ࡱ> I $ $##############################################################$$$$$$$$$ $ $U@bjbjl6>>>8v|2([[[$ER|[ S[[['͇mlmlml[,ml[mlmlkm Pڍ8>1] 6n$0̆6hl`[[ml[[[[[>Ql>ABDOMINAL IMAGING PLAIN FILMS The routine projection is the supine abdominal film. This should include the diaphragms and the symphysis pubis. Other projections may sometimes be useful for diagnosis such as: Erect abdomen Erect CXR Left Lateral Decubitus Supine decubitus Lateral abdomen Erect Abdomen This is taken to look for fluid levels and free gas. However, fluid levels are non- specific and free gas (pneumoperitoneum) is better shown on an erect CXR. An erect film is helpful when obstruction is suspected and a diagnosis cannot be made from the supine film. Erect CXR An erect CXR should be part of a routine abdominal series because: It shows a small pneumoperitoneum more clearly than an erect abdomen. This is because in an erect abdominal film the divergent rays pass obliquely at the level of the diaphragm, which is projected to the top of the film. This part is also often over exposed. In a chest X-ray the top of the diaphragm is almost tangential to the beam. An acute abdomen may be complicated by chest pathology. For example: - pleural effusions in acute pancreatitis - aspiration pneumonia following prolonged vomiting - basal inflammatory changes with inflammation below the diaphragm - basal atelectasis in post operative patients and following a pulmonary embolus - heart failure especially in elderly patients. - Conversely chest pathology may mimic an acute abdomen: - Myocardial infarction  - Pulmonary embolus - Pericarditis - Lower lobe pneumonia - Pneumothorax - Dissecting aortic aneurysm - Heart failure Decubitus views These may be useful instead of an erect film if the patient is unfit to stand. A left lateral decubitus view is taken with the patient lying on the left side. The film is placed behind the patient and the tube aimed to the centre of the abdomen. This shows fluid levels and small amounts of free air will be seen between the liver and the diaphragm. If the patient is unable to turn onto the side, a supine decubitus film may (rarely) be necessary. It will show free air but is less useful. In babies with imperforate anus, a prone decubitus film with the buttocks elevated is sometimes taken. This however may be misleading and many centres are now using ultrasound to show the level of rectal atresia. Lateral abdomen This is seldom necessary but may occasionally be useful for suspected aortic aneurysm (if ultrasound is not immediately available). An abdominal X-ray is seldom helpful in the diagnosis of chronic abdominal pain. It is of no help in the diagnosis of acute appendicitis or certain other acute conditions such as ruptured ectopic pregnancy. A normal abdominal X-ray does not exclude serious pathology and is often unhelpful. Bearing this in mind abdominal X-ray should be reserved for patients in whom it is likely to be helpful in diagnosis. Indications: suspected intestinal perforation suspected intestinal obstruction renal colic ?calculus foreign body Plain films are NOT indicated for the following: non specific abdominal pain gastro-enteritis constipation acute appendicitis urinary retention pancreatitis acute urinary tract infection diarrhoea acute peptic ulceration haematemesis/malaena biliary disease NORMAL FEATURES When assessing an abdominal film, a study of three areas will cover the majority of abnormal findings: bowel gas pattern, areas of calcification, and skeletal abnormalities. The small bowel lies centrally. There should be no more than 3 short fluid levels on an erect film. There should only be small amounts of gas in the small bowel. After being swallowed air reaches the colon within 30 minutes. The jejunum is recognised by valvulae conniventes, folds which traverse the full width of the bowel. The distal ileum is smoother in appearance. The large bowel lies peripherally. There may be longer fluid levels and the maximum diameter is variable. The large bowel often contains faeces & has a speckled appearance due to gas trapped in the faeces. The haustra may be outlined by gas. It is quite common to see gas outlining much of the large bowel normally. The haustra can be recognised by the fact that they do not cross the full width of the bowel and they are not regular. The bladder may be seen as a soft tissue density arising from the pelvic floor. The stomach is normally outlined with air below the left hemidiaphragm. Calcifications may be seen that are not significant: Phleboliths in the pelvis these may mimic lower ureteric stones but are more rounded in appearance. Often multiple. Mesenteric nodes. These are often confused with renal or ureteric calculi but they are mobile and move with posture. Costal cartilages. These may cast confusing shadows in the upper abdomen and may be confused with renal calculi. They can easily be distinguished by taking an oblique film. Prostate. Calcification is often seen in the prostate and is a normal finding. It should not be confused with a bladder calculus. It lies below the bladder, centrally. Seminal Vesicles. These occasionally calcify. They are serpiginous in appearance, lying behind the bladder. Calcification is commoner in diabetic patients Fat lines. It is only because of the fat surrounding the internal solid organs that they are visible. The renal outlines can usually be seen, as can the psoas shadows. A fat line lying adjacent to the parietal layer of peritoneum in the flanks can sometimes be seen. This is called the properitoneal fat line ABNORMAL FINDINGS Pneumoperitoneum free air within the peritoneal cavity is seen in bowel perforation and post operatively. Air rises to the highest part of the diaphragm on an erect film The stomach is distinguished from free air by the fact that it usually has a fluid level. It should not be mistaken for a pneumoperitoneum, which does not usually show a fluid level unless there is secondary infection (abscess). A pneumoperitoneum is seldom symmetrical and may be unilateral but usually there is a small one visible on the other side. When there is doubt on the erect film or if a perforation is strongly suspected and the film appears normal, a L lateral decubitus film is helpful. Small amounts of free air will rise to lie between the liver and the diaphragm and are more readily seen. It is important to wait for a few minutes after positioning the patient to allow any free air enough time to rise to the highest point. The commonest cause of intestinal perforation is typhoid fever. In the Western world, it is more likely to be either a peptic ulcer or diverticular disease.  