ࡱ> rtq5@ 5ibjbj22"lXXg2PPPPPPPdh1h1h1h141|d#P$2$2$2$2$2U@U@U@OOOOOOOPR+SOQPF<U@FFOPP$2$2 OGGGF P$2P$2OGFOG0G1GVN@PPbO$22 x.h1#FN OO0#PNxSF.SbOddPPPPSPbO(U@AGBC6U@U@U@OOdd0h1F ddh1SEMINAR 6B NOUNS GENDER and CASE Gender: nouns with personal reference (male, female, dual, common gender, collective nouns), nouns referring to animals and inanimates Case: genitive v. the of-construction, genitive meanings GENDER In English gender is not a feature of nouns themselves, it rather relates directly to the meanings of nouns with particular reference to biological sex. Unlike many other languages in English nouns, determiners and adjectives have no inflectionally-marked gender. Gender in English may be described as notional or covert whereas in other languages gender is grammatical or overt. Gender is important for selection of reference pronouns relative (who, which), personal (he, she, it) and reflexive (himself, herself)  Male Please, help my husband; he has hurt himself.  personal (human) Female Please, help my wife, she has hurt herself. Gender nonpersonal (nonhuman, including animals) e.g. That is the cow which he has just bought. There is a rather complex pattern of gender classes in English (see the table below) gender example pronouns male boy who, he  female girl who, she dual doctor who, he / she  personal  common baby who, he / she / it which, it animate collective family which, it who, they  familiar animal:  (= higher) bull which, he / it male (who), he  nonpersonal  (animals) female cow which, she / it (who), she  dual cat which, he / she /it who, he / she (lower) less familiar animal weasel which, it / he (she) inanimate window which, it I. NOUNS WITH PERSONAL REFERENCE 1) Personal male / female nouns - male nouns have pronoun coreference with who he - female nouns have pronoun coreference with who she they are: a) morphologically unmarked for gender e.g. bachelor spinster king - queen father mother monk - nun uncle aunt nephew - niece boy girl brother - sister lad - lass b) morphologically marked for gender (the male noun takes an ending to form a female noun; except widower and bridegroom the base is female and the male noun is marked) e.g. host hostess hero - heroine prince princess waiter - waitress steward stewardess duke - duchess god goddess usher - usherette count countess emperor - empress heir - heiress Some male / female pairs denoting family relationship have dual gender terms: e.g. parent father, mother sibling brother, sister In order to avoid sexual bias in language, there have been attempts (esp. in AmE) to introduce sex-neutral forms: e.g. s / he for both he and she wo / man for both man and woman = these are only written forms or: firefighter for fireman chairperson for chairman spokesperson for spokesman mail carrier for mailman flight attendant for air hostess 2) Personal dual gender - they can be male or female in reference as required (he or she corefrence) e.g. librarian friend typist teacher doctor writer student guest professor cook singer - if it is felt desirable to give information on the sex of the person, a gender marker may be added: e.g. male student / female student male readers / female readers a nurse (typically woman) a male nurse an engineer (typically man) a woman engineer 3) Common gender - nouns such as baby, infant, child refer to male (he) or female (she), but they can also be used as nonpersonal - when the gender is irrelevant we can use the neuter pronoun it e.g. A child learns to speak the language of its environment. The baby lost its parents when it was three weeks old. 4) Collective nouns - they can take singular or plural pronouns and both relatives (who or which) - the sex of the persons is irrelevant: e.g. The committee, which met soon after it was appointed, had difficulty in agreeing its method of procedure. - the verb may be singular or plural: e.g. The committee has met and it has rejected the proposal. The committee have met and they have rejected the proposal. ! sg stresses the nonpersonal collectivity of the group pl stressed the personal individuality within the group Other collective nouns: army, board, class, commission, corporation, crew, enemy, federation, gang, group, jury, opposition, staff, association, cast, club, community, council, crowd, generation, majority, team, audience, college, company, department, family, government, institute, university Some occur in the singular only with the: e.g. the aristocracy the public the clergy the press the elite the laity the church the intelligentsia the gentry Some are proper names: the Congress, Parliament, the United Nations II. NOUNS REFERRING TO ANIMALS AND INANIMATES - familiar (higher animals) those in which human society takes a special interest, domestic pets, etc. coreference which, he / she / it e.g. buck doe tiger tigress bull cow lion - lioness gander goose stallion - mare This is the bull which has a brand mark on his /its back. - unfamiliar (lower animals) - majority of creatures in the animate world e.g. beetle, butterfly, snake, toad, etc. - it - inanimate nouns box, idea, car it, which - he and she are likely to be used for animals with which man has the closest connections (esp. domestic animals) CASE In English we distinguish only two cases of nouns: common boy, boys genitive boys, boys (sometimes called possessive because of its main function) In spoken form the genitive inflection s / s is identical with the regular plural, the written forms differ: e.g. The spies were arrested. / spaiz/ The spys companion was a woman. The spies companions were women. !But not with irregular nouns they preserve a number distinction: e.g. compare: boys or boys = / boiz/ but! childs v. childrens Note: - in postmodified noun phrases, there is a difference between the plural and genitive endings the genitive ending is added to the end of the phrase (not the head noun): e.g. The palace was the King of Denmarks. They praised the Kings of Denmark. Also: e.g. Paul and Marys dog Henry the Eighths wives - zero genitive = identical with the regular plural; it is used with names ending in /z/ - especially foreign names, e.g. Socrates Using zero genitive we avoid repetitive or awkward combinations of sounds: with Greek names of more than one syllable which end in s: Euripides plays, Socrates wife with many other names ending in /z/ , pronunciation is /iz/: Dickens , Burns, Jones (but also Dickenss, Burnss, Joness) with fixed expressions of the form for .. sake as in: for goodness sake, for conscience sake The genitive and the of-construction - sometimes both forms are possible with a similarity in meaning and function e.g. There were strong objections from the islands inhabitants. - // - the inhabitants of the island. - often we have to select one form, only one of the two is preferred appropriate:  e.g. These are fathers trousers. (not the trousers of father)  Lets go to the front of the house. (not the houses front)  Johns school (not the school of John) Genitive meanings a) possessive g. e.g. Mr Johnsons coat (=Mr Johnson has / owns this coat) the earths gravity / the gravity of the earth b) subjective g. e.g. the boys application (= the boy applied for ) her parents consent (=her parents consented) but: the decline of trade c) objective g. e.g. the boys release (= . released the boy) the familys support (. supports the family) but: a statement of the facts d) genitive of origin e.g. the girls story (= the