ࡱ> >@!"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=` <jbjb  dd* bbb^DF F F DDD8|04.pp(<>>>>>>,gRj-F j F F    F F < Z n..F F <  F F d D   0    F `` Forces and Factors Affecting Ohio Proficiency Test Performance: A Study of 593 Ohio School Districts Randy L. Hoover, Ph.D. Department of Teacher Education Beeghly College of Education Youngstown State University Youngstown, Ohio February 27, 2000 Section One An Overview of Forces and Factors Affecting Ohio Proficiency Test Performance: A Study of 593 Ohio School Districts Randy L. Hoover, Ph.D. Beeghly College of Education Youngstown State University Youngstown, Ohio February 27, 2000 The following pages contain information, data, analysis, and summary findings regarding a major study of Ohio school district performance on the 1997 Ohio Proficiency Tests (OPT). The data are for 593 of the 611 Ohio School districts. Data for 18 districts were excluded due to either missing test scores or because of their extremely small size such as North Bass Island. A complete list of the districts used in the study and the basic data for those districts may be found in the appendix to this study. This study examines the 593 Ohio districts on all sections of the 1997 fourth-grade, sixth-grade, ninth-grade, and twelfth-grade tests. Thus, as the outcome measure of district performance, the study uses 16 sets of scores for each Ohio School district. All data used in this study are taken directly from the online Ohio Department of Educations Educational Management Information System (EMIS) of the State of Ohio and have not been derived from any secondary source. The variables examined against the 1997 district test data are also from the 1997 EMIS collection. The data from 1997 were selected for analysis because they are the most recent online data available from the Ohio Department of Education and the State of Ohio. and they are the most complete data available that is easily accessed by the public. The data were analyzed using linear regression and Pearsons correlation (Pearsons r) procedures. A simplified explanation of the analysis is contained in the next section. However, it is important to point out that the statistical analyses used are very simple an very straightforward in terms of the range of potentially very complex statistical procedures. The statistical operations used in the study are quite typical of those used across many fields and disciplines including medicine, marketing, political science, and economics. While certain results may call for additional and more sophisticated analysis, the results contained herein speak for themselves and for the power of basic statistical analysis. Further, given the power of the primary results of the procedures and the statistical significance of those results, no additional more complex procedures were deemed necessary to achieve the basic ends of the study. As with any research of education and social phenomena, there is always room for interpretation and reflective judgment. While this certainly applies to this particular study, the basic finding regarding district-level Ohio Proficiency test performance is remarkably clear: Performance on the Ohio Proficiency Test is most significantly related to the social-economic living conditions and experiences of the pupils to the extent that the tests are found to have no academic nor accountability validity whatsoever. It is extremely important to know that findings do not single out students and districts in which levels of disadvantagement are high as being the only sector where the test is invalid. The findings clearly indicate that the range of performance across all social economic levels lacks validity in terms of assessing academic performance. Rejection of the findings regarding OPT validity (accepting the State of Ohios interpretation of OPT results) means that we accept the position that wealth defines academic intelligence, that the wealthier the students the more intelligent than less wealthy students. This position is absurd even at a common sense level; money does not define academic intelligence or learning capabilities. Part of the problem in understanding OPT for what it is (or is not) rests in understanding that there are many different variables that affect how, what and whether a child learns in school. Explicit in the OPT program and State of Ohio policies on school district accountability is the assumption that these high stakes tests accurately assess student academic achievement and that all students are the same in terms of how, what, and whether they learn. The findings of this study contradict this assumption. Implicit in the claims and slogans of the those who are using the OPT and Ohio School Report Cards (OSRC) to assess public education in Ohio is the idea that district OPT performance is determined by one variable-- the teacher. Interestingly, the OPT proponents are often using the test more of an indicator of school district and teacher performance than of student performance as witnessed by the force of the Ohio School Report Cards. The results of this study show that neither student academic learning, school district effectiveness, nor teacher effectiveness are validly measured by these tests. Indeed, the findings indicate that OPT results and OSRC ratings are, in most cases, extremely misleading at best. Contained within the subsequent sections of this study are the primary and secondary findings of the study. Each section covers a particular variable or related set of variables and uses graphs and narrative to attempt to explain the meaning and the significance of the findings being discussed. Though the primary research interest motivating this study is OPT district-level performance, this study would be incomplete without some analysis and discussion of the Ohio School Report Cards since OSRC is driven primarily by OPT district-level performance. Therefore, there is a section dealing with the validity problems of OSRC as related to the primary findings of the study of OPT district performance. Section Two Frequently Asked Questions and Explanation of Terms The following are very brief summaries of key elements of the study. Each item presented below is explained in greater depth within the text of the study itself. What did the study involve? Briefly stated, this research study involved the examination of 593 Ohio school districts across 40 variables using 16 sets of OPT scores for each school district. All data were collected from EMIS online data banks and the data were analyzed using statistical methods such as regression analysis and correlation analysis. Both school and non-school variables were used. What is the purpose of this study? The purpose of the study was to attempt to identify both school and non-school variables most significantly associated with district test performance in order to illuminate the degree to which OPT is a valid and reasonable mechanism for assessing school performance in terms of academic achievement and educator accountability. Similarly, an attempt was made to isolate and examine any variables found to be likely significant in contributing to actual district performance. What is the difference between a school variable and a non-school variable? School variables are those forces and factors that schools can control and adjust such as class size, per pupil expenditure, and teacher salary among many others. Non-school variables are forces and factors over which schools have no control such as mean family income, property values, and poverty levels among many others. What are the primary findings? The study found that OPT district test performance is most strongly connected to the living conditions and the lived experiences of the students in terms of economic, social, and environmental factors. District test performance was found to correlate extremely high with advantagement-disadvantagement: The greater the wealth of the students of the school district, the better the district OPT performance. In this study, the term "Presage Factor" is used to indicate the social, economic, and environmental variables of advantagement-disadvantagement. The findings also show the Ohio School Report Card to be equally as invalid as OPT performance. This finding is not too surprising when we consider that OPT performance is the primary element that drives OSRC ratings. In other words, if OPT does not carry significant validity, then OSRC will not either because it is primarily a function of district OPT performance. What exactly is the Presage Factor? The Presage Factor is a combination of the Ohio Department of Educations online EMIS variables that represent measures of advantagement-disadvantagement. It combines the following EMIS measures: percent ADC, percent enrolled in the subsidized school lunch program, percent economically disadvantaged, and mean family income. These variables are combined in a very straightforward manner using a simple calculus to derive a scaled measure of advantagement-disadvantagement. Section Three gives the precise formula for calculating the Presage Factor. What is meant by advantagement-disadvantagement? Advantagement-disadvantagement is intended to represent the continuum of social-economic forces and factors that are indicated by the Presage Factor. They are the forces and factors that shape the lived experience of all children. The knowledge, culture, values, attitudes, and meanings that children bring to school are a largely shaped by their lived experiences. This particular term is not used the same way as the terms educationally disadvantaged or educationally advantaged. These terms refer to how schooling itself, through its practices and processes, is structured to reward or punish students for the knowledge, values, and cultural meanings they bring to school. What are linear regression and statistical correlation? Linear regression is used to examine the relationship between two variables such as the Presage Factor and the percent passing the OPT. Basically it allows us to perceive how the change in one set of variables relates to corresponding change in the other set of variables. Statistical correlation then allows us to determine the strength of the relationship between the two sets of variables. The correlation used in this study is called "Pearson's correlation" or "Pearson's r." It is this correlation that tells how significant the association is between the sets of variables. Correlation analysis yields what is called the "correlation coefficient" or "r." The range of "r" is from -1.0 to 1.0. The closer that "r" is to -1.0 or 1.0, the stronger the relationship between the two sets of variables being analyzed. For example, where r=1.0, the correlation is perfect... where r=0.0, there is no relationship whatsoever. In cases where "r" is negative, the correlation is said to be inverse, meaning that as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other decreases. (See the graph of percent passing and percent ADC for an example of an inverse correlation.) In cases where "r" is positive, as the value of one variable increases so does the value of the other variable. In social science research, a perfect correlation is rarely, if ever, found. Indeed, correlations approaching either r=-0.50 or r=0.50 are usually considered relatively significant. It is suggested that you consult a good statistics text for better understanding of the details and assumptions involved with regression analysis and correlation. It needs to be noted that the primary finding of this study regarding the relationship between advantagement-disadvantagement and OPT district performance is r=0.80, a significantly high correlation by any statistical standards. What are residuals? A residual is the difference between what the linear regression predicts a given value will be and what the value actually is based upon the line generated by the mathematics of linear regression. It is essentially the mathematical distance of a data point above or below the regression line. In the case of this study, district residuals from the Presage Score/Percent Passing regression are used to postulate actual performance. Doing this gives us some idea of performance controlling for the Presage Factor. What exactly is a z-Score and why use it? A z-score (often called a "standard score") is a transformation of a raw score into standard deviation units. Using z-scores allows us to immediately know how far above or below the mean is any given score, thus allowing us to visualize how extreme the score is relative to all other scores. The mean of any z-score distribution is always zero. Using z-scores does not alter the distribution of scores in any way and does not affect the analysis or the findings. Converting to z-scores is a linear transformation and does not change the results of the data analysis in any way other than to make the data more understandable. The advantage of the z-score is found in allowing us to understand one score relative to other scores. For example, the Presage score as a raw score for Youngstown City School District is -173.08, which does not tell us how extreme the disadvantagement is. The Presage z-score for Youngstown is -3.82, which tells us that it is 3.82 standard deviations below the State average, thus allowing us to see that Youngstown's students are very deeply in social-economic disadvantagement. What exactly is standard deviation? Most simply put, standard deviation describes how a set of scores is distributed around the mean of the set. For use in this study, basic knowledge of standard deviation is helpful in reading and understanding the z-scores. Z-scores tell us how many standard deviations above or below the mean a score is. Z-scores greater than 1.0 or lower than -1.0 suggest more significant scores beyond those within 1.0 and -1.0. In the case of reasonably normal distributions such as with the data in this study, approximately 68% of the scores will fall within the 1.0 and -1.0 range of the first standard deviation and 95% of the scores will fall within the limits of the second standard deviation. Scores in the third standard deviation may be thought of as being extreme. Thus, the example of Youngstown given above as having a Presage z-score of -3.82 tells us that it is a case of children living in extremely disadvantaged environments. How significant or powerful are the findings? The correlation between the measure of advantagement-disadvantagement (Presage Factor) and OPT performance are extremely high (r=0.80). Indeed, these findings about this relationship are about as high as are ever found in social science research. . . the findings are very significant both statistically, conceptually, and practically. Can OPT scores be raised through school interventions? The question as to whether OPT scores can be raised can certainly be answered in the affirmative, though it is not considered within the study. However, any educational imperative to raise scores must not be based on an invalid test nor must it be directed toward any form of high stakes testing. Instead, it must be driven by the vision of empowerment, the idea that what students are taught in schools must be personally experienced by the students. Knowledge must be taught in such a manner that it is felt as relevant and usable in the mind of the learner. To empower learners requires constructing learning activities that become personally felt lived experiences for the students in the classrooms, not abstract rote exercises over facts and ideas that the students perceive as