ࡱ> gifq` AbjbjqPqP 1h::966666=8787878787878787=!=!=!=!=!=!=$>h(ARE=8787878787E=8787Z=8999878787=987=99l;O<87,7 BrO69R<==<=<zAh9@zA <<zA<0878798787878787E=E=9 878787=87878787$44T Chapter 7 Cognitive Development: Piagets Theory and Vygotskys Sociocultural Viewpoint Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget (1896-1980) Swiss psychologist who became leading theorist in 1930s Primary method was to ask children to solve problems and to question them about the reasoning behind their solutions Discovered that children think in radically different ways than adults Proposed that development occurs as a series of stages differing in how the world is understood Intelligence is viewed as a basic life function that helps in adapting to the environment. Intelligence is a form of equilibrium, and the process of achieving it is called equilibration. Children must construct knowledge. Cognitive schemes: The structure of intelligence Behavioral (or sensorimotor) schemes: Organized patterns of behavior that are used to represent and respond to an object or experience Symbolic schemes: Experiences represented mentally Operational schemes: Internal mental activity performed to reach a logical conclusion Piaget believed that children are active thinkers, constantly trying to construct more advanced understandings of the world These understandings are in the form of structures he called schemas Schemas are frameworks that develop to help organize knowledge How We Gain Knowledge: Piaget's Cognitive Processes Organization is the process where existing schemes are combined into new and more complex intellectual structures. Adaptation is the process of adjusting to the demands of the environment. Assimilation: The process of attempting to fit new experiences to existing schemes Accommodation: The process of modifying existing structures in order to account for new experiences Assimilation: a basic process that involves responding or interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemes--in terms of what the child already knows. Example: an infant may respond to a washcloth using two existing schemes, grasping and sucking. The infant grabs the washcloth, (an act of assimilation to the grasping scheme) stuffs a corner of it in his mouth, and sucks on it, (an act of assimilation to the sucking scheme). In each case the infant has used an existing response and incorporated the washcloth into his existing notion of scheme of graspable, suckable objects. Accommodation: a process that involves modifying existing schemes in light of new experiences. washcloth example-- the infant used an existing scheme in the process of grasping the washcloth. However, because of the unique properties of the washcloth, the response itself had to be modified (accommodated) and the child's scheme of graspable objects modified (accommodated) to include washcloths. Every adaptive act involves the complementary processes of assimilation and accommodation. questionable whether sucking on washcloths is particularly adaptive - they are sometimes soapy, etc. - accommodation in this case may involve the exclusion of washcloths from the sucking scheme and creation of a new scheme of "things with which to wash the face and body" (but not floors, cars, etc. unless they have become relegated to the category of rags). The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years): Coordinating Sensory Inputs and Motor Capabilities Information is gained through the senses and motor actions In this stage child perceives and manipulates but does not reason Symbols become internalized through language development Object permanence is acquired Development of problem-solving skills Reflex activity (First month of life): Infant's actions are based on reflexes Primary circular reactions (1 to 4 months): First nonreflexive schemes are simple repetitive acts centered on their own bodies. Secondary circular reactions (4 to 8 months): Interest in external objects Coordination of secondary schemes (8 to 12 months): Coordination of two or more actions to achieve simple objectives Tertiary circular reactions (12 to 18 months): Active curiosity and motivation to learn about the way things work Symbolic problem solving (18 to 24 months): Behavioral schemes are internalized; mental symbols are constructed which can be used to guide future behaviors. Development of deferred imitation begins at 18 to 24 months. Object permanence: Objects continue to exist when they are no longer visible or detectable through the other senses What is common to all three major acquisitions that mark the end of the sensorimotor period: object permanence, deferred imitation, and inner problem solving. Object permanence: the achievement of coming to behave as if objects and people have a continued existence even when they are not in sight or in hand. Although recent research indicates that the search behaviors Piaget required as evidence of understanding of an object's permanence led to underestimation of actual understanding of object permanence, evidence does indicate that it is not until 18-24 months that children show that they can mentally represent invisible displacement of objects and inhibit the impulse to search for hidden objects at locations they know are incorrect. Deferred imitation refers to the ability to reproduce behavior observed in another - in the absence of the model. Deferred imitation requires the use of a stored memory of the modeled behavior to guide/mediate recreation of the modeled sequence. Although recent research suggests that infants show some evidence of deferred imitation before the latter half of the second year, few can reenact complex behavioral sequences until 18-24 months. Inner problem solving refers to the ability to arrive at a solution to a problem mentally without having to resort to overt trial-and-error activities. Both deferred imitation and inner problem solving represent remarkable advances over the exercising and accommodation of inborn reflexes of the newborn, allowing for rapid expansion of the behavior repertoire. Common to all three acquisitions is the utilization of internal images, language, or other means of symbolic representation to guide or mediate behavior Challenges to Piaget's Account of Sensorimotor Development: Neo-Nativism and "Theory" Theories Neo-nativism Infants are born with substantial knowledge about the nature of the physical world. Knowledge does not have to be constructed. Infants are also symbolic beings. Theory theories Infants are prepared from birth to make sense of certain classes of information. Such innate knowledge is incomplete and requires substantial experience for infants to construct reality. Infants devise ideas or "theories" about how the world works and then test and modify their theories. The Preconceptual Period (2 to 4 Years of Age) of the Preoperational Stage Emergence of symbolic thought and play Representational insight is in place by 2.5 years. Dual representation (ability to think about an object in two different ways at the same time) is in place by 3 years of age. Preconceptual reasoning is primitive by adult standards. Centration Egocentrism Lack the concept of conservation Animism/ Artificialism Children display animism (a willingness to attribute life and life-like qualities to inanimate objects) Children display egocentrism (a tendency to view the world from