Budget for Atmospheric NH3Biogeochemistry15191-211(Schlesinger, 1992). Baker et al. (2001) assumed the same percentage volatilization for urban areas for the LTER N study. You may want to assume the same percentages for your study. References Baker, L., Diane Hope, Ying Xu, Jennifer Edmonds, and Lisa Lauver (2001) Nitrogen Balance for the Central Arizona-Phoenix (CAP) Ecosystem Ecosystems 4, 582-602. Borrud L., W. E., Mickle S. (1996) What we eat in America: USDA surveys food consumption changes Foods Rev Sept. - Dec., pp. 14-19. Brezonik, P.L. and T.H. Stadelmann (2002) Analysis and Predictive Modesl of Stormwater Runoff Volumes, Loads and Pollutant Concentrations from Watersheds in the Twin Cities Metropolitan Area, Minnesota, USA Water Research vol 36, no 7 pp 1743-1757. April 2002. Ensminger, M. (1992) The Stockman's Handbook. Interstate Publishers, Danville, IL. Hammond, A. C. (1991) Protein Conversion Ratio. In Animal Science (P.A. Putnam, ed.) pp. 271-277. Academic Press, Inc., San Diego. Minnesota Department of Agriculture (1993). Useful Nutrient Management Data in Farm Nutrient Management for Minnesota: A Training Session Navy Guidance for Conducting Environmental Risk Assessment, 2004. Available from http://web.ead.anl.gov/ecorisk/index.cfm. Roos, J. H. J., A.N. Bleijenberg, W.J. Dijstra (1997) Energy and Emission Profiles of Aircraft and Other Modes of Passenger Transport Over European Distances. Commissioned by the Directorate-General, The Netherlands, pp. 82. Savanick, S. (2004) Campus Ecology: Bridging the Gap Between Sustainability Efforts and Urban Ecology. Doctoral Dissertation. University of Minnesota. Schlesinger, W. H. (1992) A Global Budget for Atmospheric NH3. Biogeochemistry 15, 191-211. United States Environmental Protection Agency (1995) Nontampered Exhaust Emission Rates for Low Altitude Heavy Duty Diesel Powered Vehicles. PAGE  PAGE 1 Animal Waste Removal Agricultural Output Abiotic Fixation Near Surface Atmosphere Wastewater Denitrification and volatilization Deposition Surface water Animal Metabolism Food Commercial fertilizer Biological Fixation Combustion-derived NOx Outputs Subsystem Inputs Landscape Human Metabolism "#  5 A Z y   . 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