Occasionally a pneumoperitoneum may be suspected on a supine film. Collections of gas may be seen in areas where the bowel does not normally lie such as overlying the liver. Also, the outer wall of the bowel may be visible in addition to the inner wall. The double wall sign. Normally the outer bowel wall is not seen as it lies against other soft tissues of similar density. Excessive intestinal gas This may be physiological - children have more gas in the bowel than adults as a result of air swallowing. Patients with dyspnoea and severe pain swallow more air and if marked the bowel may be full of gas, a condition known as meteorism which is most commonly seen in renal colic. Bowel gas pattern should be evaluated with particular reference to dilatation. Excessive gas and dilatation occur in ILEUS and OBSTRUCTION. The small bowel is considered to be dilated if the width exceeds 3 cm. The diameter of the colon is more variable but a width of 5.5 cm is definitely abnormal. Fluid Levels are seen when there is excess fluid and gas within the bowel. This occurs in mechanical obstruction and paralytic ileus when the bowel has ceased to function but is not mechanically obstructed. One common cause of obstruction is sigmoid volvulus. It is not always easy to distinguish obstruction from ileus and to distinguish large bowel from small bowel obstruction. Ileus may be generalised or localised. Causes of ileus include: Post operative Peritonitis Inflammation of: Pancreas Gallbladder Appendix Fallopian tubes Bowel (gastro-enteritis) Trauma Renal colic Ruptured aortic aneurysm Low serum potassium Drugs e.g. morphia General debility Vascular occlusion Uraemia Meningitis, malaria, any acute severe infection Features that may help in differentiation are: ILEUS : both large and small bowel are usually dilated there is more gas than fluid with few fluid levels decreased bowel sounds on clinical examination OBSTRUCTION: Proximal bowel is dilated with collapsed distal bowel beyond the obstruction More fluid levels and bowel diameter greater Increased bowel sounds on clinical examination  Differentiation between large and small bowel obstruction can be difficult but things to look for are: Valvulae conniventes are seen in the jejunum Number of loops; small bowel obstruction usually shows many distended loops, large bowel obstruction few Distribution; small bowel lies central, large bowel peripheral Haustra : folds which as asymmetrical and not traversing the full width of the bowel indicate large bowel Diameter: large bowel has a greater width. In general if 3 - 5cms in diameter = small bowel. Over 5cm = large bowel. Radius of curvature. Small bowel has a smaller radius of curvature Solid faeces are seen only in large bowel. Small bowel obstruction is often lower than suspected on plain films as the lower ileum may fill with fluid and become invisible. Gas will be seen at a higher level than the obstruction. The large bowel signs depend on the competency of the ileocaecal valve. If the valve is competent there is a danger of caecal perforation due to ischaemia. Critical diameter is 9cm. If the valve is incompetent, the small bowel will also dilate with excess gas and the appearances look similar to ileus. Clinically obstruction of the large bowel is more insidious in onset than that of the small bowel. Sigmoid volvulus is a common cause and shows as a dilated loop of large bowel in the shape of an inverted U with the open end pointing towards the pelvis or left iliac fossa.  In practice, it can be very difficult to differentiate ileus from obstruction and also to correctly identify the site of an obstruction on plain films. 4. Calcification: Abnormal intra-abdominal calcifications are common in the kidneys. Other calcifications may also occur as shown in the diagramm. Gallstones - only 20% calcify and a plain abdomen is not indicated in cholecystitis. Ultrasound is the imaging method of choice. Renal tract calcification a ureteric stone is a common cause of acute abdominal pain. Many calculi are visible on plain films, especially if over 3mm in diameter. There may be bladder wall calcification in Schistosomiasis. Pancreatic calcification - seen in the central upper abdomen in chronic or relapsing pancreatitis. Adrenal calcification is less common but may be seen secondary to tuberculosis or in adrenal tumour. Tumours, fibroids fibroids commonly calcify and show a rather mottled appearance in the pelvis, in contrast to a bladder calculus which is laminated. Ovarian tumours rarely calcify except for dermoids, which may contain recognisable teeth. Calcification in the liver may occur following a successfully treated amoebic liver abscess, or in a tuberculous granuloma. Calcification in the spleen is rare but may follow infarction in sickle cell disease.    Gasless abdomen: Occasionally there will be a paucity of gas in the bowel on a plain abdominal film. Often this will be normal but other causes to consider are: High intestinal obstruction gas not passing beyond to outline the bowel lumen Ascites Excessive vomiting e.g. in severe pancreatitis Fluid filled bowel this may occur in small bowel obstruction and the diagnosis missed unless an erect film is taken which will show multiple very small fluid levels. Large abdominal mass compressing and displacing bowel Normal 5. Abnormal gas shadows gas lucencies lying outside the bowel lumen (excluding pneumoperitoneum). They are difficult to interpret but important diagnostically. Retroperitoneal gas - gas streaking in the retroperitoneal tissues along the psoas muscle and around kidneys. May be due to perforation of a part of bowel which is lying retroperitoneally (caecum, rectum) or be postoperative. Gas in the biliary tract. This has several causes: Post operatively choledochoduodenostomy Following passage of a large gallstone results in incompetence of the sphincter of Oddi allowing air to pass from the duodenum up the bile duct Perforation of a duodenal ulcer into the biliary tree Anaerobic infection especially in diabetics Gas in the bowel wall due to ischaemia, gangrene, and impending perforation Gas in the bladder lumen vesico-colic fistula such as may occur in diverticular disease. Gas in the bladder wall - anaerobic infection Gas in the portal veins- necrotising entercolitis. Can be distinguished from gas in the biliary tree by the fact that the veins are seen extending out to the periphery of the liver whereas the bile ducts are more central. Abscess collections may occur anywhere. If subphrenic, they cause elevation of the diaphragm, basal lung changes, and usually show a fluid level beneath the diaphragm. Collections occurring elsewhere in the abdomen are usually missed on plain films but they may cause a mottled appearance, which looks very much like faeces in the large bowel.  