ࡱ> y JbjbjEE <'' % )E]]]qqq84q`&!nO*"q*q*q*:::L`N`N`N`N`N`N`$ber`]<::<<r`]]q*q*`MNMNMN<]pq*]q*L`MN<L`MNMNZx[q*nWq>Z8``0`Z-fCA -f0x[x[-f]\:h;JMN^;<;W:::r`r`OK:::`<<<<-f::::::::: : NOTE ON EVALUATING FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE If we are to be effective as an entrepreneur, there is a certain body of knowledge and skills that we must master. Otherwise, we will be at a distinct disadvantage in operating a going concern. Understanding the informational content of financial statements is one such area. This note has been written in the hopes of providing a basic common body of knowledge in this regard. We will first look at the format of the financial statements typically used in business. Second, we will then use ratio analysis as a way to evaluate a company's financial position. UNDERSTANDING FINANCIAL STATEMENTS Think of financial statements as consisting of certain pieces of important information about the firm's operations that are reported in the form of (1) an income statement, (2) a balance sheet, and (3) a cash flow statement. We will look at each of these statements in turn. The Income Statement The main elements of an income statement, or profit and loss statement as some call it, are shown in Exhibit 1. In this exhibit, we observe that the top part of the income statement, beginning with sales and continuing down through the operating income or earnings before interest and taxes, is affected solely by the firm's operating decisions. These decisions involve such matters as sales, cost of goods sold, marketing expenses and general and administrative expenses. However, no financing costs are included to this point. Below the line reporting operating income, we see the results of the firm's financing decisions, along with the taxes that are due on the company's income. Here the company's interest expense is shown, which is the direct result of the amount of debt borrowed and the interest rate charged by the lender (Interest expense = amount borrowed x interest rate). The resulting profits before tax and the tax rates imposed on the company then determine the amount of the tax liability, or the income tax expense. The final number, the net profits after taxes, is the income that may be distributed to the company's owners or reinvested in the company, provided of course there is cash available to do so. (As we shall see later, merely because there are profits does not necessarily mean there is any cash - possibly a somewhat surprising fact to us, but one we shall come to understand.) EXHIBIT 1 The Income Statement: An Overview Sales  EQ \x( - )   EQ \x(Cost of producing or acquiring our product or service )   EQ \x( = )  Gross profit  EQ \x( - )  Operating expenses: Marketing and selling expenses and general and administrative expenses  EQ \x( = )  Operating income (Earnings before interest and taxes)  EQ \x( - )   EQ \x(Interest expense )   EQ \x( = )  Profits before taxes  EQ \x( - )   EQ \x(Taxes )   EQ \x( = )  Profits after taxes An example of an income statement is provided in Exhibit 2 for the LM Manufacturing Company. As shown in the exhibit, the firm had sales of $830,000 for the 12-month period ending December 31, 2006. The cost of manufacturing their product was $539,000, resulting in a gross profit of $291,000. The firm then had $190,000 in operating expenses, which involved selling expenses, general and administrative expenses, and depreciation expenses. After deducting the operating expenses, the firm's operating profits (earnings before interest and taxes) amounted to $101,000. This amount represents the income generated as if LM Manufacturing was an all-equity company. To this point, we have calculated the profits resulting only from operating activities, as opposed to financing decisions, such as how much debt or equity is used to finance the company's operations. We next deduct LM's interest expense (the amount paid for using debt financing) of $20,000 to arrive at the company's profit before tax of $81,000. Lastly, we deduct the income taxes of $17,000 to leave the net profit after tax of $64,000. At the bottom of the income statement, we also see the amount of common dividends paid by the firm to its owners in the amount of $15,000, leaving $49,000, which eventually increases retained earnings in the balance sheet. EXHIBIT 2 Income Statement (figures in $ thousands) The LM Manufacturing Company For the Year Ending December 31, 2006 Sales $830 Cost of Goods Sold $539 Gross Profit on Sales $291 Operating Expenses: Marketing Expenses $91 General and Administrative Expenses $71 Depreciation $28 Total Operating Expenses $190 Operating Income (EBIT) $101 Interest Expense $20 Earnings Before tax $81 Income Tax $17 Earnings after Tax $64 Dividends Paid $15 Change in Retained Earnings $49 TESTING YOUR UNDERSTANDING The Income Statement Given the information below, see if you can construct an income statement. What are the firms gross profits, operating income, and net income? Which expense is a non-cash expense? (The solution to this problem is given a few pages later.) Interest expense $10,000 Sales $400,000 Cost of Goods Sold $160,000 Stock Dividends $5,000 Selling expenses $70,000 Income Taxes $20,000 Administrative expenses $50,000 Depreciation expense $20,000 The Balance Sheet While the income statement reports the results from operating the business for a period of time, such as a year, the balance sheet provides a snapshot in time of the firm's financial position. Thus, a balance sheet captures the cumulative effect of prior decisions down to a single point in time. The relationship between the timing of an income statement and a balance sheet is represented graphically in Exhibit 3. EXHIBIT 3 Visual Perspective of the Relationship Between the Balance Sheet and Income Statement  Here we see two periods of operations, 2005 and 2006. There would be an income statement for the period of January 1 through December 31 for the operations of the year 2006 and a balance sheet reporting the company's financial position as of December 31 of each year, i.e. 2005 and 2006. Thus, the balance sheet on December 31, 2006 is a statement of the company's financial position at that particular date in time, which is the result of all financial transactions since the company began its operations. Testing Your Understanding: The Income Statement: How Did You Do? Earlier on, we provided data and asked