meaningless and irrelevant. The usability of academic knowledge must be taught by the teachers and must be experienced by the students if we are to empower learners and raise scores significantly. What do the findings tell us about the validity of the OPT as an assessment of academic achievement? The findings tell us that OPT performance is in no manner a valid measure of academic achievement: The OPT measures almost exclusively only the quality of life in which the students of the district live. What do these findings suggest about the validity of the Ohio School Report Card? The findings tell us that the Ohio School Report Card, because it is almost entirely based upon OPT performance, is a totally invalid assessment of actual school district performance and should not be used. OSRC is extremely misleading, and the general public should be outraged about its use. Likewise, the State Legislature and Governor should be held accountable for misleading the citizens of Ohio and using state monies for such an invalid assessment of school district performance. What do the findings tell us about accountability on the part of districts, administrators, teachers, and Ohio's public school pupils? Accountability is the least understood term in the American political lexicon. For true accountability to be invoked, we must understand that valid accountability is a function of the decision latitude and amount of performance control vested in those being held accountable. In other words, it is wrong to hold districts, administrators, teachers, or students accountable for a test that measures variables over which they have absolutely no control. This study finds beyond the shadow of any doubt that the OPT is not a measure of virtually anything related to in-school variables; it is a measure of non-school variables, forces, and factors. Therefore, to hold those associated with schools accountable for OPT performance is absurd and wrong. It is tantamount to holding the TV weather person accountable for todays weather. From this study, is it possible to assess with some degree of validity the actual levels of Ohio school district performance? The answer here is both yes and no. It is "yes" in terms of knowing that the Presage Factor is so very powerful that if we control for its effects, we begin to get a much clearer and certainly much more valid picture of how each district is actually performing. It is "no" in the sense that this performance even controlling for the Presage variables still is primarily based upon the OPT itself. To assess school district performance using the OPT would be foolish and wrong in that it is the public school student who suffers most from the test. In other words, why hurt and mislead the children and parents of Ohio to assess district performance using an invalid instrument. When will copies of the findings be made public? The study itself was officially released to the public and media as of 12:01 AM, February 27, 2000. On April 27, 2000 the findings will be presented at Ohio's Teaching Learning Conference 2000 in Columbus. The presentation is scheduled for 8:45 am, tentatively in Room C214 in the Columbus Convention Center. Copies of the final study will be available at this presentation and is available online March 1, 2000 at http://cc.ysu.edu/~rlhoover/OPT Section Three The Primary Findings: Advantage-Disadvantage as Predictor of District Performance The fundamental purpose of this study was to examine what forces and factors may be affecting district-level performance on the Ohio Proficiency Tests and to attempt to determine to what degree these variables shape district-level performance. To this end, two categories of variables were used: school variables and non-school variables. School variables are those forces and factors that schools can control and adjust such as class size, per pupil expenditure, and teacher salary among many others. Non-School variables are forces and factors over which schools have no control such as mean family income, property values, and poverty levels among many others. As briefly discussed previously, the primary finding is that OPT performance is affected most significantly by non-school variables representing the lived experiences of the children attending the school district. The lived experiences of children come from and happen within the advantagement-disadvantagement of their environments. These experiences of real-life are non-school variables that clearly shape how, what, and whether a child learns. The term Presage Factor was chosen to indicate the data used collectively as a measure of the non-school variables that serve as the indicator of the degree of advantagement-disadvantagement experienced in the lives of the districts school children. The term was chosen because the word presage means to predict, foresee, or foreshadow, which is what knowledge of basic living conditions within the district allows us to do with OPT performance when we can mathematically quantify elements of those basic living conditions. The graph below shows the power of the Presage Factor as a measure of advantagement-disadvantagement in predicting district OPT performance. The "Y" axis represents the mean percent of a district's students passing across the four sections of the 4th, 6th, 9th, and 12th grade 1997 Ohio Proficiency Tests: %Passing = [(%4Math + %4Reading + %4Writing + %4Citizenship + %6Math + %6Reading + %6Writing + %6Citizenship + %9Math + %9Reading + %9Writing + %9Citizenship + %12Math + %12Reading + %12Writing + %12Citizenship)/16]. The "X" axis represents the Presage Factor expressed in raw scores. The presage score is a measure of the degree of social-economic disadvantagement-advantagement derived from EMIS data that combines the percent of the student population of the school district for Aid to Dependent Children, percent enrolled in the Free or Reduced Lunch Program, percent listed by the State of Ohio in Economic Disadvantagement, and Mean Family Income. The formula or algorithm for the Presage Factor is: Presage Score = (%Free/ReducedLunch + %ADC + %EcoDis) - (MeanFamInc/1000)(-1). From the data analysis represented in the graph below, we find that performance across the 593 Ohio districts included in this study is associated with non-school environmental conditions of advantagement-disadvantagement to the extent of r = 0.80. This is an extremely high correlation and clearly brings the validity of OPT into serious question.  Interpretation of the correlation coefficient of r=0.80 tells us that, conservatively, the non-school related effects of advantagement-disadvantagement defined by the Presage Factor determine 64% of OPT performance. It is important to note that this 64% determination is restricted to the effects of the Presage Factor and, by definition, does not include other possible advantagement-disadvantagement effects outside the realm of those included in the Presage Factor. Indeed, the idea that advantagement-disadvantagement limited to the scope of the Presage Factor determines 64% of OPT performance is a conservative interpretation of the overall power of social-economic living conditions because it may well be excluding other significant non-school forces and factors. There is a real possibility that there are still social-economic effects beyond the range of those comprising the Presage Factor, though extremely powerful in its own predictive power. For more possible insights to additional non-school variable effects beyond those within the scope of the Presage Factor, see the sections on Actual District Performance: Controlling for the Presage Factor and Percent African-American and Percent White as Variables Across Presage Score, Percent Passing, and Actual Performance. Because of the discovery that OPT performance is overwhelmingly determined by the social-economic living conditions that the students of the district experience growing up, the inescapable conclusion is that OPT is not a valid measure of either school or teacher effectiveness and should not be used for accountability assessment. The OPT is invalid because the results of this study show that it does not measure what it claims to measure: Student performance on the OPT is, at best, academically meaningless. It is highly biased against economically disadvantaged students and highly biased in favor of economically advantaged students. Using z-Scores for Graphs: A z-score (often called a "standard score") is a transformation of a raw score into standard deviation units. Using z-scores allows us to immediately know how far above or below the mean is any given score, thus allowing us to visualize how extreme the score is relative to all other scores. The mean of any z-score distribution is always zero. Using z-scores does not alter the distribution of scores in any way and does not affect the analysis or the findings. Converting to z-scores is a linear transformation and does not change the results of the data analysis in any way other than to make the data more understandable. The advantage of the z-score is found in allowing us to understand one score relative to other scores. For example the Presage score as a raw score for Youngstown City School District is -173.08, which does not tell us how extreme the disadvantagement is. The Presage z-score for Youngstown is -3.82, which tells us that it is 3.82 standard deviations below the State average, thus allowing us to see that Youngstown's students are very deeply in social-economic disadvantagement. Likewise, the presage score for Indian Hill Exempted School District is 164.76, a figure that alone tells us little about the meaning of the score. However, the z-score for Indian Hill is 4.37, which tells us that it is a very advantaged district. Most simply put, standard deviation describes how a set of scores is distributed around the mean (average) of the set. For use in this study, basic knowledge of standard deviation is helpful in reading and understanding the z-scores. Z-scores tell us how many standard deviations above or below the mean a score is. Z-scores above the mean are positive numbers and those below are negative numbers. Z-scores greater than 1.0 or lower than -1.0 tell us that these scores are significantly more extreme than those within 1.0 and -1.0. In the case of reasonably normal distributions such as with the data in this study, approximately 68% of the scores will fall within the 1.0 and -1.0 range of the first standard deviation, and 95% of the scores will fall within the limits of the second standard deviation. Scores in the second standard deviation are more extreme than those in the first standard deviation, and those in the third standard deviation may be thought of as being very extreme. Thus, the example of Youngstown given above as having a Presage z-score of -3.82 tells us that it is a case of children living in extremely disadvantaged environments relative to what is typical within the State of Ohio. The following graph is a z-score version of the previous graph showing the relationship between percent passing and the presage score. Both percent passing and the presage scores have been transformed into z-scores. You will note that the graph is virtually identical to the previous one and has exactly the same correlation coefficient (r=0.80). However, because we now have z-scores to view, we can easily see the categories near, above, or below the mean for each district.  In addition, categories of advantagement-disadvantagement have been added to the graph using the z-score divisions of standard deviation. The center column Middle Class is divided down the middle by the mean (average) for the state. Using the z-score divisions for standard deviations above and below the mean, we can then classify levels of advantagement-disadvantagement based upon those mathematical divisions, thus making it more clear as to just how the different districts can be seen to compare with each other. Youngstown City and Indian hill districts that were used previously as examples of z-scores are both circled on the graph, showing the z-score significance visually. Though categorical descriptors have not been added to the x-axis, we can still see how far above or below the state mean the various districts fall. If we were to create a grid by marking off the z-score standard deviations for the percent passing 1997, we would see that districts cluster in very similar ways where passing and presage scores have similarly high or low z-scores. This grouping is simply another way of seeing how districts with higher levels of advantagement cluster with higher levels of percent passing as low advantaged districts cluster with low percent passing. Once again, note how Youngstown City and Indian Hill are respectively low-low and high-high within the clusterings that are shaped by the data as arrayed by z-score graphing. Data Supporting the Presage Factor Significance: What is somewhat unusual is that the variables combined through the calculus of the presage formula yield a more powerful predictive correlation than do any one of the individual variables used in the formulation. However fortuitous, it is important and illuminating to understand the significant degree to which district test performance is predicted by the individual variables of Free/Reduced Lunch enrollment, ADC, Economic Disadvantagement, and Mean Family Income. The following four graphs visually represent these component variables used in the presage formula. I believe they help us understand the gravity of using tests such as OPT where the bias is so clearly shown.  The graph of percent enrolled in the free/subsidized lunch program shows an inverse correlation of r=0.73, which should be considered an extremely significant correlation. It is an inverse correlation simply because as the percent enrolled in the program increases, district performance drops. The primary evidence the finding provides is to validate the association of test performance with a specific measure of advantagement-disadvantagement.  The State of Ohios own measure of economic disadvantagement also shows significant correlation with district OPT performance. As with the previous graph, the correlation is inverse, telling us that as the percent of economic disadvantagement goes up, district test performance goes down.  