6. Displaced bowel by masses. Hepatosplenomegaly is a common cause of abdominal mass. An enlarged spleen pushes the stomach gas shadow medially and displaces the left kidney downwards. Similarly, an enlarged liver displaces the hepatic flexure downwards. Other masses will also displace bowel and this is a clue as to their presence. Plain abdominal films are not indicated however for abdominal masses and ultrasound is the examination of choice Abnormal bowel mucosa this may show as thumbprinting due to bowel wall oedema or inflammation. The bowel outline shows indentations (scalloping) instead of having a smooth outline. Fat lines these may be displaced or lost. A bulging psoas shadow is of more significance than an absent one because they may be obscured by bowel gas and not always seen. The psoas outline is bulging or lost in rupture of an aortic aneurysm and psoas abscess. Elevation of a diaphragm this may be associated with changes below the diaphragm such as liver or splenic abscess. Liver tumour, ascites, or other abdominal masses, subphrenic abscess and rupture of the diaphragm. Bony abnormality areas of abnormality may be seen in the spine, which may be relevant to the abdominal symptoms e.g. sclerotic areas due to prostatic metastases. There may be collapse of a vertebral body or changes in the spine or hips due to sickle cell disease. PLAIN FILMS ARE NOT ALWAYS DIAGNOSTIC AND MAY BE CONFUSING. THE NEXT IMAGING INVESTIGATION OF CHOICE IS ULTRASOUND. Ultrasound may also be the first investigation of choice rather than plain films in certain cases. ULTRASOUND Ultrasound is a first line investigation for: The biliary tract The liver and spleen Renal Tract Masses Abscess Intussusception Ectopic pregnancy/ ovarian pathology/fibroids Ascites Infantile pyloric stenosis, if local expertise available Aortic aneurysm Pancreas (if no CT) Trauma if no CT or patient very ill Ultrasound is also useful in: Inflammatory bowel disease shows as bowel wall thickening Appendicitis    CONTRAST STUDIES OF THE GIT These are usually performed using Barium but if perforation is suspected water -soluble contrast medium must be used. Gastrografin is the most readily available but must not be used if there is a danger of lung aspiration. In these cases, non-ionic contrast should be used. Barium Swallow/Meal - Single contrast study - Double contrast study Single contrast studies are performed in acutely ill patients and children. Barium sulphate is given by mouth and the patient turned into various positions to demonstrate any abnormality. Fluoroscopy should be used for all contrast investigations of the gastrointestinal tract. Double contrast examinations are now the standard for other patients. In double contrast barium meal a smaller amount of high- density barium solution is swallowed followed by granules, which release gas in the stomach. The patient is laid supine and turned through 360 degrees, to coat the gastric mucosa with barium. Buscopan may be given intravenously to allow the stomach to distend adequately making visualisation of small mucosal lesions easier.  Gastroscopy has now replaced barium studies for many disorders of the stomach and oesophagus. Gastroscopy allows a biopsy to be taken if indicated and when readily available should be used in preference to a barium study in: Haematemesis Oesophagitis Dyspepsia -gastric ulcer? Carcinoma Chronic duodenal ulcer for assessment of continuing activity Previous non recent surgery Barium studies should still be performed initially in preference to gastroscopy in: Dysphagia Hiatus Hernia Complications of recent surgery However, a properly performed double contrast examination is a very good imaging test and can replace endoscopy if the latter is not readily available. The only exception to this is haematemesis for which endoscopy should always be the first line investigation. Whether barium studies or endoscopy are used will very much depend on the local circumstances and expertise available. Barium Swallow: - Dysphagia. This is a common symptom and a barium swallow is a simple and effective screening test. Commonly encountered conditions are: Pharyngeal pouch. This is a posterior mucosal protrusion arising in the upper neck just above the cricopharygeus muscle. The patient presents with dysphagia and regurgitation of food on lying down. Plain films may show a fluid level in the pouch but barium swallow is diagnostic with barium filling the pouch which is seen best in the lateral projection when the neck connecting it to the oesophagus can be seen.   Achalasia: is a functional disorder of motility resulting in inability of the lower oesophageal sphincter to dilate. The oesophagus becomes widened, sometimes becoming so large that it shows on a plain film of the chest as a mediastinal mass. Food stagnates in the oesophagus; there is regurgitation of food eaten some time previously with dysphagia & weight loss. Barium swallow shows gross oesophageal dilatation with tortuosity, the lower end usually lying horizontally, tapering down to the sphincter, which fails to open. The so-called cigar shape. The oesophagus contains food residue showing as a mottled appearance to the barium.  Hiatus Hernia - a protrusion of a portion of the stomach through the oesophageal hiatus of the diaphragm into the chest may range in size from a very small transient hernia to a thoracic stomach. They may be classified as sliding or paraoesophageal. A sliding hernia is the commonest type and occurs when the gastro-oesophageal junction (cardia) and part of the stomach slip upwards above the diaphragm. It is associated with reflux and is usually reducible unless very large. If small, it may only be demonstrated in certain positions. When transient it may not be demonstrated on barium meal at all. With a paraoesophageal hernia, the cardia remains in the normal position and part of the stomach herniates alongside it. Reflux is not a feature and this type of hernia is often irreducible (incarcerated) in which case the hernia remains permanently above the diaphragm and may show as a mass on the chest X-ray containing a fluid level. Oesophagitis. Inflammation of the oesophageal mucosa may be secondary to reflux, infections such as monilia, or due to accidental ingestion of a caustic solution. It causes mucosal irregularity with erosions and sometimes ulcers. Strictures may form. Benign strictures usually has smooth, tapering edges in contrast to a malignant stricture which shows an abrupt change in calibre (shouldering). Carcinoma. This causes a range of appearances depending on the tumour size and degree of malignancy. It is commonest in the distal third presenting as progressive dysphagia with weight loss. On barium swallow, it may present as a mass resulting in a filling defect in the lumen. If infiltrative, it results in narrowing of the lumen initially. Later there is also mucosal destruction and irregularity of the lumen.   