you to prepare an income statement based on the information. Your results should be as follows: Sales $400,000 Cost of goods Sold $160,000 Gross profit $240,000 Operating expenses: Selling expenses $70,000 Administrative expenses $50,000 Depreciation expense $20,000 Total operating expenses $140,000 Operating income $100,000 Interest expense $10,000 Earnings before tax $90,000 Tax expense $20,000 Net income $70,000 Notice that we did not include the $10,000 stock dividends included in the problem, which is considered a return on the stockholders capital and deducted from retained earnings. Exhibit 4 gives us the basic ingredients of a balance sheet. The assets fall into three categories: Current assets, such as cash, accounts receivable, and inventories; Fixed or long-term assets, such as equipment, buildings, and land; and Any other assets used by the company. In reporting the dollar amounts of these various assets, the conventional practice is to report the value of the assets and liabilities on a historical cost basis. Thus, the balance sheet is not intended to represent the current market value of the company, but rather merely reports the historical transactions at cost. Determining a fair value of the business is a more complicated matter than captured by the balance sheet. The remaining part of the balance sheet, headed "liabilities and equity" indicates how the firm has financed its investments in assets. That is, assets must be financed either with debt (liabilities) or equity capital. The debt consists of such sources as credit extended from suppliers or a loan from a bank. If the firm is a sole proprietorship, the equity is the owner's personal investment in the company and also the profits that have been retained within the business from all prior periods. Here the terms equity and net worth are frequently used interchangeably. If it is a partnership, the equity comprises the partners' contribution to the business and the retained profits. Finally, for a corporation, equity includes the purchase of the company's stock by the investor (including both par value and paid in capital) and the retained profits to that point in time. EXHIBIT 4 The Balance Sheet: An Overview ASSETS Current assets  EQ \x(+)  Fixed or long-term assets  EQ \x(+)  Other assets  EQ \x(=)  Total assets LIABILITIES (DEBT) AND EQUITY (NET WORTH) Current (short-term) liabilities (debt)  EQ \x(+)  Long-term liabilities (debt)  EQ \x(=)  Total liabilities (debt)  EQ \x(+)  Equity (net worth)  EQ \x(=)  Total liabilities (debt) and equity (net worth) Balance sheets for the LM Manufacturing Company are presented in Exhibit 5, both on December 31, 2005 and December 31, 2006. We have included two balance sheets so that we may see the financial position of the firm at the beginning and end of 2006. By examining these two balance sheets, along with the income statement for 2006, we will have a more complete picture of the firm's operations, as reflected in its financial statements. We are then able to see what the firm looked like at the beginning of 2006 (balance sheet on December 31, 2005); what happened during the year (income statement for 2006), and the final outcome at the end of the year (balance sheet on December 31, 2006). The balance sheet data for the LM Manufacturing Company shows the firm having begun the year with $804,000 in total assets and concluding the year with total assets of $927,000. Most of the assets are invested in plant and equipment, amounting to $404,000 in 2005 and $455,000 in 2006. Next, the investments in inventories were $177,000 and $211,000 in 2005 and 2006, respectively. It was also in these two accounts that most of the growth in the firm's assets occurred. Finally, the financing of the growth in assets came mostly from borrowing more long-term debt (long-term notes payable) and from the company's 2006 profits, as reflected in the increase in retained earnings. EXHIBIT 5 Balance Sheets (figures in $ thousands) The LM Manufacturing Company December 31, 2005 and 2006 2005 2006 Current Assets Cash $39 $44 Accounts receivable $70 $78 Inventories $177 $210 Prepaid expenses $14 $15 Total current assets $300 $347 Fixed assets: Gross plant and equipment $759 $838 Accumulated depreciation $355 $383 Net plant and equipment $404 $455 Land $70 $70 Total fixed assets $474 $525 Patents $30 $55 Total assets $804 $927 Liabilities and equity Current Liabilities: Accounts Payable $61 $76 Income tax payable $12 $17 Accrued wages and salaries $4 $4 Interest payable $2 $2 Total Current liabilities $79 $99 Long-term notes payable $146 $200 Total liabilities: $225 $299 Common stock $300 $300 Retained Earnings $279 $328 Total Stockholders' equity $579 $628 Total liabilities and equity $804 $927 The Balance Sheet: Testing Your Understanding Given the information below, construct a balance sheet. What are the firms current assets, net fixed assets, total assets, current or short-term debt, long-term debt, total equity, and total debt and equity? (Check your solution to this problem with the answer shown a few pages later.) Gross fixed assets $75,000 Accounts receivables $50,000 Cash $10,000 Long-term notes $5,000 Other Assets $15,000 Mortgage $20,000 Accounts payable $40,000 Common stock $100,000 Retained Earnings $15,000 Inventories $70,000 Accumulated Depreciation $20,000 Short-term notes $20,000 Measuring Cash Flows: Free Cash Flows, That Is We now want to consider how to determine cash flows, an important issue to any firm, small or large. Failure to understand a companys cash flows can be a fatal error, and one that cannot be overcome. Often entrepreneurs fail to understand the difference between profits and cash flows. Some wrongly assume that if the firm is profitable, then cash flows will be positive, especially for a company experiencing growth. Or they may think that income plus depreciation determines cash flows. That view is too simplistic as well. In measuring cash flows, we could use the conventional accountants presentation called a cash flow statement. However, we are more interested in considering cash flows from the perspective of the firms management and its investors, rather than from an accounting view. Thus, what follows is similar to the cash flow statement presented as part of a companys financial statements, but not exactly. We should begin by recognizing an important financial fact. The cash flows that are generated