The graph of mean income provides us with both a significant correlation and a telling view of the mean income data itself. The correlation between the mean income of a district and OPT performance is r=0.58. Though lower than the correlations seen in the previous findings, r=0.58 is still a highly significant correlation coefficient. In terms of the coefficient of determination (r2), we find mean family income conservatively determining about 33% of district OPT performance. However, the distribution is somewhat curvilinear. A curvilinear distribution is one in which the distribution points have a visible curvature of some sort. The curvilinearity is visible in the mean income graph as the array of points can be seen to bend to the right toward the quadrant formed by the above-average mean income and above-average district performance area of the graph. Two findings can be drawn from the curvilinear spread. The first finding is the statistical reality that because the data array is clearly curvilinear, the correlation coefficient is underestimating the degree of association between the two variables. This means that the correlation coefficient of r=0.58 is most likely considerably lower than the actual degree of correlation. In other words, though r=0.58 is a relatively high correlation, it belies the reality of there being actually a higher correlation than seen due to the curvilinearity. The second finding is serendipitous to the study but both relevant and interesting taken within the context of OPT and the effects of non-school variables on district performance. In examining the curved nature of the data, we can see implicit evidence of how mean income changes dramatically as we move from the upper middle class to the upper classes. Because income distribution is the primary determiner of relative advantagement-disadvantagement disparity, the decision was made to examine how the continuum of advantagement-disadvantagement has been shaped by mean income changes over the past ten years and how it may have exacerbated the extremes of poverty and wealth affecting the lived experiences of Ohios children. In other words, because we can think of the presage score as representing a point on the continuum of advantagement-disadvantagement and because the range (length) of that continuum represents the scope of disparity in living conditions, we can examine how that scope may have changed over the past several years. The relevance of this side-bar analysis to this study is to provide a context for better understanding who is intrinsically advantaged and who is intrinsically disadvantaged by OPT and how those may have changed as a function of the distribution of wealth over the past few years. The following graph shows how district mean family income has changed over the years 1987 through 1998.  This graph shows how district mean family income changed from 1987 to 1998 in terms of the presage scores. The most striking finding is that income increased far greater for the wealthiest districts than for the less wealthy ones. Indeed, when the graph is examined closely, we see that increases in family income are relatively slight from the extremely disadvantaged upward through the middle class until we reach the upper end of the middle class and into the advantaged class, where it changed dramatically. The most contrasting districts have been identified on the graph to better understand the extremes of the advantagement-disadvantagement continuum. As would be expected given the power of the Presage Factor, the mean percent passing for the 5 districts with the greatest increase in mean family income is 91.4%; the mean percent passing for the six districts with the least change in mean family income is 52.9%. What the comparison in the above paragraph tells us is that OPT is very tightly tied to an explicit association with wealth. The degree to which the association with wealth is a function of living conditions and the lived experiences of the districts children is told in the elements that comprise the Presage Factor and their individual contributions shown in this section above. However, the question also arises as to the degree of local financial contribution to the local districts funds given the wealth available to commit funds. Findings regarding funding variables will be examined briefly in Section Five, after examination of district performance controlling for the effects of the Presage Factor in Section Four. Section Four Actual District Performance: Controlling for the Presage Factor An interesting way to examine district performance is to look at is controlling for the effects of the non-school forces and factors that comprise the Presage Factor. The concept of actual district performance reflects the idea that once we are able to establish the effects of the Presage Factor on district performance, we then are able to compare the predicted rate of passing with the actual rate of passing given the presage score for the district. In this sense, we are controlling for the effects of advantagement-disadvantagement for each of the 593 Ohio school districts and seeing OPT performance through a very different lens than does the State of Ohio. In other words, since we know the power of the Presage Factors effect (r=0.80) and that most conservatively it accounts for 64% of the test performance, we can then examine district performance controlling for the Presage Factors effects by comparing the predicted passing rate to the actual passing rate. We then compare those performances. The following is a graphing of what I term actual performance because it shows how districts are performing with the social-economic factors contained the Presage factor removed. Essentially, it is a graph that indicates how far districts are above or below the regression line shown in the primary graph of Advantagement-Disadvantagement as a Predictor of District Performance. (See Section Three.) The distance above or below the regression line of the aforementioned graph is termed a residual and represents the difference between where we would expect a district to fall based upon the predictive power of the Presage Factor and where the district actually falls.  The upper left quadrant represents districts that are performing average or above average and have average or below average levels of advantagement. The upper right quadrant represents districts performing average or above average and have average or above average advantagement. The lower left quadrant represents districts that are performing average or below average and have average or below average advantagement. The lower right quadrant represents districts performing average or below average and have average or above average advantagement. The greater the distance above or below the x-axis (the horizontal red line), the more the district is performing respectively beyond or below what would be expected given the presage score of the particular district. Districts falling between +1 and -1 on the x-axis are all within one standard deviation of the mean and may be considered as having average performance that is about where we would expect them to perform. Any district above the +1 mark above the x-axis is performing significantly better than average and better than would be expected. Likewise, any district below the -1 mark below the x-axis is performing significantly lower than average and lower than would be expected. This graph shows that when the district OPT performance residuals (actual performance) from the primary graph are themselves compared to Presage levels, there is no correlation whatsoever. This is one of those rare cases when a low or zero-order correlation is good. What is shown is that actual district performance (performance determined by controlling for Presage Factor effects) is, indeed, free of any and all Presage Factor effects as we would expect. This graph offers us a view from which we can examine district performance without having to be misled by Presage Factor effects. However, several caveats must be made to avoid misunderstanding actual performance. The term actual is restricted to describing performance controlling only for the Presage Factor. There should be no claim made that this performance has any substantial validity beyond simply correcting for the bias of social-economic advantagement-disadvantagement as defined by the Presage Factor. However, we can and do argue that it does give a much more accurate view of district performance than does the format used by the State of Ohio. Though we are now able to view district performance free of Presage Factor effects yet through the lens of OPT, this study does not in any way wish to imply that OPT should ever be used as any measure of district, teacher, or pupil accountability whatsoever. Indeed, this study does not address the severe psychological effects of OPT on Ohios public school children. Likewise, this study does not address the pedagogical effects of OPT in terms of detrimental effects on empowering curriculum and instruction in Ohios schools. Carefully conducted studies of the psychological effects and the pedagogical effects of OPT are vital before any consideration is given to using any form of high stakes testing to draw conclusions about school district performance. Some of the performance differentials between the OPT as reported by the State of Ohio and scores adjusted for the bias of the Presage Factor are striking. For example, Youngstown City Schools ranks 581 out of 593 districts in percent passing the 1997 OPT. However, when correcting for the bias of advantagement-disadvantagement, Youngstowns rank is 58 out of 593. Youngstown City School District is in the top 10% in the rankings of actual performance. Indian Hill Exempted School District is 16th in percent passing 1997 OPT, but falls to 581 when correcting for advantagement-disadvantagement. In the case of Youngstown City, we have a district that is steeped in disadvantagement as defined by the Presage Factor, and in the case of Indian Hill we have a district steep in advantagement. We know through the primary finding that the presage effects predict a low rate of passing for Youngstown City and a high rate of passing for Indian Hill. However, by calculating the difference between the predicted rate of passing and the actual rate of passing, we can see the degree to which they are performing above or below expectations established by the power of the non-school variables of the Presage Factor. Thus, we now have a new way to assess district performance, one that compares districts without the bias inherent in the non-school variables contained in the Presage Factor. Some districts show little or no change when correcting for Presage Factor OPT bias. For example, South Range Local School District is 15th in percent passing the 1997 OPT, yet is 3rd in actual performance when correcting for advantagement-disadvantagement. In other words, South Ranges performance is high in both systems. The importance of what this aspect of the analysis shows us is that viewing or ranking districts without considering the social-economic bias of the OPT results in many districts being extremely over-rated or extremely under-rated. In this manner, the stakeholders of the state in general and the stakeholders within the local districts in particular are often being given monumentally misleading assessment information. Unfortunately, this misleading information is used to drive public praise or public criticism of Ohios local schools. Indeed, many Ohioans are keenly interested in their public schools but are relying on invalid information to make informed decisions directly affecting the lives of both adults and children. The problem resulting from failure to understand or correct for OPT bias is compounded through the format of the Ohio School Report Card. Because so many of the performance standards comprising the OSRC are directly dependent upon the percentages of students passing the various tests, the fundamental and significant bias of the tests carries over directly into the OSRC ratings. Section 9 of the study deals briefly with the validity of the Ohio School Report Card as affected by the findings about OPT performance. Understanding the Next Sections: We have now completed the basis for understanding the presentation and findings regarding the additional EMIS variables used in this study of forces and factors affecting OPT district performance. In the following sections, these additional variables are presented using three perspectives on the data: The variable in relation to the Presage Factor. The variable in relation to percent passing the 1997 tests. The variable in relation to actual performance as defined in this section. Using these three perspectives gives us a triangulation that illuminates the role of the particular variable beyond simply its association with passing rates that are biased by the loading of the non-school effects of advantagement-disadvantagement. Thus the interpretation of each of the following variables is intended to provide deeper insight into the significance and meaning of the variable as it affects or is related to the context of OPT performance. The following variables are examined and interpreted in the subsequent sections of the study: Section 5: Federal, State, and Local Funding Section 6: Teachers Section 7: African-American and White Section Five Federal, State, and Local Funding Variables This section addresses the role of federal, state and local funding percentages in terms of the Presage Factor, OPT performance, and actual OPT performance as defined in Section 4. Funding has historically been a source of contention across the arguments of stakeholders regarding school and district effectiveness. The major reason the arguments have continued is that there has not been a valid outcome measure of effectiveness against which to base the arguments. With the institution of OPT, critics of schooling in Ohio have used percent passing as the outcome measure to support their claims. In doing so, these critics have assumed that OPT is a valid measure of academic achievement and a valid measure of professional accountability. It is now important to realize that the assumptions about funding using OPT as the bottom-line are invalid because of the bias found in this study. However, knowing the bias and being able to triangulate funding effects using presage scores, percent passing, and actual district performance does tell us what we claims cannot be made and does illuminate possible effects of funding beyond current public discussions. Federal Revenue Effects The first three graphs in the set below examine the percent federal funding a district receives and its association with district performance, Likewise, the subsequent sets of graphs examine state and local funding in the same manner.  This first graph above tells us clearly that federal funding is inversely correlated with advantagement-disadvantagement (r=-0.80). This correlation obviates the reality that disadvantaged districts are more eligible for federal funding than are more advantaged districts because of federal funding criteria.  Percent passing OPT and federal revenue show a significant negative correlation (r=-0.65), which tell us the greater the amount of federal funding, the lower the district OPT performance. Taken at face value outside the context of the studys findings, it would seem that federal funding has, at best, no effect on district performance and at worst a negative effect. However, this would be a superficial and terribly inaccurate interpretation given what we know about district OPT performance in relation to the elements of the Presage Factor. Since we already know the bias of OPT against disadvantaged districts and because we know that disadvantaged districts receive far more federal revenue than advantaged districts, the results tell us nothing about the real effects of federal revenues. Thus, the primary finding here is that comparing federal revenue and district test performance tells us nothing about the effectiveness of the federal funding. Indeed, it is entirely possible, and I believe probable, that federal funding is tremendously beneficial to disadvantaged school districts.  