Functional disorders. A wide range of functional disorders occur in elderly patients. There may be disordered contractions resulting in a corkscrew appearance. There may be swallowing difficulties due to neuromuscular inco-ordination as a result of stroke. There is a danger of barium aspiration in these patients during the investigation. This does not usually cause any serious problems unless the patient is very debilitated or the barium of large amount. Physiotherapy is given if a significant amount of barium is aspirated into the smaller bronchi. Oesophageal varices: are venous anastomotic collateral veins, usually resulting from portal venous hypertension or portal vein obstruction. They commonly develop as a result of liver cirrhosis and are usually confined to the lower two thirds of the oesophagus. Endoscopy is the investigation of choice but a barium swallow can delineate the large submucosal veins in many cases. If the oesophagus is distended with barium the bulging varices may flatten against the wall and be hidden by the barium. Varices are best shown on films when the barium has passed but coated the oesophageal mucosa in its collapsed state. They show as serpiginous (worm-like) filling defects.  Barium Meal: Abnormalities seen on barium meal examinations: Gastric ulcer: most commonly seen on the lesser curve but may arise anywhere. Barium collects in the ulcer crater & when seen en face on a double contrast examination shows as a pool of barium surrounded by radiating mucosal folds to the ulcer crater. In profile, it shows as an out pouching of barium from the gastric wall. Ulcers can be benign or malignant. It is not always possible to distinguish a benign from malignant ulcer on barium meal and biopsy is always recommended. Benign ulcer: smooth radiating folds reaching the edge of the ulcer crater. In profile the ulcer crater protrudes beyond the wall of the stomach. Malignant ulcer: shallow, irregular in contour, thick irregular mucosal folds. In profile it does not protrude beyond the normal confines of the gastric wall. Be suspicious of ulcers on the greater curvature. There may be surrounding mucosal destruction or a mass.   Carcinoma of the stomach. This may present in several ways on barium meal A polypoidal soft tissue mass protruding into the lumen as a filling defect An ulcer which usually lies within the outline of the stomach Diffuse infiltration: submucosal infiltration over a wide area leads to narrowing and rigidity of the stomach with loss of folds a small rigid stomach. Called linitis plastica or leather bottle stomach Local infiltration: mucosal destruction & irregularity at the site of the tumour with focal narrowing and rigidity.   - Caustic stricture of the stomach. Ingestion of caustic often results in stricture of the oesophagus, which may be extensive. Occasionally it causes stricture in the stomach, which radiologically looks very similar to a scirrhous carcinoma.  Gastric outlet obstruction: may be caused by Ulcer or carcinoma of the gastric antrum Ulceration or scarring of the duodenal cap Pancreatic carcinoma or duodenal carcinoma involving the duodenal loop Infantile pyloric stenosis The stomach is distended and often grossly enlarged with resting juice and food residue. A barium meal shows a mottled appearance of the barium as it mixes with the food residue and there is either no gastric emptying or marked delay. The cause of the obstruction is often difficult to demonstrate due to the large amount of food residue present in the stomach.  Infantile pyloric stenosis is now commonly diagnosed by ultrasound but if local expertise or the correct probe frequency is not available barium meal may be necessary. Polyps are relatively uncommon in the stomach compared to the large bowel. They are usually benign but if in the gastric antrum may be pre-malignant. Occasionally a leiomyoma is seen in the stomach. This is a benign tumour arising from the muscle layers. On barium meal, there is a smooth well- defined mass projecting into the stomach lumen. It may ulcerate with a central ulcer crater.  . Lymphoma may affect the stomach showing as very thickened folds or a large filling defect. Duodenal deformity/ulceration. The most frequent site for a duodenal ulcer is the proximal part, the cap or bulb. Post bulbar ulcers may occur but are less common. Diagnosis depends on demonstration of a crater or niche, into which the barium pools. The crater may be anterior or posterior and chronic ulceration heals by scarring. This causes deformity of the cap, which often has a tri-lobed appearance if the ulcer crater is central. The scarring is permanent and reactivation of the ulcer, or ulcer healing is very difficult to detect on barium studies. Follow up of a duodenal ulcer is best done by endoscopy.  The small Intestine Preferably the small bowel should be targeted for a single study with suitable barium mixture rather than done as a continuation of a barium meal (a follow through). The high- density barium used for a satisfactory barium meal is not suitable for study of the small bowel where a larger volume of a relatively low -density barium solution is more appropriate. It is better to do this as a separate study and the examination is now referred to as a small bowel meal. In some patients a small bowel enema may be necessary. In this examination, a tube is placed in the 3rd part of the duodenum and barium injected followed by air or water for double contrast. It shows the small bowel in greater detail but fluoroscopy is necessary Abnormalities which may be seen in the small bowel: Obstruction. Occasionally a small bowel obstruction is not obvious on plain films. This is especially likely if the obstruction is very high or if the loops are filled with fluid rather than air. A small bowel study may localise the site and cause of an obstruction. Sometimes it is preferable to use water contrast such as gastrografin rather than barium. If surgery is needed immediately, it is easier if grossly distended loops of bowel are NOT full of barium, which will cause a serious peritonitis if spilled into the peritoneal cavity.  