through a firms operations and investments in assets will always equal its cash flows paid to the companys investors (both creditors and stockholders). They have to equal. That is, Firm's free cash flows = financing cash flows. Testing Your Understanding: The Balance Sheet: How Did You Do? Earlier on, we provided balance sheet data and asked you to develop the balance sheet based on the information. Your results should be as follows: Cash $10,000 Accounts receivables $50,000 Inventories $70,000 Total current assets $130,000 Gross fixed assets $75,000 Accumulated depreciation $20,000 Net fixed assets $55,000 Other assets $15,000 Total assets $200,000 Accounts payables $40,000 Short-term notes $20,000 Total short-term debt $60,000 Long-term note $5,000 Mortgage $20,000 Total long-term debt $25,000 Total debt $85,000 Common stock $100,000 Retained earnings $15,000 Total equity $115,000 Total debt and equity $200,000 Calculating a Firms Free Cash Flows For our purposes, we define free cash flows as equal to the: After-tax cash flow generated from operations less the increase in net operating working capital and less increase in gross fixed assets Furthermore, after-tax cash flows from operations are determined as follows: Operating income + depreciation = Earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization (EBITDA) - cash tax payments = After-tax cash flows from operations In the foregoing calculation, we have added back depreciation to operating income since depreciation is not a cash expense. Also, we should note that cash tax payments are not necessarily equal to the tax expense reported in the income statement. The provision for taxes in the income statement is the amount attributable to income reported, but the company may be permitted to defer the payment. Thus, the cash tax payment would equal the provision for taxes reported in the income statement less (plus) any increase (decrease) in accrued or deferred taxes in the balance sheet. To continue, the increase in net operating working capital is equal to the: Change in current assets the change in non-interest bearing operating current liabilities Notice that not all the current liabilities are included here, but only the non-interest bearing debt incurred in the normal day-to-day operating activities of buying and selling the firm's goods, such as accounts payables and accrued wages. The final step involves computing the increase in gross fixed assets (not net fixed assets). Another way to arrive at the same result would be to find the increase in the net fixed assets and then add back the accumulated depreciation. Returning to LM Manufacturing, lets now compute the free cash flows. These calculations are presented in Exhibit 6. EXHIBIT 6 Free cash flows for year ending 2006 (figures in $ thousands) LM Manufacturing Company Operating income $101 Depreciation $28 Earnings before interest, tax, depreciation and amortization (EBITDA) $129 Tax expense $17 Less the change in income tax payable $5 Cash taxes ($12) Cash flows from operations $117 Change in current assets: Change in cash $5 Change in accounts receivable $8 Change in inventories $33 Change in prepaid expenses $1 Change in current assets $(47) Change in non-interest bearing operating current debt: Plus the change in accounts payable $15 Plus the change in accrued wages $0 Change in non-interest bearing current debt $15 Change in net operating working capital ($32) Cash flows - investment activities: Increase in fixed assets $79 Increase in patents $25 Net cash used for investments ($104) Free cash flows ($19) We see that the free cash flows are negative in the amount of $19,000. While $117,000 was generated from operations, this amount was more than consumed by the increases in net operating working capital and investments in long-term assets. We should question where the firm found the cash to invest in assets when it did not generate enough from operations to make all its investments. How about from the investors? Lets compute the financing cash flows to see if the firms investors provided the money. ... Now About Your Brother-In-Law! With an understanding of the income statement and balance sheet, lets return to your brother-in laws proposition to become a partner with him in the clothing business. You have constructed the income statement and the balance sheet from the fragments of your dog-chewed papers. When you do, you get the following results (in $ thousands): Projected Income Projected Balance Statement Sheet Sales $75 Cash needed in the business $6 Cost of goods sold $40 Inventories $14 Gross profits $35 Equipment $10 Operating expenses: Total Assets $30 Office overhead $14 Accounts Payable $6 Advertising expense $16 90 day bank loan $10 Rent expense $4 Total Debt $16 Depreciation expense $10 Equity Total operating expenses $44 Brother-in-law $3 Operating income ($9) Your Investment $2 Interest expenses $1 Total Equity $5 Earnings before taxes ($10) Total projected debt and equity $21 Taxes $0 Additional financing needed $9 Net income ($10) Total debt and equity needed $30 So, based on your estimates, the venture would expect to incur a loss of $10,000. Furthermore, the balance sheet suggests that the business will need $30,000 for investments in assets, which would come from debt financing of $16,000 (you hope); $3,000 from the brother-in-law (if he has it), and $2,000 from you, which totals $21,000, and not the $30,000 you actually need. Thus, the business will need an additional $9,000. Maybe, just maybe, this is not quite the opportunity your brother-in-law perceives it to be. Calculating Financing Cash Flows We will now compute the cash flows to the firms investors, or what we call the financing cash flows. The cash flows from financing the business is equal to: + increase in debt principal or - decrease in debt principal + increase in stock or - decrease in stock Less interest payments to creditors less dividends paid to stockholders Thus, the financing cash flows are simply the net cash flows received from or paid to the firms investors. If negative, then the cash flows that are being paid to the firms investors, but if positive, then the investors are providing cash to the firm. In the latter situation where the investors are putting money into the firm, it will be because the free cash flows are negative, thereby requiring an infusion of capitalas is the case for LM