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Learner-centered approaches to adult learning
Bill Robertson
FRSITO
Education is not the filling of a pail, but the lighting of a fire. William Butler Yeats.
Abstract
The Fire and Rescue Services Industry Training Organisation develops qualifications and sets standards in emergency management training in New Zealand. This includes auditing the quality of provision. Often we see instructors who are very experienced Firefighters or rescue workers but who do not understand how best to help people learn.
This paper looks at learner-centred approaches to adult learning and was developed for those tutors with no teacher training, many of whom are on-job supervisors. The field of adult learning is complex and requires as much from the educator in the management of the on-job learning experience as does education at any college or other tertiary institution. The paper discusses various learning theories then outlines one theory of how adults learn. It presents a simple model for educators. The model emphasises the centrality of the learner in the learning process. Educators of adults must involve learners in all aspects of the instructional process.
The paper explores practitioner approaches to the management and evaluation of learning experiences for adults in an active environment and compares this with initial learning, that is, children as learners.
Introduction
This paper looks at learner-centered approaches to adult learning. But how do we define adult learning. Both adult and learning are concepts that have consumed many decades of academic research and debate without any universally accepted solution. Since this paper comes from a practitioner perspective we will deal with the debate by ignoring it. Although those who are interested may enjoy Jerome Bruners irreverent account of the emergence of the concept of learning in his book Acts of Meaning ADDIN EN.CITE Bruner199078102-106786Bruner, JeromeActs of meaning1990Cambridge, MassachusettsHarvard University Press0-674-00361-6(1990, pp. 102-106)
For the purposes of this paper an adult is defined as an individual above the age of 15 who is no longer undertaking compulsory education but is engaged in work as an employee or volunteer.
Peter Jarvis definition of human learning is that human learning is a combination of processes whereby whole persons construct experiences of situations and transform them into knowledge, skills, attitudes, beliefs, values, emotions and the senses, and integrate the outcomes into their own biographies ADDIN EN.CITE Jarvis200477111776Jarvis, PeterAdult education and lifelong learning Theory and practiceThird2004LondonRoutledgeFalmer10:0-415-31493-3(2004, p. 111)
The paper will explore practitioner approaches to the management and evaluation of learning experiences for adults in an active environment but will first deal with initial learning, that is, children as learners.
Children as learners
Fifty percent of a persons ability to learn is developed in the first four years of life. Why is it that the vast majority of people successfully learn to walk and talk before they reach the age of two while significant numbers go through 12 years of schooling and leave with levels of literacy and numeracy that are inadequate to cope with the increasing demands of our rapidly changing society?
Infants learn informally through apprenticeship-like methodsthat is, methods not involving didactic teaching, but observation, coaching, and successive approximation. ADDIN EN.CITE Collins198983453835Collins, A., Brown, JSNewman, SEResnick,LBCognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the crafts of reading writing and mathematicsKnowing, learning and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser453-4941989Hillsdale, NJErlbaum(Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989, p. 453) For the latter children need at least three things. They need motivation, practise and feedback. They observe people walking and talking around them, they are coached by having parents haul them up by the armpits and walk them around and they successively approximate desired behaviour through trial, error and feedback. Young children are not concerned about making mistakes, about failing continually. Nor do they receive adverse criticism for repeated failures to walk. Parents continue to praise their efforts and encourage them with smiles and hugs. They dont say Give up. Youre a loser. Im not going to let you try any more. Youre embarrassing me. Consequently toddlers keep trying until they succeed. Magic formula!
Some time after children enter school things change. Many children are told by peers, siblings, parents or teachers that they are not good enough. They are told they are wrong or stupid and, as a result, they lose vital self-esteem. The most successful adult learners are those who, like toddlers, know that failure is an essential component of learning.
Adults as learners
Part of being an effective educator involves understanding how adults learn best. Despite extensive research into education, over centuries, adult learning is a relatively new area of study. One of the major forces in the field of adult learning in the 20th Century was Malcom Knowles. He developed a model of adult learning based on six characteristics or assumptions ADDIN EN.CITE Knowles20058464-68846Knowles, MS., Holton EF III & Swanson, RAThe Adult Learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource developmentSixth2005Burlington, MAElsevier0-7506-7837-2(Knowles, 2005, pp. 64-68). Knowles work is not without its critics but much of this centers on whether the characteristics are exclusive to adults. The model nevertheless has had a tremendous influence on the teaching of adults and is a useful framework for practitioners to work within when looking at student-centered learning. The six characteristics are:
The need to know.
The learners self-concept.
The role of the Learners experiences.
Readiness to learn.
Orientation to learning.
Motivation.
Lets deal with each of these in turn.