Malabsorption syndromes. These are best diagnosed clinically rather than by barium study although specific causes for the malabsorption may be demonstrated, such as Crohns disease. Coeliac disease causes non-specific dilatation of small bowel loops in severe cases but small bowel biopsy is much more specific. Jejunal diverticulosis, blind loops, fistulae and strictures may all cause malabsorption and are detectable on contrast studies. The features which may be seen in malabsorption are: Dilation of the small bowel Thickening of the valvulae conniventes Clumping of the barium (flocculation) which does not maintain a continuous column. Inflammatory bowel disease e.g. Crohns disease. Inflammatory disease causes mucosal oedema with thickening of the folds, There may be strictures, and dilated loops especially in Crohns disease. Lymphoma may involve the small bowel. There is usually mucosal oedema together with displacement and distortion of bowel loops. Primary carcinoma of the small bowel is rare but can occur and usually presents as an obstruction.  Large bowel Symptoms such as altered bowel habit, rectal bleeding, abdominal pain, weight loss, and anaemia may indicate colonic disease. Colonoscopy and barium studies are complementary and equally useful but the method of investigation used depends on the local circumstances. In many countries, a double contrast barium enema is combined with a flexible sigmoidoscopy in all patients with symptoms suggestive of large bowel pathology. Barium studies require full bowel preparation and a double contrast technique is routine, unless the patient has acute inflammatory bowel disease or obstruction. In the latter two cases, the use of water soluble contrast is preferred. A fairly high-density barium is run into the bowel per rectum as far as the hepatic flexure. Buscopan is given intravenously and most of the barium drained back. Air is then introduced by means of a Higginsons syringe causing the remaining barium to reach the caecum, the colon to fully distend with air while the mucosa is coated with barium. Abnormalities seen on barium enema examination: Redundant loop of sigmoid: this is a normal variant and is common in Ghana. It predisposes to volvulus, when the loop rotates about its axis becoming obstructed. Unrelieved it may lead to bowel infarction and perforation. On barium enema, the colon is obstructed at the level of the volvulus and the contrast column tapers to give a birds beak or twisted ribbon appearance.  Carcinoma: can occur anywhere in the colon but is commonest in the rectosigmoid area. It may develop from a polyp and present as a filling defect or it may infiltrate the bowel wall appearing as a stricture. The first presentation may be large bowel obstruction. Occasionally it may penetrate into adjacent structures such as the bladder and present as a vesico-colic fistula.  Polyp: polyps are localised mass lesions arising from the colonic mucosa. They protrude into the lumen and may have a flat broad base (sessile) or be pedunculated on the end of a stalk. They occur anywhere in the colon. The majority are benign, especially the small or pedunculated ones. Sessile polyps are pre-malignant and the object of a double contrast study is to detect polyps before malignant transformation has occurred. Multiple polyps occur in the hereditary conditions of familial polyposis coli and Peutz-jeghers syndrome. The polyps of the former have malignant potential whereas the polyps in the latter are always benign. Pseudo-polyps may occur in long- standing inflammatory bowel disease due to areas of mucosal hypertrophy.  Diverticular disease. Relatively uncommon in Africa, it is very common in the Western world and often leads to complications. The smooth muscle hypertrophies with pouch like protrusions between the thickened fibres. The mucosa and submucosa herniate through sites of weakness in the bowel wall. The sigmoid is the most frequently involved area but diverticulae may arise anywhere and are not uncommon in the caecum. Complications include acute inflammation with pericolic abscess, colonic perforation, fistula formation especially into the bladder and haemorrhage. Inflammatory bowel disease: is characterised by diffuse mucosal changes due to oedema and ulceration. It may affect the whole colon or only part of the colon. If due to Crohns disease, the distal ileum and caecum are commonly involved. A barium enema in the acute setting is seldom indicated and may be contraindicated because of the danger of perforation. A plain abdominal film may show a dilated colon outlined by air, toxic dilatation, which is an absolute contraindication to barium enema. Ulcerative colitis and Crohns disease are common in the Western World but in Africa an infective aetiology, such as Salmonella, Shigella, or Amoebiasis is more common. In the acute phase, the large bowel will show mucosal irregularity and small ulcers projecting from the wall. In the chronic stage there may just be generalised narrowing of the lumen and loss of haustration giving a pipestem appearance.    Intussusception - occurs when part of the bowel invaginates on itself. The proximal bowel becomes invaginated into the lumen of the distal bowel. This may occur because of a localised lesion such as a polyp or carcinoma, which is carried by peristalsis along the bowel. As it is attached to the wall, it carries the proximal bowel with it. Most commonly however it occurs in infants between the ages of 3 months and 2 years when an inflamed Peyers (lymphoid) patch in the distal ileum is often the cause. As the bowel is carried down within the distal lumen the blood supply becomes impeded, oedema occurs and the bowel may become necrotic. It is nowadays usually diagnosed by ultrasound but if local expertise is not available, a barium enema can be performed. Sometimes it is possible to reduce an early intussusception in children by barium enema if fluoroscopy and local expertise are available. The appearances on barium enema show either as an abrupt filling defect with complete obstruction to flow, or a coil spring appearance with a little barium outlining oedematous folds.     