Manufacturing. Specifically, financing cash flows for the company are determined as follows: Increase in long-term debt $54 Interest exposure ($20) Less change in interest payable 0 Interest paid to investors ($20) Common stock dividends ($15) Net cash flows received from investors (paid to investors) $19 As we expected, the investors, in net, invested more money into the company than they received. In fact, they provided $19,000the exact amount of the firms negative cash flows. As we noted earlier, the cash flows generated by a company must equal the cash provided by the investors or paid to the investors. To conclude a firm's free cash flows are more complicated than merely taking income and adding back depreciation. The changes in asset balances resulting from growth is just as important in determining the free cash flows as is profits, maybe even more important sometimes. Hence, the owner-manager of a company is well advised to think about profits and cash flows both, and if we can only watch one, watch the cash flows, because if we run out of cash, they don't let us play the game any longer. Testing Your Understanding: Measuring Cash Flows Given the following information, compute the firms free cash flows and the investors cash flows. Change in current assets $25 Operating income $50 Interest expense $10 Increase in accounts payables $20 Change in notes payables $30 Dividends $5 Change in common stock $0 Increase in fixed assets $55 Depreciation expense $7 Income taxes $12 FINANCIAL RATIO ANALYSIS Now that we have looked carefully at the three primary financial statements used in understanding the financial position of the company, we next want to restate the data in relative terms (ratios) so that we may more effectively compare our company with "comparable firms." The purpose of using ratios is to identify the financial strengths and weaknesses of a company, as compared to an industry norm or by looking at the ratios over time. Typically, we use industry norms published by firms such as Dun & Bradstreet or Robert Morris Associates. In learning about ratios, we could simply study the different types or categories of ratios, or we may use ratios to answer some important questions about a firm's operations. We prefer the latter approach, and choose the following four questions as a map in using financial ratios: How liquid is the firm? Is management generating adequate operating profits on the firm's assets? How is the firm financed? Are the common stockholders receiving sufficient return on their investment? How liquid is the company? The liquidity of a business is defined as its ability to meet maturing debt obligations. That is, does the firm here have the resources, either in place or avail- able, to pay the creditors when the debt comes due and must be paid? There are two ways to answer the question. First, we can look at the firm's assets that are relatively liquid in nature and compare them to the amount of the debt coming due in the near term. Second, we can look at the timeliness with which such assets are being converted into cash. Testing Your Understanding: Measuring Cash Flows: How Did You Do? Earlier on, we asked you to calculate a firms free cash flows and its investors cash flows. Your results should be as follows: Free cash flows: Operating income $50 Depreciation expense $7 Earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization $57 Income taxes $12 After-tax cash flows from operations $45 Investments in net working capital: Change in current assets $25 Change in accounts payables $20 Investments in net working capital: $5 Investment in fixed assets $55 Total investments $60 Free cash flows ($15) Investors' cash flows: Interest expense ($10) Dividends ($5) Increase in notes payables $30 Increase in common stock $0 Investors' cash flows $15 Measuring Liquidity: Approach 1 The first approach compares (a) cash and the assets that should be converted into cash within the year against (b) the debt (liabilities) that is coming due and payable within the year. The assets here are the current assets, where the debt coming due is the current liabilities in the balance sheet. Thus, we could use the following measure, called the current ratio, to estimate a company's relative liquidity: Current ratio =  EQ \f(Current assets, Current liabilities)  (Eq. 1) Furthermore, remembering that the three primary current assets include (1) cash, (2) accounts receivable, and (3) inventories, we could make our measure of liquidity more restrictive by excluding inventories, the least liquid of the current assets, in the numerator. This revised ratio is called the acid-test (or quick) ratio, and is measured as follows: Acid-test ratio =  EQ \f(Current assets - Inventories, Current liabilities)  (Eq. 2) We can demonstrate the computations of the current ratio and the acid-test ratio by using the LM Manufacturing Company's 2006 balance sheet (Exhibit 5). These calculations and the industry norms or averages, as reported by Robert Morris Associates, are as follows: Industry LM Average Current ratio =  EQ \f(Current assets, Current liabilities)   EMBED Equation.3 = 3.51  EQ \x( 2.70)  Acid-test ratio =  EQ \f(Current assets - Inventories, Current liabilities)   EMBED Equation.3 = 1.38  EQ \x( 1.25)  Thus, in terms of the current ratio and the acid-test ratio, LM Manufacturing is more liquid than the average firm in their industry. LM Manufacturing has $3.51 in current assets relative to every $1 in current liabilities (debt), compared to $2.70 for a "typical" firm in the industry; and the firm has $1.38 in current assets less inventories per $1 of current debt, compared to $1.25 for the industry norm. While both ratios suggest that the firm is more liquid, the current ratio appears to suggest more liquidity than the acid-test ratio. Why might this be the case? Simply put, LM has more inventories relative to current debt than do most other firms. Which ratio should be given greater weight depends on our confidence in the liquidity of the inventories. We shall return to this question shortly. Measuring Liquidity: Approach 2 The second view of liquidity examines the firm's ability to convert accounts receivables and inventory into cash on a timely basis. The conversion of accounts receivable into cash may be measured by computing how long it takes to collect the firm's receivables; that is, how many days of sales are outstanding in the form