girl told a story) the generals letter (= the general wrote a letter) e) descriptive g. e.g. childrens shoes (=the shoes are designed for children) a womens college (= college for women) a doctors degree of the degree of doctor f) genitive of measure e.g. ten days absence g) genitive of attribute e.g. the victims courage (=the victim was courageous) the partys policy or the policy of the party h) partitive g. e.g. the babys eyes the earths surface Gender and the genitive - the genitive is not used with all nouns equally - it tends to be associated with those of animate gender (personal nouns, those referring to human beings, higher animals and collective nouns) - geographical names take the genitive inflection when they imply human collectivity: e.g. Chinas policy ! but not really Chinas mountains - also: the hotels occupants! but not really the hotels furniture These nouns classes frequently take the genitive: a) personal names e.g. Washingtons statue / Carols children b) personal nouns e.g. the boys bicycle c) animal nouns (higher animals) e.g. the horses head, the dogs name d) collective nouns e.g. the nations resources the companys director the committees decision + certain kinds of inanimate nouns (see: e, f, g below) e) geographical names: continents Europes future countries Chinas people states Marylands Senator cities / towns Londons water supply universities Harvards Department of Linguistics f) locative nouns = denote regions, institutions, e.g. the worlds economy the worlds best universities the citys atmosphere the countrys only university g) temporal nouns e.g. the decades events a days work yesterdays paper an hours delay this years sales a months salary todays paper ten minutes walk (also: a tenminute walk) tomorrows programme two days journey (also: a two-day journey) three months salary (also: a three-month salary) The grammatical status of the genitive 1) As determiner - mostly genitives function exactly like central definite determiners: e.g. Johns new briefcase my cousins new house that old gentlemans son 2) As modifier - there are occasional cases where the genitive acts as a modifier - where the genitive is used descriptively (e.g. childrens shoes = shoes designed for ch.) genitive functions as a modifier with a classifying role determiner ! e.g. They attend a women s university in Kyoto. ! modifier 3) The independent genitive - we omit the noun following the genitive if the reference is contextually clear e.g. Jennifer s is the only face I recognize here. (=Jennifers face) My car is faster than Johns. Marys was the prettiest dress. - with the of-construction that or those usually replaces the corresponding item: e.g. The wines of France are more expensive that those of California. - when the unexpressed item refers to homes or businesses: e.g. When I arrived at Freds, I found. My butchers stays open till late on Fridays. Shes staying at my aunts. Also: for institutions: St Pauls (Cathedral) 4) the post-genitive = double genitive e.g. some friends of Jims (also: some of Jims friends) that irritating habit of her fathers several pupils of his a neighbour of his (also: one of his neighbours) a good idea of Toms a friend of my sisters (also: one of my sisters friends) Compare: e.g. Georges sister is coming to stay with us. (= implies definiteness, he has 1 sister) If it needs to be understood that George has more than one  & ( * 4 ; = ?     M Q  "$ik;=] khZ>*mH sH hZ6]mH sH hZ6mH sH jhZUmHnHuhVkhZ6mH sH hZmH sH hZ5mH sH H%& = k . / 0  :     0]00]05i: M w "[i;<=]^     ( t        5Y~ e~'SijkPvh`h`k}&;G]i}RS\k ,@8<06ThVkmH sH hVkhZmH sH hVkhZ6mH sH hZ5mH sH hZ6mH sH hZmH sH Mvw4Vv  1Nv ,QR| `h`h|/T*+,@ARV(*BD  DF_"#Jm   9:9; T" 99GQfn  2 8 < s!