Comparing actual performance as defined in Section 4 to federal revenue gives a correlation that is not statistically significant. However, the fact that there is no significant correlation considered along with the fact that the more advantaged districts do not receive any substantial federal funding suggests something potentially significant. Remembering that actual performance controls for the bias of disadvantagement and that federal funding is a function of disadvantagement, a low correlation would be expected. However, given that approximately 50% of the districts falling within the range of disadvantagement are performing at or above what would be expected of them, it is entirely possible that this performance may be helped by the federal funding in those districts. We can make no claim about federal funding being ineffective from the findings and must reserve judgment for further study to determine potential positive effects in terms of actual test performance. In other words, without federal revenue, it is entirely possible that actual district performance would be far below what is seen for disadvantaged districts. State Funding Effects The next set of graphs does with state revenues what was done with the federal revenues discussed above. Likewise, the findings are somewhat similar to the findings for the effects of federal revenue.  Percent state revenue and presage scores have an inverse correlation (r=-0.51). Though less than the correlation found for federal revenue, the correlation is more than likely due to the same phenomenon. This is so because, despite the controversy regarding the inequity of Ohios funding formula, the state does fund in a compensatory manner relative to the advantagement-disadvantagement of the local districts. In general, under Ohios current funding formula economically disadvantaged districts do receive greater state subsidies than do economically advantaged districts. Because state funding is not as compensatory as federal funding, more advantaged districts acquire more total funding when consideration is given to the additive factor of local funding. Therefore, the first graph suggests that, like federal funding, state aid may be viewed to a large degree as a surrogate measure of the presage variables. Therefore, on this basis, the inverse correlation is what we would expect to find.  Percent passing and its association with the percent of state funding, again, is what we would expect given the bias of OPT in favor of more advantaged school districts. Likewise, the correlation coefficient is lower than the federal one because Ohios school funding formula is less compensatory than the federal formulas for all programs combined. The finding must not be construed that state funding does not contribute to district effectiveness.  The correlation coefficient for actual performance (r=-0.10) and percent state revenue is not statistically significant. Just as with the interpretation given previously for the correlation of percent federal revenue, the effect of state funding on actual performance may be suggesting that it does have an effect that would more than likely be conspicuous by its absence but not provable by its presence because of OPTs lack of validity and the compensatory relationship of state funding to factors associated with the elements of the Presage Factor. In other words, without the existing levels of state funding, it is entirely possible that actual district performance would be far below what is seen for disadvantaged districts and possibly lower even for advantaged ones. Local Funding Effects The set of graphs representing local revenue contributions stands in striking comparison to the two previous sets of graphs in their positive correlations. However, the same principles of interpretation apply to these findings as do the previous findings for federal and state revenues. It must be remembered that in these three sets of graphs dealing with federal, state, and local funding, we are dealing with percent of total funding, so the data and graphs have the common denominator of being complements of each other in terms of the total federal, state, and local funds equaling 100%.  The correlation between presage scores and local revenue shows essentially what we would expect. Because district local revenue is a function of advantagement-disadvantagement with the percent of local funding increasing proportionally with the wealth of the district, this graph simply exposes the degree of that relationship. The data also does confirm the importance of understanding the power of local economics as related to school funding and advantagement-disadvantagement. Likewise, the finding also may point to possible questions of inequity in Ohios school funding program.  The correlation coefficient for percent local revenue and percent passing is, again, showing local revenue in its association with advantagement-disadvantagement given what know about the correlation of percent passing to presage effects and about local revenue being a function of advantagement-disadvantagement, as discussed previously. Taken only on its face, there appears to be the basis for the argument that increasing percent of local funding causes higher rates of passage. This claim of causality is not supportable given what we already know about the associations of higher levels of local funding being significantly correlated with higher levels of advantagement.  Though there is a slight positive correlation between local revenue and actual district performance, it is not statistically significant. However, this finding lends support to the idea that actual performance as defined by controlling for presage effects is stable across the variables of federal, state, and local funding contributions. This stability across variables reinforces the proposition that the Presage Factor taps into a robust measure of predictive validity for district performance and also supports further the idea that actual performance is likely a function of school variables as opposed to non-school variables. Additional Local Funding Variables Residential Valuation  The graph of residential valuation as a percentage of total valuation shows a moderate correlation with presage scores. However, a visual examination of the data plots shows a rather non-linear pattern that is also not curvilinear in shape. The upper right quadrant representing both higher presage scores and a higher percent of residential valuation does have a visual linear shape. The finding here suggests that from what might be called the middle class and upward to the more advantaged districts have greater yield from residential valuations than do most districts. The spread in the lower end of the presage scores, although not analyzed separate from the other data, appears to be rather random with the lower left quadrant being those districts with low property values.  The correlation and shape of the data plots for percent passing and residential valuation are consistent with the correlation and shape of the graphing of first graph of this set. This graph simply lends support to the notion of the positive correlation between district advantagement and test scores.  The actual performance and residential valuation graph findings support the idea that actual scores created by controlling for the presage effects stands up to testing against residential valuation. In other words, it helps support the hypothetical validity of actual performance. The Related Variable of Per Pupil Expenditure Though certainly not in the category of funding, per pupil expenditure in some ways can be seen to mirror funding and any discussion of revenue begs the question of spending. Therefore the variable of per pupil expenditure has been included in the funding section to provide additional insight with regard to how funds are expended in terms of Ohios pupils. Per Pupil Expenditure  The correlation between presage score and per pupil expenditure is slight, though positive. Because the distribution of data is skewed away from linearity, interpretation is difficult at best. However, considering the slight correlation and the distributions in the upper-right and upper-left quadrants, the array does show a very uneven spread of per pupil spending that may indicate inequities in Ohio school district funding.  This graph clearly shows the general finding that there is little overall difference in the effects of per pupil spending except, again, in the upper right area of the data plots. This area clearly has higher per pupil spending, somewhat higher percent passing, and it is congruent with the outliers seen in the data plot in the first graph of this set. The finding lends some support to the idea that there are some very wealthy districts in terms of advantagement and that these districts are showing more clearly in this particular analysis.  Per pupil expenditure when viewed controlling for advantagement-disadvantagement supports the power of the Presage Factor as a relatively valid and stable indicator of OPT bias. This is so because the correlation coefficient (r=0.04) is extremely low thus indicating a non-significant correlation even lower than the correlations of the first two graphs in this set. Section Six Teacher Data The following data analyze several variables directly related and indirectly related to the teachers in Ohios districts relative to the variables of Presage Factor, percent passing, and actual performance. It should never go unnoticed that classroom teachers bear the brunt of the accountability effects of using OPT as an assessment mechanism for teacher effectiveness via the district ratings of OPT. Likewise, stakeholders, the media. and educational administrators who accept OPT and OSRC at face value make classroom teachers the target of their focus when angry or frustrated about low district scores. In my many and frequent discussions with classroom teachers, including those from districts where passing levels are above average, speak volumes to the problems OPT and OSRC have created for classroom teachers. Almost without exception, they articulate how OPT-driven management has taken from them the last vestiges of reflective, professional decision making about what is best for the children in their classrooms. Teacher Salary  This graph shows the correlation between teacher salaries and the presage scores for the districts. In terms of the correlation coefficient (r=0.35), there is a moderately high degree of association between advantagement-disadvantagement and teacher salaries. Simply put, we clearly see that teacher salaries increase as a function of the wealth of the districts. In terms of school variables, as opposed to non-school variables, this finding is significant in terms of understanding additional apparent inequities across Ohios school districts. The finding here also underscores the problem of the spectrum of advantagement-disadvantagement when we consider the strong tendency for the more disadvantaged districts to have the most underpaid teaching staffs.  The analysis of percent passing and teacher salary yields a moderately high correlation. This finding supports the notion from the graph of presage scores and teacher salary that advantaged districts tend to pay their teachers more than less advantaged districts. Likewise, the finding here supports the notion of OPT advantagement-disadvantagement bias because of the association of higher salary with higher percent passing. However, because percent passing is a function of OPT bias as established in the primary findings of this study, the claim that performance is a function of salary may be misleading.  In examining actual performance we see a slight correlation between teacher salary and performance. This finding suggests that to some degree, teacher salary is a positive school variable. We must remember that actual performance is derived from controlling only for the effects of Presage Factor. The finding is not absolute because we cannot declare actual performance to be a robust measure of real academic performance beyond its presage control. However, relative to the other variables run against actual performance, teacher salary has the highest correlation with the exception of extra academic performance which will be presented later in this section. Degree Status The following sets of graphs examine district teacher degree status, the percent having no degree, bachelors degree, and masters degree or higher. Non-Degree:  The analysis of the association of presage scores with the percent of teachers without a degree shows us that the correlation is not significant. However, the association of non-degree teachers tends to increase with greater disadvantagement.  The graph of the analysis of percent passing with non-degree teachers yields what we would expect given the finding of the Presage Factor. Since percent passing is so closely defined by presage effects, this graph supports the findings in the first graph of this set.  Controlling for presage effects, this analysis of percent non-degree teachers across actual performance yields a non-significant correlation because r=0.02 is extremely low. What minuscule correlation there is relates positively to increased actual performance. However, no claim to any statistical significance can be made. Bachelors Degrees: The following graphs and analyses are best understood when examined in conjunction with the masters degree graphs and findings because percent of teachers with masters degrees and percent of teachers with bachelors degrees are fundamentally complimentary numbers, excluding the small percent of non-degree teachers. In other words, for any given district, the number of non-degree, bachelors degrees, and masters degrees held by the teachers equals 100%.  The graph of presage score and teachers with bachelor degrees shows a slight inverse correlation. This finding tells us that the percent of bachelor degrees decreases somewhat as advantagement increases. This finding in and of itself may be seen as somewhat puzzling until we examine the finding regarding the percent of teachers with masters degrees or higher. (See the third set of graphs in this section.) Taken with the findings of the analysis of masters degrees and presage scores, the conclusion is that as advantagement increases so does the percent of teachers with masters degrees or higher.  The findings of the analysis of percent passing and teachers with bachelors degrees clearly show the artifacts of OPT bias along the advantagement-disadvantagement continuum. The correlation (r-0.23) is moderately significant and does show the tendency of wealthier districts to have greater numbers of teachers with degrees beyond the bachelors level when we consider this finding along with the finding regarding masters degrees as discussed above.  Again, taking the finding of actual performance and teachers with bachelors degrees along with its complement of teachers with masters degrees or beyond seen below, we find that actual performance does correlate inversely, though only slightly. (Refer to the discussion following the presentation of the graph showing actual performance and teachers with masters degrees or higher for more interpretation of this analysis.) Masters Degrees: The following graphs and analyses are best understood when examined in conjunction with the bachelors degree graphs and findings because percent of teachers with masters degrees and percent of teachers with bachelors degrees are fundamentally complimentary numbers excluding the small percent of non-degree teachers. In other words, for any given district, the number of non-degree, bachelors degrees, and masters degrees held by the teachers equals 100%.  As we would expect, the percent of teachers with masters degrees and beyond increases as a function of increase in advantagement. This finding is understandable in light of the extra expenditure required for paying salaries of teachers with graduate degrees.  