of accounts receivable? We may answer this question by computing the average collection period: Average collection period =  EQ \f(Accounts receivable,Daily credit sales)  (Eq. 3) For LM Manufacturing, the average collection period, if we assume that all sales are credit sales, as opposed to some cash sales, is 34.3 days, compared to an industry norm of 35 days: LM Industry  EQ \A(Average,collection,period)  =  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3 = 34.30  EQ \x( 35 )  Thus, the company collects its receivable in about the same number of days as the average firm in the industry. Accounts receivable it would appear are of reasonable liquidity when viewed from the perspective of the length of time required to convert receivables into cash. We could have reached the same conclusion by measuring how many times accounts receivable are "rolled over" during a year, that being the accounts receivable turnover. For instance, LM Manufacturing turns its receivables over 10.64 times a year, that being.  EQ \a(Accounts,receivable,turnover)  =  EQ \f(Credit sales,Accounts receivable)  =  EMBED Equation.3 = 10.64 Whether we use average collection period or the accounts receivable turnover, the conclusion is the same: LM Manufacturing is comparable to the average firm in the industry when it comes to the collection of receivables. We now want to know the same thing for inventories that we just determined for accounts receivable: How many times are we turning over inventories during the year? In this manner, we gain some insight about the liquidity of the inventories. The inventory turnover ratio is calculated as follows:  EMBED Equation.3  =  EQ \f(Cost of goods sold,inventory)  (Eq. 4) Note that sales in this ratio are being measured at the firm's cost, as opposed to the full market value when sold. Since the inventory (the denominator) is at cost, we want to measure sales (the numerator) also on a cost basis. Otherwise, our answer would be biased. The inventory turnover for LM Manufacturing, along with the industry norm, is as follows: LM Industry  EMBED Equation.3  =  EQ \f(Cost of goods sold,inventory)  =  EMBED Equation.3 = 2.55  EQ \x(4.00)  We may have just discovered a significant problem for LM Manufacturing. It would appear that the firm carries excessive inventory. That is, LM generates only $2.55 in sales (at cost) for every $1 of inventory, compared to $4 in sales for the average firm. Going back to the current ratio and the acid-test ratio, we remember that the current ratio made the firm look better than did the acid-test ratio, which means that the inventory is a larger component of the current ratio than for other firms. Now we see that we are carrying excessive inventory, maybe even some obsolete inventory. These findings suggest that the inventory is not of the same quality on average as for other firms in the industry. Thus, the current ratio is probably a bit suspect. Testing Your Understanding: Evaluating Watsons Liquidity The following information is taken from the Watson Companys financial statements: Current assets $8,314 Accounts receivables $4,238 Cash $1,583 Inventories $1,271 Sales (all credit) $23,373 Cost of goods sold $19,097 Total current liabilities $8,669 Evaluate Watsons liquidity based on the following norms in the entertainment industry, found below: Current ratio 1.17 Acid-test ratio 0.92 Accounts receivable turnover 10.08 Inventory turnover 18.32 Check your answer a few pages later. Question 2: Is management generating adequate operating profits on the firm's assets? We now begin a different line of thinking that will carry us through all the remaining questions. At this point, we want to know if the profits are sufficient relative to the assets being invested. We could compare our question somewhat to the interest rate we earn on a savings account at the bank. When you invest $1,000 in a savings account, and receive $60 in interest during the year, you are earning a six-percent return on your investment ($60 $1,000 = 6%). With respect to LM Manufacturing, we want to know something similar to the return on our savings account, that being the rate of return management is earning on the firm's assets. In answering this question, we have several choices as to how we measure profits: gross profits, operating profits, or net profits after tax. Gross profit is not an acceptable choice because it does not include some important information, such as the cost of marketing and distributing the firm's product. Thus, we should choose between operating profits and net profits. For our purposes, we prefer to use operating profits, because it is independent of the company's financing policies. Since financing is explicitly considered in our next question, we want to isolate only the operating aspects of the company's profits at this point. In this way, we are able to compare the profitability of firms with different debt-to-equity mixes. Therefore, to examine the level of operating profits relative to the assets, we like to use the operating return on assets (OROA):  EMBED Equation.3  =EMBED Equation.3 (Eq. 5) LMs profits to assets relationship is presented in Exhibit 7. EXHIBIT 7 LM Manufacturing Profits to Assets Relationship for Fiscal Year Ended December 31, 2006  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  The operating return on assets for LM Manufacturing, and the corresponding industry norm, is shown below: LM Industry  EMBED Equation.3  =EMBED Equation.3 =  EMBED Equation.3 = 10.89%  EQ \x(13.2%)  Hence, we see that LM Manufacturing is not earning an equivalent return on investment to the average firm in the industry. For some reason, management is not generating as much income on $1 of assets as is their competitors. Evaluating Watsons Liquidity: How Did You Do? Watson Industry Current ratio 0.96 1.17 Acid-test ratio 0.81 0.92 Accounts receivable turnover 5.52 10.08 Inventory turnover 15.03 18.32 Watson is not as liquid as the average firm in the industryno matter how you measure it! They do not have the liquid assets to cover current liabilities, nor do they convert receivables and inventories to cash as quickly. If we were the managers of LM Manufacturing, we would not be satisfied with merely knowing that we are not earning a competitive return on the firm's assets. We would also want to know why we are below average. For more understanding, we may separate the operating