{!!!!!!!,"3"""""""##### $ $$$)$3$@$$$ĻjhZUmHnHuhVkhZ6mH sH hVk6mHsHhZ6mHsHhZmHsH hVkhZhZ5mH sH hZ6mH sH hZmH sH hZ>*mH sH ?;vwx* + , K!L!!!!" & F`"K"L""""""""#####$0$1$$$%%_%%?&K&L&h^h & F` X$>%I%N%Z%^%_%%%%%%%%%&&&?&N&s&& 'U'u'''''((&(<(Y(Z(b(h((((((()1)D)I)^))))))))*/*C*q********+ +(+8+h+y+++++++hZmHsHhZ5mHsHjhZUmHnHuhZ5mH sH hZ6mH sH hZmH sH ML&M&N&s&t&&& 't'u'''((X(Y((((((0)1)z)))))!*^h^h!*]*^****++`++++++++K,,,,,,,-m---p^p@ ^@ h^h^++++,,-,J,K,R,,,,,,,,,. .*.1.I.P.Q.\.q.x...../%/L/n////0 00A0P0b0q00000001111222222223"3-363^3`3r333hZ]mH sH hZ6]mH sH hZ5\mH sH hVkmH sH hZ5mH sH hZmH sH hZ6mH sH hZ56mH sH G---<.=........$/%/m/n/////00Q0q00000*1+1+1c111112L226373^3_3`3q3r33333!4"41424z445 5  p33344"41444^6`6b6p66667788@8G8M8x8889a9g9~9999:::E:J:c:e:f:m:::::::::; ;;%;O;Y;d;s;<hhnhhhhhhhi i5iUhZ>*mH sH hZ6>*mH sH hTqhZ6mH sH hZ5mH sH hZ6mH sH hZmH sH E 525<6666666778@8g8h88899H9I9s9999:: L   ` ::::E:L:::::;I;J;K;O;Y;Z;;; h h2hKhhhhhhh` sister: One of Georges sisters. A sister of Georges A play of Shakespeares (=one of Shakespeares plays) Further notes: - two genitives are also possible e.g. My brothers neighbours sister is a nurse. - with compounds e.g. My sister-in-laws father is a pilot. hhhhhii5i 1h/ =!"#$%D@D NormlnCJ_HaJmH sH tH JA@J Standardn psmo odstavce^i^ Normln tabulka :V 44 la 0k@0 Bez seznamu g2l%&=k./0:Mw"[i;<=]^  5Y~ e ~  ' S i j k P v w  4 V v 1 N v  ,QR|/T*+,@ARVN_"#Jm   9:9;vwx*+,KLKL01_?KLMNst tuXY0 1 z !!]!^!!!!""`""""""""K#######$m$$$$$<%=%%%%%%%%$&%&m&n&&&&&''Q'q'''''*(+(c((((()L))6*7*^*_*`*q*r*****!+"+1+2+z++, ,2,P,,,,,,,--M-r-----9.:.z.{... / /F/K/L/M/N/w/~////+0@0{0|0}000000;1<1d1}111111111'2(292:2i2000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 0 000000000000000000000000000 0 0 000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000kT$+35i#'*-0: v|D;"L&!*-+1 5:h5i!"$%&()+,./1255i 8@B   (  HB  C DHB  C DHB  C DHB " C DHB % C D HB ( C DHB . C DHB 1 C DHB 7 C DHB : C DHB = C D HB @ C DHB C C DHB F C DHB I C D HB O C DHB U C D HB X C D HB [ C DHB ^ C DHB d C DHB g C DHB j C DHB m C DHB p C DHB | C DHB  C DHB  C DHB  C DHB  C DHB  C DB S  ?=>MNOP"#ijYg2@ Pt"@ < tXt8t. @ t1@ t:@ it7@ tOUPtIUUt= @ t%hUtXIPtUIPIt@@ t(htC utdEt^tF% tjyPtgyPytpmPtmmmt[8ttt|tH$PtPt\ ta |a a Ta ܻa Ta a a a Sa L( a d? a  #a L#a 4%a t%a dfa fa ܾa a a a Ta a  Aa LAa 4a ta ~~%%*%*%%%A'b'b'''''y,y,..-.-.0/0/i2      % %/%/%%%G'g'g'''''~,~, . .7.7.7/7/i2 =*urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags PlaceName=*urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags PlaceType9*urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttagsplaceB*urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttagscountry-region9*urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttagsState8 *urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttagsCity    i2    6 = \ c  37ST++--i23333333333333(2;2i2i2 jancarikovaPcPcXWAvC0_>:L6nUPu*^`o() ^`hH. pLp^p`LhH. @ @ ^@ `hH. ^`hH. L^`LhH. ^`hH. ^`hH. PLP^P`LhH.^`o() ^`hH. pLp^p`LhH. @ @ ^@ `hH. ^`hH. L^`LhH. ^`hH. ^`hH. PLP^P`LhH.^`o() ^`hH. pLp^p`LhH. @ @ ^@ `hH. ^`hH. L^`LhH. ^`hH. ^`hH. PLP^P`LhH.XWAPu>:L                           (LTqVkZ@L2,2-21g2P@PP8@P6Pp@P@UnknownGz Times New Roman5Symbol3& z Arial"h&& *[*[Y24dN2N2 3QH(?(L$SEMINAR 6B  NOUNS  GENDER and CASE jancarikova jancarikova   Oh+'0 $0 L X dpx%SEMINAR 6B NOUNS GENDER and CASEsofEMI jancarikovaancancNormalk jancarikova4ncMicrosoft Word 10.0@H'@.@.*՜.+,0  hp|  MU[N2A %SEMINAR 6B NOUNS GENDER and CASE Nzev  !"#$%&'()*+,-./012345689:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`bcdefghjklmnopsRoot Entry F@.u1Table7SWordDocument"lSummaryInformation(aDocumentSummaryInformation8iCompObjj  FDokument Microsoft Word MSWordDocWord.Document.89q