Hirschsprungs disease presents in children. The patient gives a history of severe constipation from an early age due to an aganglionic segment of large bowel, which will not distend. There may be considerable abdominal distension. The aganglionic segment may occur anywhere but is usually in the distal large bowel, in the sigmoid region. Sometimes it is very low, in the rectum. If this is the case, it may not be demonstrated on barium study as the enema tube will be inserted beyond it. The appearance on imaging is that of a distal small calibre lumen with narrowing which suddenly changes to a very dilated proximal colon loaded with faeces. This is now more commonly diagnosed by rectal biopsy, as the aganglionic segment may be too low to demonstrate on barium enema. It is important not to fill the proximal dilated bowel with barium as impaction may occur. Water soluble contrast may be used instead of barium. Only a limited examination is necessary, just to show the transition in calibre and confirm the diagnosis.   - Pseudo obstruction of the large bowel: distension of the large bowel may occur in the absence of obstruction. Plain films show progressive dilatation of the colon, resembling a mechanical obstruction. It may occur in-patients who are severely ill from diseases such as pneumonia or in elderly patients who are bed ridden. It may also occur in patients with myxoedema or patients on antidepressant drugs. A barium or water-soluble enema may be necessary to exclude an obstruction. Complications of Barium examinations: Although barium is a much safer contrast agent than the iodine based contrast media given intravenously, complications occasionally occur. Barium peritonitis occurs when barium leaks outside the bowel into the peritoneal cavity. It is a serious complication with 50% mortality. Survivors develop granulomas and adhesions. If there is any chance of leakage outside the bowel, barium should not be used. Mediastinitis may occur when barium leaks from a tear in the oesophagus into the mediastinum. This is just as serious as barium peritonitis. Rectal perforation may occur with a low rectal tumour or severe proctitis when the tube is inserted for barium enema. Impaction of barium may occur when there is a stricture causing a degree of large bowel obstruction e.g. in Hirschsprungs Obstruction of the large bowel may be precipitated by a barium meal examination if there is already a sub-acute obstruction present. Water is absorbed from the barium solution in the bowel, which becomes thicker and harder. Even in-patients with no bowel abnormality it usually causes a degree of constipation. Myocardial infarction. This is a rare complication but distension of the large bowel may cause cardiac irregularities or angina. Occasionally it precipitates an acute infarct and barium enema is contraindicated in severe angina. Vaginal instillation. If the rectal tube is inserted into the vagina instead of the rectum barium will outline the uterus and fallopian tubes. If these are patent, peritonitis may occur due to spillage of barium into the peritoneal cavity. Contraindications to performing a barium enema: Acute toxic dilatation a transverse colon diameter of 5cm is critical for impending perforation in inflammatory bowel disease. Post rigid sigmoidoscopy with full thickness biopsy. Allow 2-3 day interval. Low rectal tumour it will often prevent the insertion of the rectal tube. Rectal tumours are best diagnosed on sigmoidoscopy. Severe Angina OTHER METHODS OF IMAGING THE ABDOMEN COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY Computed tomography is not as readily available as ultrasound and is often a second line investigation. It is however the imaging of choice in abdominal trauma and for staging tumours. It is used for the following conditions: Pancreatitis. The pancreas lies posteriorly and is often obscured by bowel gas on ultrasound examination in the acute stage. Also, a post contrast CT study shows well the amount of remaining viable pancreatic tissue. Trauma. Ultrasound is often used as a first line but if this is negative and injury is strongly suspected CT should be performed. It is difficult with ultrasound to demonstrate bowel injury or pancreatic trauma unless a pseudo cyst is present. Tumour staging. Computed tomography shows nodes very clearly and demonstrates the extent of other organ involvement. Certain liver masses. It helps to characterise liver masses when ultrasound is unsure e.g. haemangiomas. Sometimes metastases show on CT and not on ultrasound and vice versa. Aetiology of abdominal mass, sometimes it is not possible to say which organ a mass has arisen from on ultrasound and in these cases CT is often helpful. Suspected abscess collection when ultrasound is negative. Elderly patient: Occasionally for a suspected large bowel lesion in an elderly patient who cannot co-operate with a barium enema. NUCLEAR MEDICINE Nuclear medicine, when available, is useful for the following: Meckels diverticulum. This causes bleeding from the bowel and if it is lined with gastric mucosa it takes up the isotope, showing as a small hot spot. Biliary tract. Sometimes helpful in assessing function of the gallbladder. It is called a HIDA scan Bleeding from the bowel when other tests have been unhelpful. Red blood cells are labelled with a radioactive isotope. If bleeding is occurring it may show as areas of radioactivity in the bowel.  MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING The role of MRI is still being evaluated. It is little used for general abdominal conditions but good for specific conditions such as liver haemangiomas, staging tumours involving the uterus, bladder, and prostate. It is also good for imaging the bile ducts and pancreatic duct. It is unlikely to be available in a third world setting. PAGE 23 PAGE 21  An erect abdominal film in a 12 year old child. He was admitted with abdominal pain several days after falling out of a tree. Splenic rupture was suspected but this X-ray shows bilateral consolidation in the lower lobes. Note that there is a silhouette sign of both heart borders and the L diaphragm. The bilateral lower lobe pneumonia was the cause of the abdominal pain  Small bowel valvulae conniventes  Haustra in the large bowel  The properitoneal fat line lying adjacent to the parietal layer of peritoneum   A very large amount of free air within the peritoneal cavity