The finding of a moderate correlation between percent passing and percent of teachers with masters degrees is not unexpected given the very high correlation (r=0.80) between percent passing and presage scores. In other words, districts with greater advantagement are more likely to have more teachers with advanced college degrees than those with less advantagement.  The comparison of actual performance to the percent of teachers with advanced degrees shows a slight positive correlation. The analysis here tells us that within the previously discussed limits of actual performance in controlling for the presage effects, teachers having advanced degrees does contribute somewhat to actual performance. Teacher Experience The next section deals with the analysis of teacher experience across the variables of presage score, percent passing, and actual performance.  The correlation between presage score and years of teacher experience is non-significant, though it shows a very slight inverse correlation that says there is a very slight tendency for more advantaged districts to have teachers with slightly less experience than less advantaged. However, the association is too low to support any claim other than there is no significant difference in the average years experience across Ohios school districts in terms of advantagement-disadvantagement.  The finding from the analysis of percent passing and teacher experience shows an almost perfectly random correlation. In other words, there is no difference whatsoever in terms of teaching experience and percent passing OPT.  The analysis of actual performance and teaching experience shows a slight positive correlation. Though the correlation is slight, it nonetheless appears to be a possible contributor to academic performance when we control for the effects of advantagement-disadvantagement. Related Variables: Two variables related to teachers and teaching have been included in this section for possible illumination of the studys findings. They are class size and extra-academic opportunities. Class Size The EMIS provides two similar sources of information regarding teacher/student ratios, class size and teachers per 1000 students. Both variables yield almost exactly the same findings. Since class size is a more familiar concept than teachers per 1000 students, I chose to use it.  Class size is found to be inversely correlated to presage scores and is only slightly significant. This finding simply tells us that class size tends to be slightly lower the more advantaged the district is in terms of presage scores.  Though slightly lower in terms of its statistical correlation, percent passing and class size reiterate the relations between presage effects and percent passing.  Analyzing class size and actual performance yields a non-significant correlation that approaches randomness in the relations between the two variables. Extra Academic Opportunities The state defines extra academic opportunities as extracurricular activities that are academic in nature, such as debate team, French club, math club and similar activities open to student involvement outside the regular academic classes. Recreational and sports activities are not considered as extra academic opportunities.  Analysis of the variables of extra academic opportunity and presage scores yields a moderate correlation. This means that extra academic opportunities increase as the advantagement as measured by the presage score increases.  The correlation found with extra academic opportunities and percent passing is moderately high and tells us that the districts with greater numbers of such opportunities tend to perform better on OPT. However, it is important to remember that the bias of OPT toward more advantaged districts. Because of this, conclusions regarding the actual effects are somewhat unclear, but the suggestion that extra academic opportunities contribute to improving district test performance is evident.  The examination of extra academic opportunity and actual district performance shows a moderate correlation. This finding lends strength to the power of such opportunities in affecting actual test performance within the parameters of the Presage Factor. As well, this finding suggests that the idea discussed in the previous graph that extra academic performance positively affects percent passing may have greater credibility. Teacher Data Comments: Examination of the analyses and findings regarding the variables within this section on teachers as they may interrelate, indicates that most of the results are verifications of what we might expect given the power of the non-school forces and factors associated with district levels of advantagement-disadvantagement as described by the Presage Factor. However, if we can accept that actual performance is indeed a usable measure of what may be happening academically in Ohios schools, several findings in this section suggest themselves as variables contributing to that performance. Teacher salary, having a masters degree or higher, years of teaching experience, and extra academic opportunities stand out as variables contributing to some degree to actual district performance. To examine further the efficacy of these variables, the four were converted to z-scores, added, and averaged to create a single measure. For lack of a better term, the combination into a single variable is called the Teacher-Curriculum variable (TC) to represent the domains of schooling from which the variables arise. The following three graphs examine the TC variable to better understand the potential of the four elements operating together.  The correlation with presage scores is moderate and suggests that the variable is associated with the advantagement defined by the presage scores.  The teaching-curriculum variable attains an moderately high correlation when associated with percent passing. The degree of association is higher than with the presage scores as seen in the preceding graph, thus suggesting it is more closely associated with percent passing than with presage scores themselves.  Whereas three of the four variables that comprise the TC variable have less than r=0.15 correlation and the fourth variable of extra academic opportunity has a correlation coefficient of r=0.24, the combination of all four exceeds the average of the four coefficients. Again, it is important to remember that actual performance is a measure of OPT performance controlling for presage effects that represent the overwhelming bias of OPT. Another way to view this is to think of actual performance scores as possibly valid representations of academic performance. If this assumption is true, then the formulation of the TC variable begins to reach into the myriad of complex possibilities that shape authentic academic performance. The point here is not to posit a new way to assess district performance, but to demonstrate how complex the processes of teaching, schooling, and learning are in the real world of education. More specifically, the findings of this study to this point do not only tell us that OPT is a highly invalid assessment mechanism, but the findings also expose the tremendous complexity and difficulty of authentically and validly assessing academic performance on any level. Even if the calculus used to formulate actual performance results in a valid assessment of district performance to a greater degree than does OPT, the problem still exists that it is based upon a high stakes test. The pressure to pass the test, the time spent practicing to take the test, and the denial of the credential of a high school diploma for those innocent children who often narrowly fail to make the cutoff score is all born by the children and parents of Ohios public school population. Thus, there is no suggestion whatsoever that the derived actual scores should in any way be used to hold anyone accountable because of the damage such testing does to the children and to the curriculum they should have the opportunity to experience. Section Seven Percent African-American and Percent White as Variables Across Presage Score, Percent Passing, and Actual Performance The following are three sets of graphed data addressing how OPT may be seen to play out across African-American and White school district populations. The first set of graphs below compares the association between the Presage variable and the percent African-American and the percent White of the district student population. The second set of graphs represents the percent passing per district as a function of percent African-American and percent White student populations. The third set gives a comparison of performance controlling for the Presage variable. It is vital that these three sets of findings be viewed together for optimal understanding of the general comparative effects of OPT on these two groups.   The first graph in the set tells us that there is a moderate negative correlation between advantagement and the percent African-American student population. The second one shows that there is a moderate positive correlation between advantagement and the percent White student population of the district. The graphs are essentially inverses of each other as would be expected because as percent White goes up, the percent of African-American must go down and vice versa. Most simply stated, these graphs tell us that the greater the White population of the school district, the greater the level of advantagement; the greater the African-American district population, the greater the level of disadvantagement. Taken together, the findings support the argument that the effects of social-economic advantagement-disadvantagement are seen to a moderate degree in the racial composition of Ohio's school districts. The next set of graphs represents the findings of how the two populations are associated with OPT performance.   This set of graphs shows us that there is a moderately significant differential between African-American and White performance on the OPT. The first graph in the set tells us that the greater the percent African-Americans in the district, the more likely fewer students will be achieving passing OPT scores. The second one shows the opposite for White students. Again, the graphs are basically mirror images of each other, as noted previously. Two points for objective interpretation are very important here. The first point is that the findings definitely reveal OPT bias against students in predominantly African-American school districts. It is also logically true that the findings may be interpreted as definitely revealing OPT bias in favor of predominantly White school districts. However, the second important point is that while the effects are real in terms of bias, it cannot and must not be concluded from this data array that the OPT bias is caused directly by racial differences between the two groups. While the findings do show the racial bias to be real, attributing the bias to a specific source requires more critical examination of the data. This is so because the studys primary and most powerful finding is that social-economic advantagement-disadvantagement is the most significant predictor of performance. In other words, the research question arises of whether the demonstrated OPT bias shown here is a function of social-economics or race, or both. Indeed, it is somewhat interesting that the correlation coefficients for the first two sets of graphs are quite similar (r=-0.34, r=0.030 and r=-0.35, r=0.31). Considering the fact that we know from the primary findings of this study that the Presage factor is unusually powerful as a variable (r=0.80) of advantagement-disadvantagement for predicting OPT performance, to determine first-order racial/cultural OPT effects, we need to examine actual OPT performance controlling for the Presage factor. In other words, the racial differential shown in this second set of graphs must be examined further before suggesting that it is caused by racial/cultural differences and not by the social-economic factors of the Presage variable. The graphs below show actual performance (performance controlling for the Presage variable) for White and for African-American populations and yield statistically non-significant effects in and of themselves. These non-significant effects are, however, very significant in understanding and knowing that when the factors of advantagement-disadvantagement as defined by the Presage Factor are removed, we find that race is not the primary factor affecting academic achievement in terms of district level OPT performance. However, given the correlations (r=-0.15 for African-Americans and r=0.11 for Whites), we do see effects that could very well represent racial/cultural bias inherent in the tests.   Though the correlations are low, the question does arise as to the source of why there would be any difference between African-Americans and Whites across OPT performance when controlling for the Presage Factor. Though nothing definitive about the primary source of the differential is immediately apparent, I would suggest two possibilities be given consideration. The first possibility is that there are other social-economic effects showing up that are not within the scope of the Presage Factor that are experienced differentially by the two groups such as is seen in the group correlations in the first set of graphs. The second possibility and certainly the more serious of the two is that OPT contains significant racial/cultural bias. My best professional judgment tells me that it is quite likely that the findings shown in the last set of graphs are related to racial/cultural OPT bias. I base this speculation on my experience and my intuition combined with the language/reading dependency of the test. Minimally, these data call for a complete and thorough examination of OPT for racial/cultural bias if the State of Ohio wishes to make any claims of test validity. Summary Reflections: Together, all three sets of comparisons re-confirm that the social-economic-environmental factors that shape the conditions of advantagement-disadvantagement are the clear bias of OPT regardless of race. In other words, disadvantaged children are likely to perform more poorly on the test than advantaged children regardless of whether they are African-American or White. The first two sets of graphs do tell us that African-American children are more likely to suffer from the conditions of disadvantagement than are White children and that because of this powerful effect, far more African-American children are victims of OPT bias than are White children. The last set of graphs suggests that there is most likely some racial/cultural bias in the test. Though the effect of this bias on district level performance is significantly less than the effect of the Presage factor, it does make a difference especially in districts with high African-American student populations because passing rates load so powerfully on the Ohio School Report Card ratings. If indeed, the third set of graphed data is showing the artifacts of inherent racial/cultural bias, then the effects are particularly significant for individual African-American students in Ohio's schools. My own professional judgment tells me that this scenario is probable given the legacy of racial/cultural bias in standardized testing. At the very least, these data indicate a moral responsibility and a legal obligation on the part of the State of Ohio to suspend testing until further study of the racial/cultural bias is openly and honestly conducted. It is vital to recognize that the data represented in all three sets of graphs removes from