return on assets, OROA, into two important pieces, these being the operating profit margin and the total asset turnover. The firm's OROA is a multiple of these two ratios, and may be shown algebraically as follows: OROA =  EQ \b(\a(Operating,profit margin)) X  EQ \b(\a(Total asset,turnover))  (Eq. 6a) or more completely, OROA =  EQ \F(Operating profits,Sales) X  EQ \F(Sales, Total assets)  (Eq. 6b) Looking at the first component of the OROA, operating profit margin, we can know that five factors or "driving forces" affect this ratio. The driving forces include: The number of units of product sold. The average selling price for each product unit. The cost of manufacturing or acquiring the firm's product. The ability to control general and administrative expenses. The ability to control the expenses in marketing and distributing the firm's product. These influences should become apparent if we look at the income statement and think about what is involved in determining the firm's operating profits or income. Total Asset turnover is a function of how efficiently management is using the firm's assets to generate sales. If Company A can generate $3 in sales with $1 in assets compared to $2 in sales per asset dollar by Company B, we may say that Company A is using its assets more efficiently in generating sales, which is a major determinant in the return on investment. Let's turn now to LM Manufacturing to see what we can learn. We would compute LM's operating profit margin and total asset turnover as follows: LM Industry  EQ \a(Operating,profit margin)  =  EQ \F(Operating profits,Sales)  =  EMBED Equation.3 = 12.16%  EQ \x(11%)   EQ \a(Total asset,turnover)  =  EQ \F(Sales,Total assets)  =  EMBED Equation.3 = 0.89  EQ \x(1.20)  Recalling that: OROA =  EQ \b(\a(Operating,profit margin)) X  EQ \b(\a(Total asset,turnover))  (Eq. 6a) We see that for LM Manufacturing, OROALM = 12.16% X 0.89 = 10.89% and for the industry, OROAInd = 11% X 1.20 = 13.2% Clearly, LM Manufacturing is competitive when it comes to keeping costs and expenses in line relative to sales, as reflected by the operating profit margin. In other words, management is performing satisfactorily in managing the five "driving forces" of the operating profit margin listed above. However, when we look at the total asset turnover, we can see why management is less than competitive on its operatinag return on assets. The firm is not using its assets efficiently. LM Manufacturing only generates $.89 in sales per one dollar of assets, while the competition is able to produce $1.20 in sales from every dollar investment in assets. Here is the company's problem. Testing Your Understanding: Evaluating Watsons Operating Return on Assets Given the following financial information for the Watson Company (expressed in $ thousands), evaluate the firms operating return on assets (OROA). Accounts receivables $4,238 Inventories $1,271 Sales $23,373 Operating profits $2,314 Cost of goods sold $19,097 Gross fixed assets $27,677 Accumulated depreciation $12,482 Net fixed assets $15,195 Total assets $49,988 The peer group norms are as follows: Operating return on assets 4.63% Operating profit margin 11.30% Total asset turnover 0.34 Accounts receivable turnover 10.08 Inventory turnover 18.32 Fixed assets turnover 1.05 Check your answers a few pagers later. We should not stop here with our analysis. We now know the basic problem, but we should dig deeper. We have concluded that the assets are not being used efficiently, but now we should try to determine which assets are the problems. Are we over invested in all assets, or more so in accounts receivable or inventory or fixed assets? To answer this question, we merely examine the turnover ratios for each respective asset. Turnover ratio for: LM Industry Accounts receivable  EQ \f(Sales,Accounts receivable)  = EMBED Equation.3  =10.64  EQ \x(10.43)  Inventories  EQ \f(Cost of goods sold,Inventory)  = 2.55  EQ \x(4.00)  Fixed assets  EQ \f(Sales,Fixed assets)  = 1.58  EQ \x(2.50)  LM Manufacturing's problems are now even clearer. The company has excessive inventories, which we had known from our earlier discussions, and also there is too large an investment in fixed asset for the sales being produced. It would appear that these two asset categories are not being managed well and the consequence is a lower operatinag return on assets. A detailed analysis of LMs OROA is presented in Exhibit 8. EXHIBIT 8 Analysis of LM Manufacturing Operating Return on Assets (OROA)  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  LM Mfg 10.89% Industry 13.2%  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  x  EMBED Equation.3  LM Mfg 12.16% LM Mfg 0.89X Industry 11% Industry 1.20X   EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3  LM Mfg 10.64 LM Mfg 2.55X LM Mfg 1.58X Industry 10.43 Industry 4.00X Industry 2.50X Question 3: How is the firm finaning its assets? We now turn our attention for the moment (we shall return to the firm's profitability shortly) to the matter of how the firm is financed. The basic issue is the use of debt versus equity. Do we finance the assets more by debt or equity? In answering this question, we will use two ratios (many more could be used). First, we will simply ask what percentage of the firms assets is financed by debt, including both short-term and long-term debt, realizing the remaining percentage has to be financed by equity. We would compute the debt ratio as follows: Debt ratio =  EQ \f(Total debt,Total assets)  (Eq. 7) For LM Manufacturing, debt as a percentage of total assets is 32 percent, compared to an industry norm of 40 percent. The computation is as follows: LM Industry Debt Ratio =  EQ \f(Total debt,Total assets)  =  EMBED Equation.3 = 32%  EQ \x(40%)  Thus, LM Manufacturing uses somewhat less debt than the average firm in the industry. Evaluating Watsons Operating Return on Assets How Did You Do? Watson generates a slightly higher return on it assets than the average firm in the industry, 4.63 percent compared to 3.84 percent. Watson provided a higher operating return on assets, not by managing its operations better (lower operating profit margin), but by making better use of its assets (higher total asset turnover). The higher total asset turnover is due to a higher fixed asset turnover, which makes up for the less efficient management of accounts receivables and inventories (low turnovers). Watson