one's own perspective and to have difficulty recognizing another person's point of view) Children not yet proficient at dual encoding The Intuitive Period (4 to 7 Years of Age) Intuitive thought is an extension of preconceptual thought. Children now somewhat less egocentric Children now more proficient at classifying objects on the basis of shared perceptual attributes Children still incapable of conservation Did Piaget Underestimate the Preoperational Child? New evidence on egocentrism shows that children are less egocentric when provided with less complicated visual displays. Another look at childrens causal reasoning shows that 3-year-olds do not routinely attribute life or lifelike qualities to inanimate objects. Preoperational children can conserve with training. The Concrete-Operational Stage (7 to 11 Years) Understanding of mental operations leading to increasingly logical thought Classification and categorization Less egocentric Inability to reason abstractly or hypothetically Hypothetico-deductive reasoning Adolescent egocentrism illustrated by the phenomenon of personal fable and imaginary audience Some examples of concrete-operational thought Conservation by decentering and using reversibility Relational logic using mental seriation (the ability to mentally arrange items along a quantifiable dimension such as height or weight) and transitivity (the necessary relations among elements in a series) The sequencing of concrete operations Horizontal decalage: Some forms of conservation are understood much sooner than others. The Formal-Operational Stage (11 to 12 Years and Beyond) Hypothetico-deductive reasoning Thinking like a scientist Personal and social implications of formal thought Paves the way for thinking about what is possible in one's life Questioning begins about everything from parental authority to government spending Formal operational thought is reached very slowly, if at all. An Evaluation of Piaget's Theory Piaget's contributions Founded the field of cognitive development Convinced us that children are curious, active explorers of their environment First to try to explain and not just describe the process of development Challenges to Piaget Piaget failed to distinguish competence from performance. Still a hotly debated topic: Does cognitive development really occur in stages? Does Piaget "explain" cognitive development? His explanations raise more questions than they answer. Piaget devoted too little attention to social and cultural influences. Lev Vygotskys sociocultural theory Cognitive activities reflect cultural context Culture provides tools for adaptation Development is socially-mediated The Role of Culture in Intellectual Development Vygotsky's four interrelated levels of analysis Microgenetic: Refers to changes that occur over relatively brief periods of time Ontogenetic: Development of an individual over his or her lifetime Phylogenetic: Changes over evolutionary time Sociohistorical: Changes that have occurred in one's culture, and the values, norms, and technologies generated throughout history Infants are born with the following tools of intellectual adaptation Attention Sensation Perception Memory The Social Origins of Early Cognitive Competencies and the Zone of Proximal Development Culture and societies influence cognitive development Cognition proceeds because of social interactions where partners jointly work to solve problems. Learning occurs within the context of cooperative, or collaborative, dialogues between a skillful tutor and a novice pupil. This partnership is determined by cultural and societal factors Emphasized the childs interaction with the social world (other people) as a cause of development Cognitive abilities increase when information provided within: The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) The difference between what a learner can accomplish independently and what he or she can accomplish with the guidance and encouragement of a more skilled partner range of tasks too difficult for children to master alone but which can be learned with the guidance and assistance of adults or more skilled peers. This concept underscores Vygotskys emphasis on the importance of social influences on childrens cognitive development. Scaffolding means changing the level of support. "Scaffolding" is the tendency of more expert participants to carefully tailor the support they provide to the novice learner's current situation. Over the course of a teaching session, more skilled person (teacher or more advanced peer) adjusts the amount of guidance to fit the students current performance level. Dialogue is an important part of scaffolding in the zone of proximal development. Through interaction, childrens concepts become more systemic, logical and rational. Apprenticeship in thinking and guided participation Children's cognitions are shaped as they take part, alongside adults or other more skillful associates, in everyday culturally relevant experiences. Our culture encourages context-independent learning (learning and discussing things that have no immediate relevance). The Role of Language in Cognitive Development Vygotsky believed language to be the foundation for social interaction and thought Piaget believed language was a byproduct of thought Piaget's theory of language and thought Egocentric, self-directed speech merely reflects the child's ongoing mental activity and does not play a role in a child's cognitive development. Piaget - focused on childrens interaction with the physical world Vygotsky's theory of language and thought Nonsocial utterances illustrate the transition from prelinguistic to verbal reasoning. Self-directed monologues occur more during problem solving. Private speech helps young children plan strategies and regulate their behavior. Language is necessary for thought Critical thinking based on dialogue with others who challenge ideas Language and Thought Language allows children to have social communication, and to plan, guide, and monitor their behavior in a self-regulatory fashion. Language used for self-regulation is called inner speech or private speech. Vygotsky thought private speech was an important tool for cognitive development, whereas Piaget thought it was egocentric and immature. Researchers have found support for the positive role of private speech in childrens development. Evaluating and Comparing Vygotskys and Piagets Theories Vygotskys theory has played an important role in evaluating contextual factors in learning. Some critics say Vygotsky overemphasized the role of language in thinking. Vygotskys theory is considered to be a social constructivist approach because it emphasizes the social contexts of learning and that knowledge is mutually built and constructed. Piagets theory did not emphasize the social aspect of knowledge construction. There is a conceptual shift from Piaget to Vygotsky that involves a shift from the individual to collaboration, social interaction, and sociocultural activity. Implications for Education Teaching Strategies Based on Vygotskys Theory Use the childs zone of proximal development in teaching. Use scaffolding. Use more skilled peers as teachers. Monitor and encourage childrens use of private speech. Assess the childs zone of proximal development, not IQ. Transform the classroom with Vygotskian ideas. 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