discourse and discussion the question of African-American students ability to learn as well as other racial groups. There is simply no evidence whatsoever to support any arguments regarding inferior academic performance. Therefore, for anyone to make the claim that African-American children do not have the same native ability as Whites in terms of academic achievement is as absurd as it is ignorant and racist. Given the previous point, it would be remiss to fail to point out that OPT district performance as reported by the state (See, Percent Passing and Percent African-American Students in the second set of graphs in this section) makes it appear that African-American students are academically inferior to White students. The findings of this study do not support this implicit claim made by the State of Ohio through the OPT and OSRC. Indeed, the data indicate the claim is totally false and dangerously misleading in its racial significance. Again, the findings reported in this section of the study indicate a moral responsibility and a legal obligation on the part of the State of Ohio to suspend proficiency testing until the possible racial/cultural bias is thoroughly examined and the misleading racial overtones found in the results are corrected. Section Eight Advantagement-Disadvantagement as a Predictor of Ohio School Report Card Ratings The Ohio School Report Card, 2000, correlates with the Presage Factor (r=0.78) almost as significantly as the 1997 OPT district performance does (r=0.80). Practically speaking, they are virtually the same. What this means is that OSRC carries with it the same advantagement-disadvantagement bias. What these findings tell us is that to a very significant degree (conservatively, 60.1% based upon r=0.78), the OSRC reports social-economic living conditions of the district and not the academic growth of the pupils nor the effectiveness of educators in the district. OSRC is open to the old computer adage of garbage in, garbage out. The fundamental unit of assessment that drives the OSRC ratings is the percent of the districts pupils passing the OPT; if the unit of assessment is flawed, so are the cumulative results reported in the OSRC. Again, as with OPT itself, validity in the statistical/mathematical sense of tests and measurements is the flaw of the OSRC. By the time OSRC ratings reach the public, they are impersonal representations of Ohios school children framed invisibly by their very real lives on the spectrum of advantagement-disadvantagement. Yet, OSRC is used to reward or punish the very people who have to deal with the day-to-day reality of those childrens lives, educators being held accountable for that over which they have virtually no control or decision latitude whatsoever. Given that the OSRC is aimed directly at assessing the districts educators in general and its teachers in particular, the findings of this study point to the following advisories: Teachers and educators in districts rated low on the OSRC may, indeed, be performing extremely well such as is known from this study to be the case with Youngstown City Schools as noted in the previous section on actual district performance. In other words, beware that there may be no validity whatsoever to the rating given by the OSRC that places our most disadvantaged districts in the academic emergency category. Teachers and educators in districts rated high on OSRC may, indeed, be performing nowhere near their potential. From the results of this study, this is shown to be the case with many OSRC top-ranked districts. In other words, just as noted above regarding underestimating low-ranking districts, the same caveat applies to the highest ranked districts. Teachers and educators in districts given OSRC ratings anywhere in-between the extremes of the academic watch and effective categories likewise cannot be said to be valid with any certainty at all. These OSRC mid-range school districts represent the vast majority of Ohios schools. Some of these districts are performing as claimed by OSRC ratings. However, an equal number are either performing far below what might be expected and others far above. There is an imminent reality implicit in this study that cuts directly to the assumptions and interpretation of OSRC as a measure of district educator effectiveness. That reality is a judgment that I make with reflective confidence based upon these findings and upon my professional experience as a classroom teacher and a university teacher educator. My judgment is that if we were to ever switch the staff of a district rated high by the OSRC with that of a district rated low, in five-years time there would likely be no change whatsoever in the OPT ratings of either school district. Indeed, if any change were to be observed, it would most likely be that the scores of the low OSRC-rated district would drop slightly due to the highly rated educators having to deal with problems and issues in the lives of the children of the district that they have never experienced anywhere before in their professional experience.  Section 9 A Brief Closing Statement The primary purpose of this study was to examine forces and factors that affect Ohio Proficiency Test performance. The primary finding is that OPT is extremely biased across the elements defined within the parameters of the Presage Factor. The significance of the primary finding is that OPT is not a valid measure of either academic performance or school accountability at any level including the Ohio School Report Card ratings. However, nothing within the studys findings or inferences should be viewed as blaming or making excuses for students not learning, educators not educating, or districts not performing. On the contrary, the findings and inferences lead us away from excuse making into the realm of validly assessing accountability of actual academic and school performance. There is vast difference between an excuse and an explanation of OPT performance. This study of OPT performance explains why scores are invalid regardless of social economic level. It is no more an excuse for poor performance than it is for high performance. Rather the findings show that regardless of social economic status, the results are not valid; OPT performance of advantaged districts is just as invalid as the performance of less advantaged districts. Indeed, when we control for social economic factors, the findings show that actual academic performance is evenly distributed across all levels of advantagement-disadvantagement. Children from disadvantaged environment are shown to be equally successful as those from advantaged environments. Also, it was not the intent of the study to beg the question of educational accountability or academic standards. On the contrary, accountability and standards are both requisite to establishing a quality system of public schooling. However, it is incumbent upon stakeholders in general and state education policy makers in particular to establish assessments and standards that meet the well established standards for test validity and appropriateness. The simple irony implicit in the findings and inferences of the study is that the citizens of Ohio have a right to hold public schools accountable just as they have the right to hold accountable those who shape public school policy. The problem with truth is its verification, the problem with fiction is its veracity. Appendix A Basic District Data School DistrictCounty% Passing 1997 Passing RankPresage Score % ADC 1997MeanInc 1997% Lunch 1997% Disad 1993Ada Hardin 71.44309-7.2143.542988614.4619.1Adams /Ohio Adams 54.5579-83.07522.472298546.7936.8Adena Ross 63.81486-22.69710.992681321.2217.3Akron Summit 54.62577-104.98435.162929653.8245.3Alexander Athens 63.38500-47.2216.492613023.9632.9Allen East Allen 70.443336.732.323027010.5210.7Alliance Stark 60.69529-83.17824.152657249.136.5Amanda/ClearcrkFairfield 64.62471-27.1997.993191118.7232.4Amherst Lorain 81.567821.4672.57376577.326.3Anna Shelby 79.8810011.6031.56317237.2611.3Ansonia Darke 71.75298-11.0634.482618716.5716.2Ant. Wayne Lucas 82.816628.042.7427607.224.8Antwerp Paulding 73.88239-3.5553.392920514.1715.2Arcadia Hancock 74.3122611.8023.29301327.747.3ArcanumButler Darke 77.881423.6082.073172814.1511.9Archbold Fulton 76.517224.2492.28350498.520Arlington Hancock 75.4419722.872.31322707.090Ashland Ashland 70.5332-14.1016.373123923.5715.4Ashtabula Ashtabula 59.75538-88.08126.12638944.5743.8Athens Athens 74.62217-42.03114.933094926.7531.3Aurora Portage 90.251149.8051.3587952.794.9Austintown Mahoning 73.06253-22.0497.342990122.2122.4Avon Lake Lorain 81.947340.1171.8482276.310Avon Lorain 82.317023.051.4392405.099.7Ayersville Defiance 81.258018.6882.12359385.439.7Barberton Summit 60.25534-88.06125.742561947.1440.8Barnesville Belmont 68.75382-62.11315.512216726.5742.2Batavia Clermont 66449-6.04113.153287924.571.2Bath Allen 76.19179-7.6955.583125517.7715.6Bay Village Cuyahoga 88.751650.5640.85576444.931.3Beachwood Cuyahoga 85.943574.7170.96800073.730.6Beaver Columbiana68.12404-45.3369.762777434.2529.1Beavercreek Greene 79.8110242.0611.39471113.260.4Bedford Cuyahoga 62.19516-22.73112.052937923.2616.8Bellaire Belmont 67.62410-75.84627.772304440.2230.9Bellefontaine Logan 61527-32.53613.373130424.4726Bellevue Huron 73.94237-11.7764.983002419.8217Belpre Washington69.12371-22.51613.953035417.0221.9Benjamin Logan Logan 68.254014.193.743111011.0812.1Benton Carroll Ottawa 82.3869-8.7043.223044615.0320.9Berea Cuyahoga 75.941845.3784.523235811.1611.3Berkshire Geauga 74.7521415.4451.37326057.997.8Berlin-Milan Erie 84.81445.4272.833406713.6112.2Berne Union Fairfield 65.25463-16.9046.632740614.4823.2Bethel Miami 75.8118831.7081.92411083.184.3Bethel-Tate Clermont 74.25230-16.54510.692930518.1617Bexley Franklin 86.063115.9771.12252175.023.1Big Walnut Delaware 73.4424616.6974.35400179.279.7Black River Medina 71.69300-8.0423.533140823.3212.6Blanchester Clinton 67.56414-26.2348.482777621.9323.6Bloom Carroll Fairfield 74.6921528.571.91382106.830.9Bloom-Vernon Scioto 54.88575-97.94232.162326841.2547.8Bloomfld-Mespo Trumbull 73.56244-64.7998.982434150.5629.6Bluffton Allen 79.7510617.8920.95322727.236.2Boardman Mahoning 83.066210.5224.673757212.3810Botkins Shelby 76.8816711.9240.43305048.0510.1Bowling Green Wood 75.25202-11.6046.013129615.0921.8Bradford Miami 72.31277-26.9675.8256331927.8Brecks-Brdview Hts Cuyahoga 87.52044.7951.49525055.221Bridgeport Belmont 55.94566-78.15326.652308738.3936.2Bright Highland 58.88545-46.27510.032530527.1534.4Bristol Trumbull 75.06206-1.895.212960026.280Brookfield Trumbull 65.94450-18.14511.872840533.581.1Brooklyn Cuyahoga 71.69300-1.4236.412816720.183Brookville Montgomery72.122827.1293.213264911.1111.2Brown Carroll 69.38360-26.5779.192955319.4427.5Brunswick Medina 78.8112711.5872.733538714.176.9Bryan Williams 761812.4434.373461312.715.1Buckeye Central Crawford 71.313103.5345.32871419.880Buckeye Medina 73.562441.7095.253621914.8614.4Buckeye Ashtabula 71320-31.8497.62703124.0827.2Buckeye Jefferson 62.25515-66.76520.542538542.1129.5Buckeye Valley Delaware 68.6238711.7163.42370169.6812.2Bucyrus Crawford 66.44436-44.10812.972497237.4118.7Caldwell Noble 64.19480-50.95711.572421328.834.8Cambridge Guernsey 63.75491-73.99420.722571636.2942.7Campbell Mahoning 63.62495-115.39932.332584153.4155.5Canal Winchester Franklin 76.2517628.9370.94377877.910Canfield Mahoning 87.881943.7771520772.35Canton Stark 55.06573-125.0533.362354058.1357.1Canton Stark 69.62352-16.3847.752852620.5616.6Cardinal Geauga 77.12158-22.9015.832750920.2824.3Cardington-Lincoln Morrow 60.5531-28.99112.32582921.6220.9Carey Wyandot 77.5149-5.3634.922537712.4213.4Carlisle Warren 67.5418-1.9825.923121815.1812.1Carrollton Carroll 72.19280-50.4059.582653534.5632.8Cedar Cliff Greene 80.94864.4175.242966710.219.8Celina Mercer 77.38152-7.514.792702017.6412.1Centerburg Knox 71.623044.6521.98311629.4315.1Centerville Montgomery85.443949.5032.05568533.12.2Central Defiance 66.54351.1132.743006314.2112Chagrin Falls Cuyahoga 92.5489.2450.31900950.440.1Champion Trumbull 77.811449.073.96344209.8911.5Chardon Geauga 83.385920.0191.71408198.1910.9Chesapeake Union Lawrence 69.88344-74.22426.162714640.3134.9Chillicothe Ross 64.06483-44.54319.093033733.5922.2Cincinnati Hamilton 56.5562-78.78244.523361867.880Circleville Pickaway 69.88344-40.14614.542992424.0331.5Clay Scioto 64.81467-63.27821.072737234.4835.1Claymont Tuscarawas64.81467-57.44714.682177328.9435.6Clear Fork Valley Richland 68.693832.4532.572976312.3412.4Clearview Lorain 65.62458-101.81522.132641561.244.9Clermont-Northeast Clermont 63.81486-13.87.493214017.0521.4Clev. Hts/Univ Hts Cuyahoga 67.06425-88.96315.424444791.3926.6Cleveland Municipal Cuyahoga 36.25593-131.86165.66230498.5580.7Clinton-Massie Clinton 72.062861.6225.253031212.0411.4Cloverleaf Medina 75.751913.14233428214.5413.6Clyde-Green SpringsSandusky 72.81262-4.3276.272659324.650Coldwater Mercer 82.756711.7591.3292299.276.9Colonel Crawford Crawford 68.81379-2.562.963008014.1815.5Columbia Lorain 73.0625312.1365.163436614.972.1Columbiana Columbiana77.69145-22.5596.892975121.4224Columbus Franklin 49.88585-134.86440.362760662.5159.6Columbus Grove Putnam 79.38115-9.7417.13104914.5919.1Conneaut Area Ashtabula 62.75510-67.28415.882482641.6334.6Conotton Valley Harrison 69.44358-37.7667.832392428.6625.2Continental Putnam 72.81262-16.1198.782792116.3618.9Copley-Fairlawn Summit 84.314832.0032.42476338.115.1Cory-Rawson Hancock 69.943420.9681.173259813.7616.7Coshocton Coshocton 65.75454-56.56116.292752933.634.2Coventry Summit 70.62327-23.9958.213280525.4923.1Covington Miami 75.941840.8953.982911515.049.2Crestline Crawford 61.06526-60.07815.752543236.8632.9Crestview Van Wert 82.19718.9442.03294448.0710.4Crestview Columbiana73.25252-28.8867.062758422.2127.2Crestview Richland 72.19280-23.6735.192776720.6525.6Crestwood Portage 78.25137-2.0074.813124313.5414.9Crooksville Perry 58.19551-72.57617.12230439.1838.6Cuyahoga Falls Summit 71.31310-3.7395.63283115.0715.9Cuyahoga Heights Cuyahoga 81.128222.3020.78371827.86.3Dalton Wayne 79.8810020.1962.53321169.390Danbury Ottawa 71.62304-5.2752.672798514.0916.5Danville Knox 66.19444-21.4727.42328818.9618.4Dawson-Bryant Lawrence 66.25441-75.99123.252378943.6332.9Deer Park Community Hamilton 73.75240-3.6445.473012614.513.8Defiance Defiance 77.06160-10.8819.683322915.5318.9Delaware Delaware 69.75349-4.3577.913342316.0713.8Delphos Allen 80.5688-23.3984.462832226.1621.1Dover Tuscarawas75.4419710.5784.53200813.233.7Dublin Franklin 84.125153.8980.65593782.132.7East Cleveland Cuyahoga 42.81591-99.10151.842238966.153.5East Clinton Clinton 66.31438-24.1079.182620317.2323.9East Guernsey Guernsey 74235-57.3113.952348031.1435.7East Holmes Holmes 8363-3.0860.332566414.9213.5East Knox Knox 75.75191-17.1385.752990219.8921.4East Muskingum Muskingum 74.44223-6.3914.993079916.216East Palestine Columbiana72.81262-56.4179.932500334.6936.8Eastern Meigs 64.56473-66.277222580334.7835.3Eastern Brown 63.75491-50.499.022517039.8426.8Eastern Pike 41.12592-74.77325.832522725.6748.5Eastwood Wood 79.441130.5643.233268413.0915.8Eaton Preble 68.94376-17.8046.773204618.2824.8Edgerton Williams 74.94207-5.7024.053077814.8317.6Edgewood Butler 76.751682.344.083230012.2813.6Edison Jefferson 71.25314-45.7115.682780032.4325.4Edon-Northwest Williams 68.5390-11.7581.832852217.6520.8Elgin Marion 70.31337-14.0475.272841321.1916Elida Allen 74.19231-11.9837.613167718.2517.8Elmwood Wood 72.75267-24.6274.982702323.5723.1Elyria Lorain 64.81467-22.98118.242999932.442.3Euclid Cuyahoga 58.88545-46.34915.762922137.2122.6Evergreen Fulton 75.81188-11.3713.763220919.1220.7Fairbanks Union 