lying beneath both diaphragms. The liver & spleen are pushed downwards and the diaphragms upwards. This patient had a typhoid perforation A much smaller pneumoperitoneum is present in this patient. It is larger on the L side, following the curve of the diaphragm & without a fluid level. It is not the stomach. There is just a very small amount of free air visible beneath the highest point of the R diaphragm. Small amounts of free air show best on films centred to the diaphragms and show better on erect chest X-ray than erect abdominal film   The abdominal X-ray on the L is taken supine. This is the same patient as above, the one showing a very large pneumoperitoneum on the erect film. It would not be possible for an inexperienced person to spot the presence of a pneumoperitoneum on this film. An erect film should always be taken if perforation is a possibility. The liver appears dark due to a large anterior collection of free air Supine film in a patient with a large pneumoperitoneum. It shows a large collection of air in the L flank (black arrow). Also, there is a double wall sign, the outer wall of the bowel can be well seen (white arrows). The small bowel is dilated due to ileus   This is an erect abdominal film showing excess gas in large bowel, shown in the transverse colon and flexures (white arrows). There is also excess gas in loops of small bowel lying more centrally (black arrows). The dilatation is not great and the fact that both large and small bowel are involved suggest an ileus rather than mechanical obstruction. The appearances are non specific which is the case with many abdominal X-ray films. The appearances have to be correlated with clinical features   Small bowel obstruction showing dilated loops of small bowel recognised by valvulae conniventes in the jejunum. The bowel is lying centrally. Large bowel obstruction . Recognised by its greater diameter & irregular folds showing the appearance of haustrations. The bowel is peripheral in the upper part but shows a central loop due to a dilated sigmoid loop (arrow)  Dilated jejunum  Dilated large bowel  Gallstones Pancreatic calcification Adrenal calcification Renal calculi Aortic aneurysm Seminal vesicles Fibroid calcification Bladder calculus Bladder wall calcification   Pancreatic calcifications in a patient with chronic relapsing pancreatitis Very large bladder calculus   Gas in the bladder wall. The safely pin is extrinsic within the clothing. This was a diabetic patient with an anaerobic infection involving the bladder Gas beneath the L diaphragm is lying within an abscess collection and shows a fluid level. The L diaphragm is elevated and there is a large space between the fluid level and the diaphragm. This helps to distinguish it from the stomach or a pneumoperitoneum  There is a small opacity on the L side at the level of the lower border of L2, a small ureteric calculus. Ureteric calculi can occur anywhere along the line of the ureters and if small and of low density may be hidden by bowel gas  A child admitted with acute abdominal pain. This erect abdomen included enough of the lungs to show the cause. There is ill-defined alveolar shadowing adjacent to the L diaphragm The child had acute pneumonia  Calcified fibroids in the pelvis    Acute cholecystitis on ultrasound. The gallbladder contains 6 visible stones on this image. Its lumen is filled with echogenic material consistent with inflammatory exudate & was acutely tender on palpation A subphrenic collection seen on ultrasound. The collection is darker than the liver & bounded posteriorly by the white line of the diaphragm. This is a longitudinal scan (the patients head to the L) Collection Diaphragm Liver  Ultrasound scan in a patient with acute appendicitis. There is a small abscess collection lying behind the appendix . An ultrasound scan is not necessary in every case of appendicitis but when the diagnosis is unclear, a scan may help by showing a swollen tender appendix or an abscess in relation to it     Longitudinal ultrasound scan of the abdomen showing an aortic aneurysm. The aorta is very dilated measuring 5.5cm. The normal aorta measures 1.5cm diameter just above its bifurcation. There is clot anteriorly. Posteriorly there is a flap of tissue lying within the lumen. This is due to dissection of the intima. The patient was admitted with abdominal pain radiating to the back due to acute dissection of an existing aortic aneurysm Intima which is displaced anteriorly by posterior dissection Anterior thrombus A young child admitted with abdominal pain & constipation of 3 days duration. There was a history of passing bloody stools. An ultrasound scan was performed which showed a bowel related mass with appearance similar to a bulls eye target lesion. This was due to an intussusception     Normal barium meal film taken in the erect position. Gas is outlining the gastric fundus and barium fills the gastric antrum and duodenal cap. Barium has already left the stomach and is outlining the jejunum The mucosa is not well coated but the gastric rugae can be seen in the body of the stomach (arrow) Normal barium meal film in the supine position. The barium is now outlining the gastric fundus while gas is outlining the body, antrum and duodenal cap. Barium in the jejunum is obscuring detail in the distal body of the stomach. The cap is arrowed A lateral view of the upper oesophagus during barium swallow examination. This shows a pharyngeal pouch lying posteriorly and compressing the main oesophageal lumen. The pouch lies in direct line of the pharynx whereas the oesophagus is displaced anteriorly. Food therefore enters the pouch in preference to passing down the oesophagus & the pouch gradually increases in size. When full, food spills over and passes down the oesophagus or is inhaled into the lungs, especially at night when lying down. The patient may present with aspiration pneumonia  Achalasia of the oesophagus showing a horizontal lower oesophagus tapering to the cardia (arrow)  Barium swallow in a 12 yr. old boy with a long history of dysphagia. He was very undernourished for his age. The oesophagus is dilated and tapers to the cardia. He had achalasia    A long stricture on barium swallow in a middle aged man involving the mid oesophagus. There is irregularity of the lumen due to mucosal destruction. The transition from non-involved to involved oesophagus is more abrupt than with a benign stricture and is shouldered in appearance rather than tapered. The upper and lower limits are marked by