Adults are autonomous and self-directed. They need to be respected and free to direct themselves. Educators must actively involve adult participants in the learning process and serve as facilitators for them. The first task of the facilitator of learning is to help the learners become aware of the need to know ADDIN EN.CITE Knowles200584Ibid64846Knowles, MS., Holton EF III & Swanson, RAThe Adult Learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource developmentSixth2005Burlington, MAElsevier0-7506-7837-2(Ibid, p. 64). Specifically, they must get participants' perspectives about what topics to cover and let them work on projects that reflect their interests. Trainers/Educators must not take what I refer to as the empty bucket approach to education where the educator assumes the learner knows nothing and needs to be filled like a bucket from the font of knowledge that is the teacher. The teacher of adults should allow the participants to assume responsibility for presentations and group leadership. They have to be sure to act as facilitators, guiding participants to their own knowledge rather than supplying them with facts. Finally, they must show participants how the learning will help them reach their goals.
Every adult has developed a self-concept. Generally this includes the concept of being responsible for their own lives and their own decisions. They have beliefs about their own capabilities to achieve certain goals. These beliefs are what Bandura refers to as self efficacy ADDIN EN.CITE Stipek198885856Stipek, Deborah JMotivation to learn: From theory to practiceSecond1988BostonAllyn and Bacon0-205-14697-X(Stipek, 1988). The consequences of high self-efficacy include a willingness to approach and persist on tasks, a focus on problem-solving strategies and reduced fear and anxiety. These all affect achievement outcomes. All those involved in emergency management have high self-efficacy in a number of industry related areas. In addition they may believe themselves to be good rugby players, fishermen, dancers, parents or citizens. Unfortunately, while having high self-efficacy in these areas, many of these people have had negative experiences of school and schooling and may have low self-efficacy in classroom situations. They resent and resist situations in which they feel others are imposing their wills on them. This presents a serious problem in adult education: The minute adults walk into an activity labelled education. training, or anything synonymous, they hark back to their conditioning in their previous school experience, put on their dunce hats of dependency, fold their arms, sit back and say teach me ADDIN EN.CITE Knowles20058465846Knowles, MS., Holton EF III & Swanson, RAThe Adult Learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource developmentSixth2005Burlington, MAElsevier0-7506-7837-2(Knowles, 2005, p. 65).
It is imperative if learning is to be learner-centered amongst adults that it does not become synonymous with classroom teaching. Research sponsored by FRSITO into training barriers for emergency management volunteers noted that many respondents felt that exciting, varied, interactive and interesting training delivery style is important in terms of engaging volunteers interest. Training delivery style is exciting scored the highest marks on our rating sheet in terms of increasing the take-up of training. For example, many respondents across a range of emergency services noted that helicopter training is always very well attended. Many volunteers said that training is most effective when conducted on-site or where the actual incident would take place e.g. in the bush, on a boat. Some commented that there may be value in changing locations, so that volunteers did not become over-familiar with a particular setting and complacent, or so that they could learn new ideas (e.g. from other emergency services) ADDIN EN.CITE Pells200886188627Pells, SharonVolunteer-related training in emergency services - improving training outcomes: findings from qualitative research2008WellingtonNew Zealand Institute of Economic Research(Pells, 2008, p. 18). Emergency management is an area that lends itself well to practical hands-on tuition. Far too much reliance still seems to be placed on book learning and lecture.
Adults have accumulated a foundation of life experiences and knowledge that may include work-related activities, family responsibilities, and previous education. They do not come to learning as empty vessels waiting to be filled with the knowledge imparted by the teacher. They need to connect any new learning to this knowledge/experience base. To help them do so, educators should draw out participants' experience and knowledge which is relevant to the topic. This is hardly a new approach. In ancient Greece, Socrates argued that education was about drawing out what was already within the student. (the word education is linked to the Latin e-ducere meaning "to lead out.")
Adults are goal-oriented. When engaging in learning, they usually know what goal they want to attain. They, therefore, appreciate an educational programme that is organised and has clearly defined elements. Educators must show participants how this class will help them attain their goals. This classification of goals and course objectives must be done early in the course.
School curricula and teaching have a subject-centered orientation to learning. In contrast adults are relevancy-oriented. They are task, problem or life centered. They must see a reason for learning something. Learning has to be applicable to their work or other responsibilities to be of value to them. Therefore, educators must identify objectives for adult participants before the course begins. This means, also, that theories and concepts must be related to a setting familiar to participants. This need can be fulfilled by involving participants in practical exercises that meet their own needs. Adults are practical, focusing on the aspects of a lesson most useful to them in their work. They may not be interested in knowledge for its own sake. Educators must tell participants explicitly how the lesson will be useful to them on the job.