72.6927221.3132.39366537.655.3Fairborn Greene 69.25366-22.18611.93050424.4916.3Fairfield Butler 7228815.2293.91366599.028.5Fairfield Union Fairfield 71.19316-17.4697.373011118.8121.4Fairland Lawrence 71.88294-39.38516.182923520.8431.6Fairlawn Shelby 63.1250510.772.34282907.687.5Fairless Stark 70.56330-23.4827.412787821.1522.8Fairport Harbor Lake 63.9448516.5199.762727901Fairview Park Cuyahoga 76.9416528.5413.43403814.214.2Fayetteville-Perry Brown 74.31226-13.9165.433033421.4217.4Federal Hocking Athens 55.31570-78.83422.562528643.6637.9Feli-Franklin Clermont 65.31462-63.73319.382655735.1135.8Field Portage 77.44151-12.0926.563260816.6421.5Findlay Hancock 72.81262-11.2126.723569819.7920.4Finneytown Hamilton 79.4411314.4644.373965412.528.3Firelands Lorain 67.541816.83.143348010.443.1Forest Hills Hamilton 87.52046.5831.73554833.074.1Fort Frye Washington65.94450-36.94911.712595129.3921.8Fort Loramie Shelby 84.814416.4991.91334396.039Fort Recovery Mercer 81.7575-0.10.722920012.1816.4Fostoria Seneca 63.81486-61.54917.212799136.7335.6Franklin Warren 68.12404-28.9519.132933922.6626.5Franklin Muskingum 65.88452-48.1611.732442030.1530.7Franklin-Monroe Darke 771635.1290.53269913.4713.6Fredericktown Knox 72.12282-5.5564.152867413.8816.2Fremont Sandusky 74.31226-37.24913.412860131.5420.9Frontier Washington65.69455-70.36915.692417140.1538.7Gahanna-Jefferson Franklin 78.4413625.9085.71465386.228.7Galion Crawford 65.56459-36.59912.432664122.7128.1Gallia County Gallia 55.56568-88.54825.622666244.0945.5Gallipolis Gallia 57.62555-53.3624.382941028.2930.1Garaway Tuscarawas80.0699-17.0323.012427818.719.6Garfield Heights Cuyahoga 63.06507-37.98211.382760826.7127.5Geneva Area Ashtabula 67.62410-58.1412.792769036.0437Genoa Area Ottawa 68.69383-0.8044.283368610.5119.7Georgetown Brown 69.81347-27.5238.432713723.2323Gibsonburg Sandusky 76.62171-28.73615.412875422.9819.1Girard Trumbull 75.25202-44.25417.492843626.728.5Gorham Fayette Fulton 69.94342-2.0385.692612221.570.9Goshen Clermont 67.25422-22.5675.372925321.8524.6Graham Champaign 71.88294-0.1994.81306111610Grand Valley Ashtabula 63.81486-34.7026.982728826.8128.2Grandview Heights Franklin 87.122316.0911.42362419.838.9Granville Licking 91.31756.1060.855895602Green Wayne 84.12516.8773.93015717.781.6Green Summit 80.56889.6255.43983511.2113.6Green Scioto 55.62567-84.43126.652629944.0840Greeneview Greene 67.19423-4.4276.23215313.5816.8Greenfield Highland 63508-55.28813.142358224.8340.9Greenville Darke 70.25338-21.1885.182859218.126.5Groveport Madison Franklin 67.56414-12.9218.653055918.1316.7Hamilton Butler 61.81520-69.752212876839.4238.1Hamilton Franklin 63.69493-29.0169.692719425.1221.4Hardin Northern Hardin 67.88408-14.7666.392755417.5318.4Hardin-Houston Shelby 69.53553.9852.762898510.3411.9Harrison Hills Harrison 65.5461-67.99417.792343637.2436.4Heath Licking 70.443338.5354.452939513.213.2Hicksville Defiance 75.51958.2917.333065114.230.8Highland Medina 84.694634.2571.25463176.014.8Highland Morrow 70.62327-35.9439.872787724.6529.3Hilliard Franklin 79.3111825.7581.93426686.688.3Hillsboro Highland 63.44499-39.60811.032756223.3432.8Hillale Ashland 78.811274.7412.62895112.718.9Holgate Henry 74.6921515.2353.843021511.040.1Hopewell-Loudon Seneca 68.693839.5693.752901915.70Howland Trumbull 79.8110225.0986.634501811.891.4Hubbard Trumbull 74.62217-36.5349.142914628.0428.5Huber Heights Montgomery71.313101.8635.663499319.178.3Hudson Summit 89.311272.6090.69772791.282.7Huntington Ross 55.19571-64.43417.372512636.0936.1Huron Erie 77.514920.6253.844089512.134.3Independence Cuyahoga 85.563836.380.94432103.991.9Indian Creek Jefferson 73.44246-29.90716.353068324.7419.5Indian Hill Hamilton 92.386164.7561.071710262.72.5Indian Lake Logan 64.06483-29.36112.52948921.4524.9Indian Valley Tuscarawas72.75267-48.8128.032397831.2633.5Ironton Lawrence 68.56389-64.14730.042679331.729.2Jackson Center Shelby 65.694554.7926.12920215.812.5Jackson Jackson 60.31532-49.5216.112624031.7527.9Jackson Stark 86.752738.1492.23460795.10.6Jackson-Milton Mahoning 68.81379-26.29512.243187519.7326.2James A Garfield Portage 74.94207-17.5758.072910521.2117.4Jefferson Area Ashtabula 72288-42.0459.632784526.4633.8Jefferson Madison 64.12482-14.1755.083006522.2616.9Jefferson Township Montgomery56.75559-86.89529.332915564.9221.8Jennings Putnam 79.8110224.4240.21310046.370Johnstown-Monroe Licking 70.123417.043.753289010.511.6Jonathan Alder Madison 75.88187-5.14.43176014.8617.6Joseph Badger Trumbull 74.38224-33.1787.272994225.7530.1Kalida Putnam 86.942430.7150.13450254.489.7Kenston Geauga 86.382844.232.19586706.156.1Kent Portage 77.69145-27.92113.873118922.8422.4Kenton Hardin 64.19480-46.88911.122707130.9431.9Kettering Montgomery77.0616012.4124.774394213.0613.7Kings Warren 80.628732.7342.16479147.325.7Kirtland Lake 83.885351.1072.19596576.060.3LaBrae Trumbull 74.81212-56.77413.132804640.9930.7Lake Stark 82.696821.6262.11383667.337.3Lake Wood 75.94184-1.0195.333232114.3113.7Lakeview Trumbull 79.6910815.6623.88387429.210Lakewood Cuyahoga 71320-25.41613.293351423.8421.8Lakewood Licking 60.25534-31.10510.622883525.7223.6Lakota Butler 83.815545.1921.28505923.620.5Lakota Sandusky 63.62495-32.529.052775023.8227.4Lancaster Fairfield 63.81486-36.46311.732905728.3925.4Lebanon Warren 70.6932515.5545.573654415.420Ledgemont Geauga 64.31477-3.1873.593249314.0918Leetonia Columbiana68.38394-43.1429.592488825.5432.9Leipsic Putnam 71.31310-44.28711.692602328.4230.2Lexington Richland 79.2512020.3452.14389657.888.6Liberty Center Henry 75.381991.5833.593259312.9214.5Liberty Trumbull 78.51337.45610.514983618.7713.1Liberty U/Thurston Fairfield 74.94207-13.7715.223082915.7823.6Liberty-Benton Hancock 77.3815223.4951.54381657.335.8Licking Heights Licking 70.623279.9287.673394813.153.2Licking Valley Licking 62.62512-18.3695.432963116.7725.8Lima Allen 56.06564-120.18733.262465358.0853.5Lincolnview Van Wert 66.88431-1.8151.32894516.3613.1Lisbon Columbiana76181-38.52412.722589630.521.2Little Miami Warren 78.561327.9753.983603511.4812.6Lockland Hamilton 66.25441-78.48327.962647744.532.5Logan Elm Pickaway 64.254781.6667.793009616.644Logan-Hocking Hocking 66.56433-49.84312.722563728.9633.8London Madison 69.25366-26.1679.943153323.4624.3Lorain Lorain 49.62586-115.84533.182698559.9549.7Lordstown Trumbull 80.5688-10.2163.243781413.5931.2Loudonville/PerrysvillAshland 72.56273-27.4525.542665818.3730.2Louisville Stark 79.38115-13.8445.233152618.5421.6Loveland Hamilton 76.6916933.4016.26517217.164.9Lowellville Mahoning 74.06234-38.83114.782670934.0616.7Lucas Richland 69.313649.3431.843152311.548.8Lynchburg-Clay Highland 66.94428-36.8177.862605321.6133.4Mad River Montgomery64.56473-41.5876.542882334.6729.2Mad River-Green Clark 77.9414111.6724.56352528.9210.1Madeira Hamilton 92.81341.8731.51505134.832.3Madison Lake 71.623045.2856.343152517.72.2Madison Butler 69.12371-1.147.553432012.8115.1Madison Richland 57.19557-44.0717.182767927.8736.7Madison-Plains Madison 68.69383-10.6895.583016115.4719.8Manchester Summit 79.7510612.4223.4341229.19.2Mansfield Richland 50.75583-131.43731.042738361.7866Maple Heights Cuyahoga 59.75538-41.73714.992862331.6723.7Mapleton Ashland 70.88323-22.7484.722735220.8824.5Maplewood Trumbull 77.56147-22.8877.943059321.7423.8Margaretta Erie 71.81296-0.04333033717.489.9Mariemont Hamilton 91.31739.3712.72540612.979Marietta Washington64.624711.08113.4631241016.7Marion Marion 58.19551-63.86218.162606836.7735Marion Mercer 84.314823.6280.34304583.193.3Marlington Stark 72.94259-23.0426.973353821.3128.3Martins Ferry Belmont 69.81347-58.96126.612466930.9226.1Marysville Union 76.441733.6115.143474111.5914.4Mason Warren 85.623737.910.98423002.810.6Massillon Stark 60.31532-65.24417.962698639.2735Mathews Trumbull 74.81212-11.4336.613205716.7820.1Maumee Lucas 83.316014.6943.72381149.210.5Mayfield Cuyahoga 881822.9144.1478349.1211.7Maysville Muskingum 62.81509-39.32810.792342225.9626McComb Hancock 70.25338-19.3045.342856621.9320.6McDonald Trumbull 84.3847-1.1187.42981210.5313Mechanicsburg Champaign 64.25478-17.1967.272965414.6824.9Medina Medina 80.199725.1233.77455737.689Meigs Meigs 56.75559-99.83430.472416650.2343.3Mentor Lake 79.3811522.6512.71392519.794.1Miami East Miami 75.3120124.151.14334908.20Miami Trace Fayette 58.88545-28.279.152664020.5625.2Miamisburg Montgomery79.8110214.2286.753520813.630.6Middletown Monroe Butler 57.12558-53.2517.733031034.3331.5Midview Lorain 71.75298-2.2135.373377715.3215.3Milford Clermont 79.6910816.0014.25393019.459.6Millcreek-West Unity Williams 72.31277-13.0213.722620918.0117.5Miller -New ClevelandPutnam 86.882514.6740277646.496.6Milton-Union Miami 80.31949.0115.483205114.962.6Minerva Stark 72288-30.847.982767026.0324.5Minster Auglaize 86.882530.9030.71416934.485.6Mississinawa Valley Darke 68.12404-38.62515.372356531.5215.3Mogadore Summit 78.513313.4792.34314098.297.3Mohawk Wyandot 75.38199-4.4272.82870314.0316.3Monroeville Huron 70.383350.6063.962933624.270.5Montpelier Williams 69.38360-23.0346.742615620.5521.9Morgan Morgan 61.19525-59.75319.532374737.1726.8Mount Gilead Morrow 68.94376-17.8398.962837118.7518.5Mount Healthy Hamilton 60537-65.93320.682852741.8831.9Mount Vernon Knox 68.38394-25.9729.842876822.522.4Napoleon Area Henry 79125-6.596.13214014.4318.2Nelsonville-York Athens 66.38437-98.85929.272188145.2746.2New Boston* Scioto 68.25401-149.98850.381977267.8851.5New Bremen Auglaize 863221.1940.97412347.4711.6New Lebanon Montgomery69.25366-12.2856.822941518.2816.6New Lexington Perry 61527-87.98119.722370953.7738.2New London Huron 58.19551-27.6898.952685122.5923New Miami Butler 57.31556-70.32321.832522741.1232.6New Philadelphia Tuscarawas73.06253-10.0858.52898513.4717.1New Richmond Clermont 69.75349-42.67612.223271431.9731.2New Riegel Seneca 818522.7661.37271762.440.6Newark Licking 62.69511-51.15615.42816432.6231.3Newbury Geauga 78.51339.1728.834235213.7510.6Newcomerstown Tuscarawas70.56330-73.68914.062318139.8143Newton Falls Trumbull 60.62530-28.10912.992950122.5222.1Newton Miami 72.0628617.0241.82995411.130Niles Trumbull 69.75349-50.05719.692817329.5429Noble Noble 68.81379-53.70610.68238742838.9Nordonia Hills Summit 79.2512016.5613.87376418.219North Baltimore Wood 64.56473-29.3378.272723322.725.6North Canton Stark 86.382820.8522.27422126.8912.2North Central Williams 71.12317-8.3652.592667511.5520.9North Central Wayne 69.88344-5.3343.672925615.0215.9North College Hill Hamilton 63.31502-48.16214.492723837.1123.8North Fork Licking 69.443580.2285.462819818.913.6North Olmsted Cuyahoga 80.12988.6933.6935983167.6North Ridgeville Lorain 74.312264.8784.183442812.5712.8North Royalton Cuyahoga 81.258030.5141.78407246.931.5North Union Union 67.94407-12.5344.542999616.3921.6Northeastern Defiance 75.519528.1360.19362967.970Northeastern Clark 69.535517.742.85354507.167.7Northern Perry 63.38500-35.60211.032777826.1526.2Northmont Montgomery80.259622.1372.323768710.033.2Northmor Morrow 68.31399-28.3119.252824922.2125.1Northridge Licking 77.381520.3343.933241410.8517.3Northridge Montgomery65.56459-106.72427.852631658.2946.9Northwest Stark 78.81127-0.314.173324010.2819.1Northwest Hamilton 69.38360-10.666.543538019.619.9Northwest Scioto 46.5589-99.83426.672361644.1852.6Northwestern Wayne 75.25202-26.7765.012846425.5324.7Northwestern Clark 71.693008.1584.173378810.3611.1Northwood Wood 61.56521-6.1934.693056715.7716.3Norton Summit 74.62217-6.1334.13258714.1220.5Norwalk Huron 67.5418-22.01510.93050523.8217.8Norwood Hamilton 63.69493-65.4621.672512034.2134.7Oak Hills Hamilton 79.3111836.6932.093928300.5Oakwood Montgomery94.69175.8760.15769060.380.5Oberlin Lorain 68.5390-33.03914.96351212825.2Old Fort Seneca 77.881421.24111.022854115.580.7Olentangy Delaware 854264.3691.26761895.465.1Olmsted Falls Cuyahoga 81.697719.2722.83365627.367.1Ontario Richland 79.6211120.6632.02391437.069.4Orange Cuyahoga 90.5610136.4470.471415673.950.7Oregon Lucas 72.88260-16.7417.533306921.6820.6Orrville Wayne 71.69300-9.8297.973031123.678.5Osnaburg Stark 62.19516-21.4077.192706323.1818.1Otsego Wood 73.752402.5944.243541411.7816.8Ottawa Hills Lucas 94.382122.8110.1112292100Ottawa-Glandorf Putnam 83.69563.8534.21312638.814.4Ottoville Putnam 83.565727.2770299372.160.5Painesville Lake 54.81576-75.08223.862836843.2936.3Painesville Township Lake 7423523.1463.623851611.750Paint Valley Ross 67.56414-40.34815.932647226.7924.1Pandora-Gilboa Putnam 82.94656.7290.89286698.2512.8Parkway Mercer 68.38394-6.9273.32669316.7213.6Parma Cuyahoga 72.75267-11.5286.053112218.518.1Patrick Henry Henry 77.061606.34.282824011.865.8Paulding Paulding 67.624103.6486.962887816.771.5Perkins Erie 77.5614713.8472.5385079.9612.2Perry Lake 86.123011.2551.813435510.4910.8Perry Stark 81.4479-14.7175.243056317.5422.5Perry Allen 69.31364-58.04915.252559133.7934.6Perrysburg Wood 89.251343.3491.78541294.64.4Pettisville Fulton 81.128216.6233.093224312.530Pickerington Fairfield 85.943542.1470.42453971.831Pike-Delta-York Fulton 73.06253-18.794.012986021.1423.5Piqua Miami 59.44541-11.71612.573017428.820.5Plain Franklin 85.064193.7540.35981944.090Plain Stark 75.75191-20.9759.973746525.4723Pleasant Marion 693746.1645.923682411.3413.4Plymouth Richland 66.31438-55.45411.922598634.1235.4Poland Mahoning 87.252232.8521.17438725.554.3Port Clinton Ottawa 73.06253-19.3448.893203621.7920.7Portsmouth Scioto 56.12563-118.05443.422828658.0244.9Preble Shawnee Preble 65.69455-5.9846.282945620.768.4Princeton Hamilton 72.31277-3.28812.694168232.280Put-in-Bay Ottawa 74.5622135.921.233715000Pymatuning Valley Ashtabula 62.06518-61.94512.752401530.9142.3Ravenna Portage 70.25338-55.12216.12838834.0133.4Reading Community Hamilton 79.5611214.4599.442939905.5Revere Summit 89.191468.0391.14756392.663.8Reynoldsburg Franklin 78.1913818.5395.83339598.591Richmond Heights Cuyahoga 80.59317.823.013800011.475.7Ridgedale Marion 66.25441-10.2543.362949619.0917.3Ridgemont Hardin 64.69470-20.6355.272670519.6722.4Ridgewood Coshocton 69.62352-37.2298.82534123.0730.7Ripley-Union-LewisBrown 55574-71.19415.592400642.4137.2Rittman Wayne 61.44523-32.0876.662797324.528.9River Valley Marion 76.441736.7353.773233512.239.6River View Coshocton 65.88452-27.4485.82715226.122.7Riverdale Hardin 63.62495-1.7193.532724116.239.2Riverside Logan 64.38476-18.5117.242784919.5219.6Rock Hill Lawrence 58.44549-105.38432.172315643.7752.6Rocky River Cuyahoga 85.384043.3421.57538823.375.6Rolling Hills Guernsey 61.31524-65.76313.752353734.2541.3Rootstown Portage 66.564339.0753.79321458.7810.5Ross Butler 76.311754.4884.61353981214.3Rossford Wood 78.12140-1.9377.463809317.6714.9Russia Shelby 863224.9310393616.837.6Salem Columbiana74.94207-29.10210.622977824.6623.6Sandusky Erie 55.19571-88.23924.862764150.5240.5Sandy Valley Stark 71.94291-39.4119.342662926.530.2Scioto Valley Ross 63.12505-32.16420.262694631.757.1Scioto Valley Pike 48.12588-102.03528.242466544.1654.3Sebring Mahoning 74.94207-40.76612.952407430.3921.5Seneca East Seneca 79.191245.9354.222895513.45.4Shadyside Belmont 71.06319-13.62513.382669512.2414.7Shaker Heights Cuyahoga 80.568867.788.1829205.141.9Shawnee Allen 79.6910826.1622.09472029.359.6Sheffield-Shef. LakeLorain 68.31399-4.1146.453392616.4915.1Shelby Richland 72.5274-21.1377.192923322.8820.3Sidney Shelby 64.94465-18.8469.33307422.0220.6Solon Cuyahoga 91.12951.8480.58574682.242.8South Central Huron 68.38394-23.5697.392639124.1718.4South Euclid-LyndhstCuyahoga 78.1913823.7282.22396288.685South Point Lawrence 66.75432-66.71626.342716434.0433.5South Range Mahoning 88.88159.0835.583679320.032.1South-Western Franklin 58.06554-32.25212.023092827.4623.7Southeast Wayne 78.62131-28.5782.92538225.7625.3Southeast Portage 73.31249-9.2476.613082316.0617.4Southeastern Clark 73.31249-2.7467.292899414.759.7Southern Meigs 60.06536-110.65727.242612352.5457Southern