arrows Complete obstruction to the flow of barium in this patient. The proximal oesophagus is dilated and there is a sharp cut off to the barium column characteristic for an impacted food bolus above a stricture. In this patient barium has aspirated into the bronchial tree and is outlining the lower lobe bronchi. This is not a serious complication unless gastrografin contrast has been used instead of barium  Larger appendix abscess collection in this patient A barium swallow showing multiple filling defects due to oesophageal varices   A gastric ulcer on the lesser curve showing as an outpouching of barium. Radiating folds can also be seen converging towards the ulcer crater  A gastric ulcer seen en face, showing as a pool of barium in the crater. There is poor mucosal coating and it is difficult to see the radiating folds but they are thin and regular suggesting a benign lesion     Carcinoma presenting as a soft tissue mass protruding into the stomach lumen Carcinoma presenting as a gastric ulcer with the crater within the confines of the gastric outline Carcinoma presenting as a localised area of infiltration, irregularity and narrowing Diffusely infiltrating type of carcinoma with destruction of normal folds and diffuse narrowing   A diffuse scirrhous type of carcinoma involving the distal body and antrum of the stomach. This is a prone film, barium would normally fill the antrum while the fundus would outline with gas A supine film showing a diffusely infiltrating carcinoma involving the body and gastric antrum. There is narrowing with absence of the normal fold pattern. The fundus is distended with barium & appears not to be involved. The junction can be seen by the sudden transition in calibre (upper arrows)  Barium meal showing diffuse narrowing of the body and gastric antrum. This was secondary to ingestion of caustic  A round smooth filling defect in the body of the stomach. This was a benign tumour, a leiomyoma. These are much less common than carcinoma     This contrast study of the small bowel was performed with gastrografin rather than barium. (Contrast is visible in the bladder arrow- as being water soluble it is absorbed from the bowel and excreted in the urinary tract). The plain abdominal films on this patient were completely normal but the patient had severe vomiting containing bile, with colicky abdominal pain. This film shows gross distension of jejunum with collapse of the distal bowel. Only a trickle of contrast has passed beyond the obstruction. At surgery, the obstruction was due to an annular carcinoma of the jejunum, which had caused a tight stricture  A barium study of the small bowel. There are distorted loops of bowel in the lower abdomen but the terminal ileum appears normal (black arrow). In Crohns disease, the terminal ileum is usually involved. There is a loop of bowel, which is narrowed and shows a spiky appearance to the wall with projections of barium (white arrow). This is due to infiltration and oedema, in this case the cause was lymphoma  A single contrast barium enema. It shows a small redundant loop of sigmoid colon otherwise normal appearances.    Chronic sigmoid volvulus on barium enema showing tapering of the contrast column at the level of the twisting bowel  Stricture in the ascending colon with overhanging edges (shouldering). It has the appearance of an apple core. The appearances are typical for a carcinoma Another carcinoma of the ascending colon presenting as a stricture with overhanging edges   Polyps in the colon. The upper polyp is sessile, occurring in the region of a haustration. The lower polyp is pedunculated, lying on the end of a stalk.   Colitis involving the distal transverse colon and descending colon. There is marked narrowing with loss of haustrations. The ascending and proximal transverse colon appear normal. The transition from normal to abnormal is clearly distinguishable due to sudden change in calibre. There are no visible ulcers suggesting that the disease is not in active phase although because this is a single contrast study superficial ulceration may not be seen Extensive colitis involving the entire colon, which is partly outlined by air. The calibre is markedly reduced throughout and the colon is smooth with loss of haustrations. The distal ileum appears normal The close up of the transverse colon shows small pools of barium lying in shallow mucosal ulcers & the outline of the wall is slightly irregular & blurred due to superficial ulceration. The outline is usually very clear and smooth. This was a case of ulcerative colitis but the same appearance is produced by infective colitis    Normal appearance of the colon for comparison on single contrast study   This film shows the ascending colon outlined by barium in an adult patient. The film was taken decubitus with the patient lying on the R side as part of the routine series of films for double contrast enema. You can tell its a decubitus film because of the fluid levels (white arrows). There is a filling defect in the caecal region with folds crossing it. It is not the appearance of a tumour mass and this is the coil spring appearance seen with an intussusception (black arrow)  Infantile pyloric stenosis appearance on barium meal. The pyloric canal is long and narrowed due to thickening of the surrounding muscle Barium enema in a child. There is complete obstruction to flow in the proximal transverse colon where there is a filling defect (white arrow). This was due to an intussusception. The filling defects in the distal colon are due to faeces (black arrows)   Photo and abdominal film of a baby with Hirschsprungs disease. There was a history of almost total constipation since birth. The plain film shows marked distension of bowel, large and small but most markedly the large bowel  A limited barium enema in a different patient. This is a lateral film of the recto-sigmoid area showing a sudden change in calibre of the lumen (arrow). This was a case of Hirschsprungs disease  A radioactive isotope study in a patient with recurrent bleeding per rectum. Other tests were negative. This study shows a small area of activity (hot spot) in the R lower abdomen (black arrow). The stomach contains radioactivity, showing as a dark area in the L upper abdomen as does the bladder (white arrow). The small hot spot was due to a Meckels diverticulum Normal large bowel appearances on X-ray   Duodenal ulcer projecting from the outline of the cap seen in profile. 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