Another aspect of adult learning is motivation. At least six factors serve as sources of motivation for adult learning:
Social relationships: to make new friends, to meet a need for associations and friendships.
External expectations: to comply with instructions from someone else; to fulfil the expectations or recommendations of someone with formal authority.
Social welfare: to improve ability to serve mankind, prepare for service to the community, and improve ability to participate in community work.
Personal advancement: to achieve higher status in a job, secure professional advancement, and stay abreast of competitors.
Escape/Stimulation: to relieve boredom, provide a break in the routine of home or work, and provide a contrast to other exacting details of life.
Cognitive interest: to learn for the sake of learning, seek knowledge for its own sake, and to satisfy an inquiring mind.
The best way to motivate adult learners is simply to enhance their reasons for engaging and decrease the barriers. Educators must learn why their learners are enrolled (the motivators); they have to discover what is keeping them from learning. Then the educators must plan their motivating strategies. A successful strategy includes showing adult learners the relationship between training and their desired outcome.
Learner-centered education
Educators must remember that learning occurs within each individual as a continual process throughout life. It can not be avoided. People learn at different speeds, so it is natural for them to be anxious or nervous when faced with an unfamiliar learning situation. Positive reinforcement can enhance learning, as can proper timing of the instruction.
When dealing with skill acquisition a trainer can do worse than utilising the apprenticeship model mentioned earlier. Apprenticeship focuses closely on the specific methods for carrying out tasks in a domain. Apprentices learn these methods through a combination of what Lave calls observation, coaching and practice, or what we, from the teachers point of view, call modelling, coaching and fading. ADDIN EN.CITE Collins198983455835Collins, A., Brown, JSNewman, SEResnick,LBCognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the crafts of reading writing and mathematicsKnowing, learning and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser453-4941989Hillsdale, NJErlbaum(Collins et al., 1989, p. 455). This is the way most of us learned to drive and is appropriate for developing practical skills in most emergency management areas.
Initially the trainer demonstrates or models the desired skill or behaviour. This may be a practical demonstration or may be accomplished through video or computer simulation. The important thing here is that the learner has a clear mental image of what constitutes acceptable performance. One demonstration will not, in most cases, be sufficient. People learn through repetition.
Coaching involves observing learners while they carry out a task and offering hints, scaffolding, feedback, modelling, reminders and new tasks aimed at bringing their performance closer to expert performance. Coaches should expect the learner to make errors and should provide reinforcement. Reinforcement is simply providing praise or correction to assist the learner to move nearer to acceptable performance. One of the simplest models of reinforcement is that used internationally by the Toastmasters organisation. This is the CRC (commend, recommend, commend) model. Feedback always starts and finishes by pointing out the aspects of performance that are good or improved and recommendations should be provided. Any criticism should be levelled at the task not at the learner. It is neither acceptable nor effective to provide punitive self-efficacy reducing reinforcement in the guise of instruction.
The Sunrise report into the training of firefighters in the United Kingdom looked at a number of training establishments ADDIN EN.CITE Baigent2003878727Baigent, Dave et alSunrise, a new dawn in training: Training firefighters today as tomorrow's emergency workers.2003CambridgeAPU University(Baigent, 2003). Some of these they labelled as progressive and some as regimented. They stated that if you bully someone in training, set impossible goals, and teach facts rather than understanding, then it is likely that, as they mature as firefighters, they will fit-in with bullies at the station, challenge organisational goals, and resist ADDIN EN.CITE Baigent20038718727Baigent, Dave et alSunrise, a new dawn in training: Training firefighters today as tomorrow's emergency workers.2003CambridgeAPU University(p. 1) the agreed strategic direction of todays fire service. The report concluded that the progressive training centres were more likely to turn out effective firefighters. There is considerable concern throughout the Fire and Rescue Service (particularly with trainers) that standards are dropping. Shifting the emphasis from trainer led control to facilitating trainees self-motivation is unlikely to lead to a drop in standards. It is an important step towards ensuring the Fire and Rescue Service is equipping itself to develop. Trainers set the standard but it is a visible standard with a clear purpose ADDIN EN.CITE Baigent200387138727Baigent, Dave et alSunrise, a new dawn in training: Training firefighters today as tomorrow's emergency workers.2003CambridgeAPU University(p. 13).
