ŠĻą”±į>ž’ dfž’’’c’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’ģ„Į @ šæó9bjbjŹšŹš "`ؚؚŁ1’’’’’’ˆœœœœœœœ¼@:@:@:8x:Œ:„¼õ?¶;;">;>;>;>;>;>;t?v?v?v?v?v?v?$«@RżBvš?œ>;>;>;>;>;š?œœ>;>;Æ?X?X?X?>;,œ>;œ>;t?X?>;t?X?X?œœX?>;; °ŌąČ$ZÉ@:j=ĢX?t?Å?0õ?X?sC6?"sCX?°¤ThœœœœsCœX?>;>;X?>;>;>;>;>;š?š?¼¼„7@:X?¼¼@:Anatomy Chapter 8 Special Senses I. Introduction A. 5 Senses: Touch, Smell, Taste, Sight and Hearing 1. Touch not covered here because it is a general function of the nervous system 2. 5 Special Senses: Smell, Taste, Sight, Hearing, Equilibrium II. The Eye and Vision A. Anatomy of the Eye 1. External and Accessory Structures a. Eyelids: protect eyes anteriorly 1. Medial and Lateral Canthus: corners of eyes 2. Eyelashes: border each eyelid 3. Tarsal Glands: located in the eyelids produce a oily secretion that lubricates the eyes 4. Conjunctiva: delicate membrane that lines the eyelids b. Lacrimal Apparatus: consists of the lacrimal gland and a number of ducts that drain lacrimal secretions into the nasal cavity. 1. Lacrimal Glands: located above the lateral end of each eye a. continually release a dilute salt solution onto the eyeball b. the tears flush across the eyeball into the lacrimal canals, then to the lacrimal sac and then the nasolacrimal duct which empties into the nasal canal c. Tears contain antibodies, Lysozyme an enzyme that destroys bacteria d. Irritation to the eyes causes an increase in output e. Crying not well understood c. There are 6 Extrinsic or External Eye muscles attached to the outer surface of the eye (Fig 8.2) 2. Internal Structures: The Eyeball a. Hollow Sphere, its walls are composed of 3 tunics or coats and its interior is filled with fluids called humors and the lens is supported upright b. Tunics of the Eyeball 1. Sclera: thick outermost protective layer composed of white connective tissue a. Cornea: transparent part of the sclera that allows light to enter the eye 1. very sensitive and susceptible to damage, but can repair itself and be replaced if damaged 2. Vascular Tunic: middle layer with 3 distinct regions a. Choroid: blood rich nutritive tunic that contains a dark pigment that prevents light from scatering b. Ciliary Body: smooth muscle structure that the lens is attached to by a ligament called the Ciliary Zonule. c. Iris: pigmented smooth muscle structure that has a rounded opening (Pupil) which light passes 1. acts like the diaphragm of a camera 2. Closes in bright light and opens in low light 3. Retina: innermost, delicate, white sensory tunic a. Contains millions of receptor cells called Rods and Cones b. Rods and Cones are called photoreceptors because they respond to light c. Electrical signals pass from the Rods or Cones via a two neuron chain Bipolar cells and then ganglion cells to the optic nerve d. Rods and Cones are found all over the retina except where the optic nerve leaves the eye (Optic Disc or Blind Spot) e. Rods are most dense at the edges of the retina and decrease in number toward the center 1. Rods give us gray tones in low light and peripheral vision f. Cones give us color vision in bright light 1. Cones are dense in the center and decrease toward the edges of the retina g. Fovea Centralis: tiny pit next to blind spot that contains only cones. 1. Point of greatest Visual Acuity (Sharp vission) h. There are 3 types of cones: Blue Cones, Green Cones, Red Cones 1. When stimulated they send messages to the brain which interprets what color is being seen 2. Red in one eye green in the other you see yellow, which means the brain does the interpreting c. LENS 1. The lens focuses light entering the eye on the retina 2. The lens divides the eye into 2 chambers a. Anterior (Aqueous) Segment: contains a clear watery fluid called "Aqueous Humor" b. Posterior (Vitreous) Segment: contains a gel- like substance called "Vitreous Humor" c. both fluids help maintain intraocular pressure and provide nutrients for the lens and cornea 3. Ophthalmoscope: instrument that illuminates the interior of the eye a. Fig 8.8 page 280 B. Pathway of Light through the Eye and Light Refraction 1. Refraction: light changes speed and its rays are bent as it passes through substances with different densities a. Light rays are bent in the eye when they encounter the cornea, aqueous humor, lens, vitreous humor. 2. The lens can change shape to properly focus light on the retina a. Resting lens is set for distant vision (Flat) (Fig 8.9) and does not need to change shape b. For close vision the lens Bulges to focus the scattered light c. Accommodation: the ability of the eye to focus for close objects (less than 20ft away) d. READ: A Closer Look (Page 282-283) 3. Real Image: image that is reversed left to right, upside down, and smaller than the original image a. The image formed on the retina is a real image (Fig 8.10) C. Visual Pathways to the Brain 1. Fig 8-11 shows the pathways 2. Binocular Vision: two eyed vision, creates depth perception and three dimensional vision a. occurs because each side of the brain receives visual input from both eyes D. Eye Reflexes 1. Both internal and external muscles are involved in proper functioning of the eyes 2. Convergence: External muscles cause a reflexive movement of the eyes medially when we view close objects a. both eyes are aimed at a close object being viewed 3. Photopupillary Reflex: Pupils immediately constrict when the eyes are exposed to bright Light a. prevents damage to the photoreceptors 4. Accommodation Pupillary Reflex: pupils constrict when viewing close objects to create more acute vision 5. Reading requires almost continuous work by both sets of muscles a. Eyestrain: look at a distant object from time to time while reading II. The EAR: Hearing and Balance A. Anatomy of the Ear 1. Mechanoreceptors: respond to physical forces a. all receptors involved in hearing and balance are this type 2. Anatomically the ear is divided into 3 major areas: Outer, Middle, and Inner Ear 3. Outer (External) Ear a. Pinna (Auricle): Shell-shaped structure surrounding the auditory canal 1. In many animals it collects and directs sound into the ear, but in humans this function is lost b. External Acoustic Meatus (External Auditory Canal): a short narrow chamber about an inch long carved into the temporal bone 1. Composed of skin lined walls containing Ceruninous glands that secrete a waxy yellow substance called Cerumen or Ear Wax 2. Canal ends at the Ear Drum or Tympanic Membrane 4. Middle Ear a. The middle ear or Tympanic Cavity is a small air filled cavity in the temporal bone b. Extends from the Ear Drum to a bony wall with two openings 1. Oval Window 2. Round Window: membrane covered c. Pharyngotympanic (Auditory) tube: connects middle ear to throat 1. Normally it is flattened and closed, but swallowing and yawning can open it to equalize pressure between the middle ear and outer environment (Ears Popping) d. The Tympanic cavity contains the 3 smallest bones in the body the ossicles 1. Hammer or Malleus, Anvil or incus, Stirrup or Stapes 2. The hammer transfers vibrations to the Anvil which transfers them to the stirrup which transfers them to the oval window 3. Movement of the oval window sets the fluids of the inner ear in motion which excite hearing receptors 5. Inner Ear a. A maze of bony chambers called the osseous or bony labyrinth located deep in the temporal bone behind the eye socket b. There are 3 areas of the bony labyrinth 1. Cochlea, Vestibule, and semicircular canals c. Perilymph: plasma like fluid that fills the bony Labyrinth d. Membranous Labyrinth: membranes inside the bony labyrinth that follow its shape 1. Endolymph: a thicker fluid that fills the membranes B. Mechanisms of Equilibrium 1. Vestibular Apparatus: equilibrium receptors of the inner ear a. Can be divided into 2 functional arms 1. Static Equilibrium 2. Dynamic Equilibrium 2. Static Equilibrium: which way is up a. Maculae: receptors in the sacs of the vestibule that report the position of our head in respect of gravity b. Each Macula is a patch of receptors with their hairs embedded in the Otolithic Membrane a gel material containing tiny stones made of calcium salts called Otoliths c. As the head moves, the otoliths move and pull on the gel which pulls on the hairs. d. This sends a message to the Vestibulr Nerve which relays it to the brain 3. Dynamic Equilibrium: angular or rotatory movements of the head a. Receptors found in the semicircular canals which are oriented in the three planes of space b. Crista Ampullaris: receptor region found in each canal 1. Consist of a tuft of hair cells covered with a gelatinous cap called the Cupula c. Nerve impulses are sent to the Vestibular Nerve which relays them to the brain d. Static and Dynamic Equilibrium work together to maintain balance and movement C. Mechanism of Hearing 1. Organ of Corti (Hair Cells): hearing receptors a. found in the Cochlear duct of the Cochlea (Inner Ear) b. Cochlear fluids carry the vibrations from the middle ear to the Cochlear duct c. different Hair cells are stimulated by different pitches 1. Short Hair cells are stimulated by high pitched sounds and longer hairs by low pitched sounds d. The impulses from the Hair cells are sent to the brain for interpretation e. Sound reaches the two ears at different times, this helps us to determine which direction sound is coming from 2. Sound is the last sense to leave us as we fall asleep and the first to return when we awake III. CHEMICAL SENSES: Taste and Smell A. Chemoreceptors: respond to chemicals in solution 1. Receptors for taste and smell B. Olfactory Receptors: Sense of Smell 1. Olfactory Receptors: receptors for the sense of smell a. 1000s located in a postage stamp sized area on the roof of each nasal cavity b. Neurons equipped with olfactory hairs which are long cilia protruding from the nasal epithelium that are continually bathed in mucus are the receptors c. Chemicals dissolved in the mucus stimulate the receptors which send impulses to the brain 2. Olfactory impressions are long-lasting and very much a part of our memories and emotions a. reactions to smells are rarely neutral 3. Olfactory receptors are very sensitive, just a few molecules can activate them C. Tate Buds and the Sense of Taste 1. Taste Buds: receptors for taste a. widely scattered in the oral cavity but most are on the tongue b. There are about 10,000 taste buds in the mouth 2. Papillae: small peg-like projections of the tongue a. Taste buds are found in conjunction with the circumvallate and fungiform papillae 3. Gustatory Cells: epithelial cells that actually respond to the chemicals dissolved in the saliva a. When gustatory cells are stimulated, they send impulses to the brain 4. There are 5 basic taste sensations, each corresponding to stimulation of one of the 5 basic types of taste buds a. Sweet Receptors: b. Sour Receptors: H+ ions c. Bitter Receptors: alkaloids d. Salty Receptors: Metal ions e. Umami Receptors: amino acid glutamate (beef) 5. All areas of the tongue contain all receptors 6. The tastes help us to eat proper foods a. Bitter is a common taste of poisons or spoiled food 7. Taste is affected by many factors a. Olfactory plays a large role in taste b. Temperature c. 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