Industry Operating return on assets 4.63% 3.84% Operating profit margin 9.90% 11.30% Total asset turnover 0.47 0.34 Accounts receivable turnover 5.52 10.08 Inventory turnover 15.03 18.32 Fixed assets turnover 1.54 1.05 Our second perspective regarding the firm's financing decisions comes by looking at the income statement. When we borrow money, there is a minimum requirement that the firm pay the interest on the debt. Thus, it is informative to compare the amount of operating income that is available to service the interest with the amount of interest that is to be paid. Stated as a ratio, we compute the number of times we are earning our interest. Thus, a times interest earned ratio is commonly used when examining the firm's debt position, and is computed in the following manner:  EQ \a(Times,interest,earned)  =  EMBED Equation.3  (Eq. 8) For LM Manufacturing, LM Industry  EQ \a(Times,interest,earned)  =  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3 = 5.05  EQ \x(4.00)  LM Manufacturing is able to service its interest expense without any great difficulty. In fact, the firm's profit could fall by as much as 80 percent (($101,000 - $20,000) $101,000) and still have the income to pay the required interest. We should remember, however, that interest is not paid with income, but with cash and that the firm may be required to repay some of the debt principal as well as the interest. Thus, the times interest earned is only a crude measure of the firm's capacity to service its debt. Nevertheless, it does give us a general indication of a company's debt capacity. Testing Your Understanding: Evaluating Watsons Financing Policies Given the information below for Watson, calculate the firms debt ratio and the times interest earned. How does Watsons practices compare to the industry. What are the implications of your findings? Total debt $26,197 Equity Common stock $10,627 Retained earnings $13,164 Total liabilities and equity $49,988 Operating profits $2,314 Interest expense $793 Industry norms: Debt ratio 34.21% Times interest earned 4.50X Question 4: Are the owners (stockholders) receiving a reasonable and adequate return on their investment in the firm? Our last remaining question looks at the accounting return on the equity investment; that is, we want to know if the earnings available to the firm's owners or common equity investors is attractive when compared to the returns of owners of similar companies in the same industry. We measure the return to the owners as follows: Return on equity =  EMBED Equation.3  (Eq. 9) The return on equity for LM Manufacturing and the industry are 9.94 percent and 12.5 percent, respectively: LM Industry  EQ \a(Return,on equity)  =  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3 = 10.1%  EQ \x(12.5%)  It would appear that the owners of the LM Manufacturing Company are not receiving a return on their investment equivalent with owners involved with competing businesses. However, we may also ask the question, "Why not?" In this case, the answer would be twofold: First, LM Manufacturing is not as profitable in its operation as its competitors. (Remember the operatinag return on assets of 10.89 percent for LM Manufacturing, compared to 13.2 percent for the industry.) Second, the average firm in the industry uses more debt, which causes the return on common equity to be higher, provided of course that the company is earning a return on its investments that exceeds the cost of debt (the interest rate). The use of the debt, we must also note, increases the risk. An example will help us understand this point. Evaluating Watsons Financing Policies: How Did You Do? Watson Industry Debt ratio 52.41% 34.21% Times interest earned 2.92X 4.50X Watson uses significantly more debt financing than the average firm in the industry. It also has lower interest coverage. The higher debt ratio implies that the firm has greater financial risk. The lower interest coverage is the result of Watson borrowing more debt, resulting in a higher interest expense. The Effect of Using Debt: An Example. Assume that we have two companies, Firm A and Firm B. These two firms are identical in size, both having $1,000 in total assets and they both have an operatinag return on assets of 14 percent. However, they are different in one respect: Firm A uses no debt, while Firm B finances 50 percent of its investments with debt at an interest cost of 10 percent. Assuming there to be no taxes for the sake of simplicity, the financial statements for the two companies are as follows: Firm A Firm B Total assets $1,000 $1,000 Debt (10% interest rate) $0 $500 Equity 1,000 500 Total $1,000 $1,000 Operating income $140 $140 Interest expense 0 50 Net profit $140 $ 90 Computing the return on common equity for both companies, we see that Firm B has a much more attractive return to its owners, 18 percent compared to Firm A's 14 percent:  EQ \a(Return,on equity)  =  EQ \F(Net profit,Common equity)  Firm A:  EMBED Equation.3 = 14% Firm B:  EQ \f($90,$500) = 18% Why the difference? The answer is straight forward. Firm B is earning 14 percent on its investments, but only having to pay 10 percent for its borrowed money. The difference between the return on the assets and the interest rate, that being 14 percent less the 10 percent, flows to the owners. We have just seen the results of financial leverage at work, where we borrow at a low rate of return and invest at a high rate of return. The result is magnified returns to the owners. Testing Your Understanding: Evaluating Watsons Return on Equity The net income and also the common equity invested by Watsons shareholders (expressed in $ thousands) are provided below, along with the average return on equity for the industry. Evaluate the rate of return being earned on the common stockholders equity investment. In addition to comparing Watsons return on equity to the industry, consider the implications of Watsons operating return on assets and its debt financing practices for the firms return on equity. Net income $ 1,300 Equity Common stock $10,627 Retained earnings $13,164 Industry average return on equity 2.31% If debt is so attractive in terms of its ability to enhance the owners' returns, why would we not use lots of it all the time? We may continue our example to find the answer. Assume now that the economy falls into a deep recession, business declines sharply, and Firms A and B only earn 6 