Triadic Influences in a Self-regulated learning strategy system
Personal InfluencesBehavioural InfluencesEnvironmental InfluencesGoals
Self-efficacy
Metacognition
Strategy Awareness
Knowledge
Strategy Knowledge
AffectSelf-observation
Strategy monitoring
Self-judgement
Strategy Attribution
Self-reaction
Strategy UseAcademic OutcomesStrategy components in academic self-regulation ADDIN EN.CITE Zimmerman199282825Zimmerman, BJMartinez-Pons, MSchunk, DH & Meece, JLPerceptions of efficacy and strategy use in the self-regulation of learningStudent perceptions in the classroom185-2071992Hillsdale, NJErlbaum(Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1992)
Feedback is not only provided externally. Learners self-evaluate and trainers can encourage this through articulation and reflection (metacognition). Articulation includes any methods of getting students to talk about their knowledge, reasoning or problem solving processes. Questioning, open discussion and role play are all useful. Reflection or metacognition (thinking about our thinking) enables learners to compare their own problem-solving processes with those of an expert, another student, and ultimately, an internal cognitive model of expertise. In simple terms it enables learners to reason their way closer to expert performance. The model above lists all of the influences that a learner or trainer must consider or strategies they must adopt in a self-regulated environment to maximise learning opportunities.
Coaching also involves scaffolding. This is a term much used in contemporary education literature and refers to the supports provided by the trainer to help the learner carry out the task. These supports can either take the form of suggestions or help (as in the reinforcement mentioned earlier) or they can take the form of physical supports. When scaffolding is provided by a trainer, it usually requires the trainer to carry out the parts of the overall task that the learner cannot yet manage. In emergency management, as with driving a car or flying a plane or conducting surgical procedures, the consequences of failure are too serious to allow learning to occur in a live environment without scaffolding. That is why dual controls, simulators, models/cadavers, drills and exercises are used until the learner is unconsciously competent in the skill before they are exposed to a live situation.
Finally in the apprenticeship model we have fading. As learners gain skills and confidence, the scaffolds are gradually removed and the learner is exposed to more and more complex and more diverse situations. Although it is important to practice a new strategy or skill repeatedly in a sequence of (increasingly complex tasks, as the skill becomes well learned, it becomes increasingly important that tasks requiring a diversity of skills and strategies be introduced so the student learns to distinguish the conditions under which they do and do not apply ADDIN EN.CITE Collins198983485835Collins, A., Brown, JSNewman, SEResnick,LBCognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the crafts of reading writing and mathematicsKnowing, learning and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser453-4941989Hillsdale, NJErlbaum(Collins et al., 1989, p. 485)
Although adult learning is relatively new as a field of study, it is just as substantial as traditional education and carries potential for greater success. Of course, the heightened success requires a greater responsibility on the part of the teacher. Additionally, the learners come to the course with precisely defined expectations. Unfortunately, there are barriers to their learning. The best motivators for adult learners are interest and selfish benefit. If learners can be shown that the learning will benefit them pragmatically, as practitioners, they will perform better and the benefits will be longer lasting.
To conclude I have included a model developed by Canadian educator Allen Tough ADDIN EN.CITE Tough197988886Tough, AllenThe adult's learning projects1979TorontoOntario Institute for Studies in Education(1979) in which he outlines what he considers to be the four characteristics of the "ideal" facilitator:
They are warm, loving, caring, and accepting of the learners.
They have a high regard for learners' self-planning competencies and do not wish to trespass on these.
They view themselves as participating in a dialogue between equals with learners.
They are open to change and new experiences and seek to learn from their helping activities.
How do we match up?
Summary
The field of adult learning is complex and requires as much from the educator in the management of the learning experience as does education of children at any educational institution. This paper has attempted to outline one theory of how adults learn and has presented a simple model for educators. There are many other learning theories and many different instructional models. One thing that is common across these is the centrality of the learner in the process. Educators of adults must involve learners in the learning process. They must accept the process as a partnership and appreciate that all adult learners come with a wealth of experience and deserve to be treated with respect.
References
ADDIN EN.REFLIST Baigent, D. e. a. (2003). Sunrise, a new dawn in training: Training firefighters today as tomorrow's emergency workers. Cambridge: APU University.
Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of meaning. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Collins, A., Brown, J., & Newman, S. (1989). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the crafts of reading writing and mathematics. In L. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, learning and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser (pp. 453-494). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Jarvis, P. (2004). Adult education and lifelong learning (Third ed.). London: RoutledgeFalmer.
Knowles, M., Holton EF III & Swanson, RA. (2005). The Adult Learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development (Sixth ed.). Burlington, MA: Elsevier.
Pells, S. (2008). Volunteer-related training in emergency services - improving training outcomes: findings from qualitative research. Wellington: New Zealand Institute of Economic Research.
Stipek, D. J. (1988). Motivation to learn: From theory to practice (Second ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Tough, A. (1979). The adult's learning projects. Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.
Zimmerman, B., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1992). Perceptions of efficacy and strategy use in the self-regulation of learning. In D. M. Schunk, JL (Ed.), Student perceptions in the classroom (pp. 185-207). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
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