Columbiana59.62540-64.89214.242550837.9638.2Southern Perry 54.62577-109.68424.522235654.3253.2Southington Trumbull 67427-14.3056.383184513.4726.3Southwest Licking Licking 693743.5915.733474112.2213.2Southwest Hamilton 70.38335-3.8968.943220412.7614.4Spencerville Allen 77.121582.9644.612869421.120Springboro CommWarren 83.885345.0840.73541743.265.1Springfield Clark 46.38590-58.67227.822716845.3212.7Springfield Mahoning 76.25176-15.4639.462761731.122.5Springfield Lucas 69.62352-19.84512.494230527.0622.6Springfield Summit 67.56414-40.69512.692978531.6926.1St Bernard-Elmwood Hamilton 71.81296-40.67419.42556611.9434.9St Clairsville-Richland Belmont 75.81188-10.5539.583198717.5615.4St Henry Mercer 82.197124.3740.77314743.432.9St Marys Auglaize 75.12205-9.0693.32994116.5119.2Steubenville Jefferson 73.94237-99.2642.062878042.5843.4Stow-Munroe Falls Summit 79.2512025.8782.63413786.776.1Strasburg-Franklin Tuscarawas68.44393-8.2795.592818111.4719.4Streetsboro Portage 71.94291-2.2937.233046718.836.7Strongsville Cuyahoga 83.126136.3411.24464714.594.3Struthers Mahoning 66.19444-74.28921.252359145.1331.5Stryker Williams 72.12282-7.0633.152805713.3718.6Sugarcreek Greene 863247.4390.995152903.1Swanton Fulton 72.88260-5.115.673280016.5415.7Switzerland of Ohio Monroe 67.31421-78.84518.532492542.8442.4Sycamore Community Hamilton 84.884349.7872.47632775.425.6Sylvania Lucas 78.6913035.0253.8555257.29.5Symmes Valley Lawrence 63.31502-101.29727.862354345.0851.9Talawanda Butler 72.75267-0.1725.53419814.8714Tallmadge Summit 77.2515511.7665.58365269.589.6Teays Valley Pickaway 66.19444-16.2098.043073122.516.4Tecumseh Clark 68.19403-26.563103017727.3419.4Three Rivers Hamilton 76.69169-9.059.393805019.1118.6Tiffin Seneca 67.19423-21.8917.442753921.7920.2Tipp Miami 81.068421.8232.56402935.6110.3Toledo Lucas 50.94582-116.92642.512881456.0347.2Toronto Jefferson 69.19369-46.30321.142798727.6525.5Tri-County North Preble 71.253146.866.073308018.351.8Tri-Valley Muskingum 71320-10.8946.112868615.6717.8Tri-Village Darke 66.94428-10.0723.752607821.510.9Triad Champaign 61.885192.0354.033094512.1812.7Trimble Athens 50.62584-87.96831.812075241.0135.9Triway Wayne 74.622173.8634.123007313.398.7Trotwood-Madison Montgomery53.75580-89.28824.22982249.9145Troy Miami 71.56307-5.2297.223637115.9818.4Tuscarawas Valley Tuscarawas79.25120-14.7933.463069717.4324.6Tuslaw Stark 74.192312.445.713033020.781.4Twin Valley Preble 73.31249-3.5416.53061923.763.9Twinsburg Summit 75.561940.357.463995015.1417Union-Scioto Ross 66.31438-11.25611.33340417.8615.5United Columbiana74.19231-28.7526.772808821.6728.4Upper Arlington Franklin 88.191766.7660.25701360.922.2Upper Sandusky Wyandot 72.5274-7.2513.132782915.4516.5Upper Scioto Valley Hardin 63.5498-32.3527.662593822.3328.3Valley Scioto 59.25544-85.35327.662677741.2743.2Valley View Montgomery67.8140917.782.8339906.317.1Van Buren Hancock 7618132.3561.13381964.710Van Wert Van Wert 72.81262-19.0685.12797221.4420.5Vandalia-Butler Montgomery76.0618021.1612.88401617.728.4Vanlue Hancock 654643.2723.872962213.788.7Vermilion Erie 66.94428-0.8694.683632114.5118Versailles Darke 81.887416.9440.54307744.998.3Vinton County Vinton 61.56521-72.75219.072493839.3239.3Wadsworth Medina 80.31947.8043.473632412.4512.6Walnut Township Fairfield 67.06425-26.4167.453191423.9826.9Wapakoneta Auglaize 74.5222-7.1294.692930116.1415.6Warren Trumbull 48.38587-117.69541.682823550.8553.4Warren Washington68.5390-15.5667.912970420.0617.3Warrensville Heights Cuyahoga 58.62548-18.35926.872706117.451.1Washington Ct. Hse Fayette 67.62410-40.79414.552604626.0926.2Washington Lucas 71.94291-28.51112.053123921.426.3Washington-Nile Scioto 55.56568-96.65330.72527746.5344.7Waterloo Portage 71.56307-7.8066.153021417.8714Wauseon Fulton 79125-11.6333.753027716.1622Waverly Pike 64.88466-66.57419.252846636.3939.4Wayne Warren 74.3822417.5063.13391069.379.1Wayne Trace Paulding 69.123711.2547.022838420.110Waynesfield-Goshen Auglaize 76.94165-1.0053.513013511.6316Weathersfield Trumbull 72.12282-37.38212.592896829.2624.5Wellington Lorain 68.6238710.5844.153260417.170.7Wellsville Columbiana68.88378-61.51323.512340723.9137.5West Branch Mahoning 77.19156-18.75.833006021.5321.4West Carrollton Montgomery69.38360-3.3386.633208214.1914.6West Clermont Clermont 72.44276-5.6146.723260614.117.4West Geauga Geauga 83.55848.2841.02549843.881.8West Holmes Holmes 71.12317-6.5783.962554225.762.4West Liberty-Salem Champaign 732588.9041.94313348.8911.6West Muskingum Muskingum 70.75324-9.8398.843490116.719.2Western Brown Brown 62.38514-46.379.642574026.2736.2Western Pike 56565-143.85136.032151960.6468.7Western Reserve Mahoning 73.7524018.972.463414012.710Western Reserve Huron 66.06448-12.5824.752946818.518.8Westfall Pickaway 58.25550-24.9258.593026521.325.3Westlake Cuyahoga 836355.1192.285869901.3Wheelersburg Scioto 73.62243-36.01417.212971622.1226.4Whitehall Franklin 59.44541-50.8815.032641032.5629.7Wickliffe Lake 70.69325-8.5237.182936716.9113.8Willard Huron 66.12447-43.45914.062784129.3427.9Williamsburg Clermont 69.193693.0810.173221017.661.3Willoughby-Eastlake Lake 77.19156-12.7874.863288318.6122.2Wilmington Clinton 68.38394-16.60210.573112820.3616.8Windham Portage 59.31543-89.28924.312434143.1246.2Winton Woods Hamilton 69.5355-6.5028.843547818.8414.3Wolf Creek Washington72.75267-28.371.532589028.0324.7Woodmore Sandusky 80.5688-4.0049.763294613.3913.8Woodridge Summit 76.25176-12.97816.264344222.1618Wooster Wayne 77163-20.9729.043782824.5625.2Worthington Franklin 81.757546.8950.87529354.270.9Wynford Crawford 73.38248-13.8696.032831117.1519Wyoming Hamilton 92.5464.1752.7739654.592.5Xenia Greene 62.44513-33.1615.33109026.6522.3Yellow Springs Greene 84.314813.8498.84389797.998.3Youngstown Mahoning 51.19581-173.08358.632241771.6765.2Zane Trace Ross 56.62561-3.7857.373107515.9911.5Zanesville Muskingum 63.19504-86.59326.912597750.2635.4 Appendix B Actual District Performance (Peformance Controlling for Presage Scores) School DistrictCountyRankPerformance z-ScorePresage z-ScorePresage Raw ScoreNew Boston  Scioto 13.74-3.26-149.99Steubenville Jefferson 23.14-2.03-99.26South Range Mahoning 32.420.599.08Madeira Hamilton 42.071.3941.87Bloomfield-Mespo Trumbull 51.96-1.2-64.8LaBrae Trumbull 61.93-1-56.77Delphos Allen 71.91-0.19-23.4McDonald Trumbull 81.890.35-1.12Mariemont Hamilton 91.881.3339.37Grandview Heights Franklin 101.860.7616.09Miller New Clev.Putnam 111.850.7314.67Northridge Montgomery121.830.380.33Perry Lake 131.82-1.03-58.05East Guernsey Guernsey 141.8-1.02-57.31Perry Stark 151.80.6511.26Mayfield Cuyahoga 161.80.9322.92Benton Carroll Salem Ottawa 171.780.16-8.7Berlin-Milan Erie 181.770.55.43Campbell Mahoning 191.76-2.42-115.4Nelsonville-York Athens 201.72-2.02-98.86Southeast Wayne 211.720.15-9.25East Holmes Holmes 221.70.3-3.09Clearview Lorain 231.7-2.1-101.82Newcomerstown Tuscarawas241.69-1.41-73.69Bexley Franklin 251.660.7615.98Ottawa-Glandorf Putnam 261.610.473.85Garaway Tuscarawas271.61-0.04-17.03Girard Trumbull 281.61-0.7-44.25Green Wayne 291.6-1.67-84.43Chesapeake Union Lawrence 301.59-1.43-74.22North Canton Stark 311.560.8820.85East Palestine Columbiana321.56-1-56.42Lisbon Columbiana331.55-0.56-38.52Cleveland Hts-Univ Hts Cuyahoga 341.54-1.78-88.96Kent Portage 351.52-0.3-27.92Lordstown Trumbull 361.490.12-10.22New Bremen Auglaize 371.480.8921.19Sebring Mahoning 381.43-0.62-40.77Solon Cuyahoga 391.421.6351.85Athens Athens 401.42-0.65-42.03Fort Loramie Shelby 411.410.7716.5Yellow Springs Greene 421.410.7113.85Tuscarawas Valley Tuscarawas431.390.01-14.79Louisville Stark 441.380.04-13.84Fort Recovery Mercer 451.380.37-0.1Perrysburg Wood 461.371.4243.35Pandora-Gilboa Putnam 471.370.546.73Russia Shelby 481.360.9824.93Gibsonburg Sandusky 491.35-0.32-28.74Columbiana Columbiana501.35-0.17-22.56Maplewood Trumbull 511.35-0.18-22.89Aurora Portage 521.341.5849.81Granville Licking 531.341.7356.11Kalida Putnam 541.341.1230.72Minster Auglaize 551.321.1230.9Poland Mahoning 561.321.1732.85Oakwood Montgomery571.322.2175.88Youngstown Mahoning 581.31-3.82-173.08Wyoming Hamilton 591.291.9364.18Indian Valley Tuscarawas601.29-0.81-48.81Woodmore Sandusky 611.280.28-4Boardman Mahoning 621.280.6310.52Switzerland Monroe 631.26-1.54-78.85Western Pike 641.26-3.11-143.85Cardinal Geauga 651.26-0.18-22.9Wauseon Fulton 661.250.09-11.63ColumbusGrove Putnam 671.250.14-9.74Carrollton Carroll 681.24-0.85-50.4Hubbard Trumbull 691.24-0.51-36.53Symmes Valley Lawrence 701.24-2.08-101.3Bellaire Belmont 711.22-1.47-75.85Lowellville Mahoning 721.22-0.57-38.83Fremont Sandusky 731.2-0.53-37.25Maumee Lucas 741.190.7314.69Wooster Wayne 751.17-0.14-20.97Coldwater Mercer 761.170.6611.76Crestview Van Wert 771.16-0.33-28.89West Branch Mahoning 781.14-0.08-18.7Marion Mercer 791.10.9423.63Canfield Mahoning 801.091.4343.78Napoleon Area Henry 811.090.21-6.59Joseph Badger Trumbull 821.08-0.43-33.18Cedar Cliff Greene 831.080.484.42Martins Ferry Belmont 841.07-1.06-58.96Jackson Stark 851.061.338.15Lockland Hamilton 861.05-1.53-78.48Salem Columbiana871.04-0.33-29.1Northwestern Wayne 881.040.578.16Wheelersburg Scioto 891.04-0.5-36.01Bay Village Cuyahoga 901.031.650.56Ravenna Portage 911.02-0.96-55.12Chardon Geauga 921.020.8620.02Ironton Lawrence 931.02-1.18-64.15Wellsville Columbiana940.98-1.12-61.51Brecksville-BroadviewCuyahoga 950.981.4644.79Barnesville Belmont 960.98-1.13-62.11Dawson-Bryant Lawrence 970.97-1.47-75.99Field Portage 980.960.08-12.09Willoughby-Eastlake Lake 990.960.06-12.79Perry Allen 1000.950.02-14.72Southern Columbiana1010.94-1.2-64.89Plain Stark 1020.942.6493.75Jefferson Area Ashtabula 1030.94-0.65-42.04Eastwood Wood 1040.930.390.56Forest Hills Hamilton 1050.931.546.58Independence Cuyahoga 1060.911.2536.38Edison Jefferson 1070.91-0.74-45.71Struthers Mahoning 1080.9-1.43-74.29United Columbiana1090.9-0.32-28.75Leipsic Putnam 1100.87-0.7-44.29Mason Warren 1110.861.2937.91Versailles Darke 1120.860.7816.94Defiance Defiance 1130.860.11-10.88Northwest Scioto 1140.850.11-10.66Wadsworth Medina 1150.850.567.8Springfield Lucas 1160.85-0.11-19.84St Bernard-Elmwood Hamilton 1170.85-0.61-40.67Lake Stark 1180.850.921.63Green Scioto 1190.840.619.62Sandy Valley Stark 1200.83-0.58-39.41Ottoville Putnam 1210.821.0327.28Celina Mercer 1220.820.19-7.51Copley-Fairlawn Summit 1230.811.1532Highland Morrow 1240.811.234.26Milton-Union Miami 1250.810.599.01Fairland Lawrence 1260.81-0.58-39.38Kenston Geauga 1270.811.4444.23East Knox Knox 1280.81-0.04-17.14Indian Creek Jefferson 1290.8-0.35-29.91Weathersfield Trumbull 1300.79-0.53-37.38North Olmsted Cuyahoga 1310.790.588.69Pickerington Fairfield 1320.791.3942.15Crestwood Portage 1330.790.32-2.01Niles Trumbull 1340.78-0.84-50.06Woodridge Summit 1350.770.06-12.98Carey Wyandot 1360.760.24-5.36Rossford Wood 1370.760.33-1.94Zanesville Muskingum 1380.75-1.73-86.59Olmsted Falls Cuyahoga 1390.750.8419.27South Point Lawrence 1400.74-1.24-66.72Crestview Richland 1410.74-0.2-23.67Three Rivers Hamilton 1420.730.15-9.05Avon Lorain 1430.720.9323.05Noble Noble 1440.71-0.93-53.71Pettisville Fulton 1450.710.7816.62Seneca East Seneca 1460.710.525.93Frontier Washington1470.68-1.33-70.37Hillsdale Ashland 1480.680.494.74Ayersville Defiance 1490.680.8318.69James A Garfield Portage 1500.67-0.05-17.58St Henry Consolidated Mercer 1510.670.9624.37Anthony Wayne Lucas 1520.661.0528.04Rocky River Cuyahoga 1530.651.4243.34Anna Shelby 1540.650.6511.6Amherst Lorain 1550.640.8921.47Geneva Area Ashtabula 1560.64-1.04-58.14Sugarcreek Greene 1570.641.5247.44Evergreen Fulton 1580.630.1-11.37Wolf Creek Washington1590.63-0.32-28.37Old Fort Seneca 1600.620.41.24St Clairsville-Richland Belmont 1610.610.12-10.55Manchester Summit 1620.610.6712.42Bath Allen 1630.580.19-7.7Minerva Stark 1640.58-0.38-30.84Richmond Heights Cuyahoga 1650.560.817.82Harrison Hills Harrison 1660.56-1.28-67.99Northridge Licking 1670.56-2.21-106.72Loudonville-PerrysvilleAshland 1680.56-0.29-27.45Miamisburg Montgomery1690.560.7214.23Toronto Jefferson 1700.55-0.75-46.3Revere Summit 1710.552.0268.04Liberty Un Thurston Fairfield 1720.550.04-13.77Bowling Green Wood 1730.550.09-11.6Tipp City Miami 1740.550.921.82Arcanum Butler Darke 1750.540.463.61Cuyahoga Heights Cuyahoga 1760.530.9122.3New Richmond Clermont 1770.53-0.66-42.68Liberty Trumbull 1780.530.557.46Bethel-Tate Clermont 1790.52-0.03-16.55Little Miami Warren 1800.520.577.97Waynesfield-Goshen Auglaize 1810.520.35-1Reading Community Hamilton 1820.50.7214.46New Riegel Seneca 1830.50.9222.77Lima Allen 1840.5-2.54-120.19Elmwood Wood 1850.5-0.22-24.63Bradford Miami 1860.49-0.28-26.97Marlington Stark 1870.49-0.19-23.04Finneytown Hamilton 1880.490.7214.46Austintown Mahoning 1890.48-0.16-22.05Lakeview Trumbull 1900.480.7515.66Washington Lucas 1910.48-0.32-28.51Newbury Geauga 1920.480.599.17Canton Stark 1930.48-2.66-125.05Chagrin Falls Cuyahoga 1940.472.5489.25Circleville Pickaway 1950.47-0.6-40.15Highland Medina 1960.47-0.5-35.94Milford Clermont 1970.470.7616Rock Hill Lawrence 1980.47-2.18-105.38Brunswick Medina 1990.470.6511.59Centerville Montgomery2000.451.5749.5Mathews Trumbull 2010.450.1-11.43Jonathan Alder Madison 2020.450.25-5.1Portsmouth Scioto 2030.45-2.49-118.05Strongsville Cuyahoga 2040.451.2536.34 http://www.ode.ohio.gov/www/ims/ One set of data was drawn from the 1993 EMIS collection. Economic disadvantagement categorical data from 1993 were selected because later data are incorrect for several school districts. http://www.ode.ohio.gov/www/ims/extract_emis_profile.html and http://www.ode.ohio.gov/www/ims/extract_vitals_data.html See P. 222 in Kretovics, J., Farber, K., & Armaline, W. Blowing the Top off Urban Education: Educational Empowerment and Academic Achievement in Journal of Curriculum and Supervision, Spring 1991, Vol. 6, No. 3, 222-232. http://www.ode.ohio.gov/www/ims/extract_emis_profile.html and http://www.ode.ohio.gov/www/ims/extract_vitals_data.html Specific definitions and the manner in which they are calculated from district Student Aggregation Records may be found in the online EMIS Manuals. This conclusion is drawn from the coefficient of determination (r2) derived by squaring the correlation coefficient derived from the Pearson Correlation procedure (r=0.80): 0.802=0.64. Presage z-score: [(%Free/ReducedLunch + %ADC + %EcoDis) - (MeanFamInc/1000)(-1) ] - 15.36 /41.26 ["V123 - (V4/1000)(-1)] - ______________________ = PF S Where V1 = %Free/ReducedLunch; V2 = %ADC; V3 = %Economic Disadvantaged; V4 = Mean Family Income, S = standard deviation and = population mean. These classifications by standard deviation represent descriptions relative to the forces and factors included within the Presage Factor and do not necessarily represent any particular agreed-upon cut-off points outside the purposes of this study. A list of the highest performing Ohio districts may be found in Appendix B. Only the top 204 districts are given because I do not wish to have these data used inappropriately against any Ohio school district. Masters degrees or higher refers to teachers who have acquired their masters and those who have additional college credits beyond the masters or who have a doctorate. Races other than African-American and White have been omitted from analysis simply because their distribution across Ohio school districts is too few to yield any meaningful insights. Though not included here in graphic form, the correlation between reading performance and performance on the writing, citizenship, and math sections of the fourth-grade OPT is r=0.99. Data from 1993 were used due to conspicuous errors in the EMIS values for this category for later years. EMIS data may be incorrect for this district, therefore the ranking may be invalid. 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