percent operatinag return on assets. Let us recompute the return on common equity now. Operating income $60 $60 Interest expense 0 50 Net profit $60 $ 10 Firm A:  EMBED Equation.3 = 6% Firm B:  EQ \f($10,$500) = 2% Now the use of leverage is negative in its influence, with Firm B earning less than Firm A for its owners. The problem comes from Firm B earning less than the interest rate of 10 percent and the owners having to make up the difference. We are now seeing the negative aspect of financial leverage. In other words, financial leverage is a two-edged sword; when times are good, financial leverage can make them very, very good, but when times are bad, financial leverage makes them very, very bad. Thus, we see that the use of financial leverage can potentially enhance the returns of the owners, but it also increases the uncertainty or risk for the owners. In conclusion, we see that the return on equity is a function of: The difference between the operatinag return on assets and the interest rate. The amount of debt used in the capital structure relative to the firm size. These relationships are also shown in Exhibit 9. EXHIBIT 9 Analysis of LM Manufacturing Return on Equity Relationships  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  Returning to the LM Manufacturing Company, we will remember that the operating return on investment is less than that of competing firms, so if the competing firms are paying comparable interest rates, the return on equity for LM Manufacturing will by necessity be less. Also, we observed that the average firm in the industry uses more debt, which magnifies the return on equity, but also exposes the owners to additional risk. So the return on equity for LM Manufacturing is less than competing firms for two reasons: (1) it has less operating profits, and (2) it uses less debt. The first reason needs to be corrected by improved management of the firm's assets. The second reason may be a conscious decision of management not to assume as much risk as other firms do. This latter issue is a matter of "tastes and preferences." Evaluating Watsons Return on Equity: How Did You Do? Watsons return on equity is 5.46 percent (5.46% = $1,300 million / $23,791 million common equity), compared to 2.31 percent for the industry average. Watsons return on equity is due to the firm having a higher operating return on assets and using a lot more debt financing than the average firm in the industry. While Watson certainly provides it stockholders a higher return on equity than other firms in the industry on average, it is still low compared to the Standard & Poors 500 firms, which have historically had an average return on equity of about 18 percent. Thus, the entire industry is struggling to give attractive returns to stockholders. To review what we have learned about the use of financial ratios in evaluating a company's financial position, we have presented all the ratios for the LM Manufacturing Company in Exhibit 10. The ratios are grouped by the issue being addressed, that being liquidity, operating profitability, financing, and profits for the owners. As before, we use some ratios for more than one purpose, namely the turnover ratios for accounts receivables and inventories. These ratios have implications both for the firm's liquidity and its profitability; thus, they are listed in both areas. Also, we have shown both average collection period and accounts receivable turnover; typically, we would only use one in our analysis, since they are just different ways to measure the same thing. Hopefully, seeing the ratios together will help us to see the overview of what we have done. EXHIBIT 10 LM Manufacturing, Company Financial Ratio Analysis Financial Ratios LM Manufacturing Industry 1. Firm liquidity  EMBED Equation.3 :  EQ \f(Current assets, Current liabilities)   EMBED Equation.3 = 3.51  EQ \x( 2.70)   EQ \a(Acid-test,ratio)   EQ \f(Current assets - Inventories, Current liabilities)   EMBED Equation.3 = 1.38  EQ \x( 1.25)   EQ \A(Average,collection,period)   EQ \f(Accounts receivable,Daily credit sales)   EMBED Equation.3 = 34.30  EQ \x( 35 )   EQ \a(Accounts,receivable,turnover)   EQ \f(Credit sales,Accounts receivable)   EMBED Equation.3 = 10.64  EQ \x(34)   EQ \a(Inventory,turnover)   EQ \f(Cost of goods sold,inventory)   EMBED Equation.3 = 2.55  EQ \x(4.00)  2. Operating profitability  EQ \a(Operating,return on,assets)   EQ \f(Operating profit,Total assets)   EMBED Equation.3 = 10.89%  EQ \x(13.2%)   EQ \a(Operating,profit margin)   EQ \F(Operating profit,Sales)   EMBED Equation.3 = 12.16%  EQ \x(11%)   EQ \a(Total asset,turnover)   EQ \F(Sales,Total assets)   EMBED Equation.3 = 0.89  EQ \x(1.20)   EQ \a(Accounts,receivable,turnover)   EQ \f(Sales,Accounts receivable)   EMBED Equation.3 = 10.64  EQ \x(10.43)   EQ \a(Inventory,turnover)   EQ \f(Cost of goods sold,Inventory)   EMBED Equation.3 = 2.55  EQ \x(4.00)   EQ \a(Fixed assets,turnover)   EQ \f(Sales,Fixed assets)   EMBED Equation.3 = 1.58  EQ \x(2.50)  3. Financing decisions  EMBED Equation.3   EQ \f(Total debt,Total assets)   EMBED Equation.3 = 32%  EQ \x(40%)   EQ \a(Times,interest,earned)   EQ \f(Operating income,Interest expense)   EMBED Equation.3 = 5.05  EQ \x(4.00)  4. Return on equity  EQ \a(Return,on equity)   EQ \F(Net income,Common equity)   EMBED Equation.3 = 10.1%  EQ \x(12.5%)  STUDY PROBLEMS 1. (Ratio Analysis) Using Pamplin Inc.'s financial statements for the two most recent years: a. Compute the following ratios for both 2005 and 2006 for Pamplin, Inc., from the financial statements provided. Industry Norm 2006 Current ratio 3.25 Acid test (quick) ratio 2.75 Inventory turnover 2.2 Average collection period 90 Debt ratio .20 Times interest earned 7.0 Total asset turnover .75 Fixed asset turnover 1.0 Operating profit margin 20% Return on common equity 9% b. How liquid is the firm? c. Is management generating adequate operating profit on the firms assets? d. How is the firm financing its assets? e. Are the common stockholders receiving a good return on their investment? Pamplin, Inc., Balance Sheet at 12/31/02 and 12/31/03 ASSETS 2005 2006 Cash $150 $125 Accounts Receivable 350 375 Inventory 475 550 Current assets 975 1,050 Plant and equipment 2,425 2,750 Less: accumulated depreciation (1,000) (1,200) Net plant and equipment 1,425 1,550 Total assets $2,400 $2,600 LIABILITIES AND OWNERS EQUITY 2005 2006 Accounts payable $200 $150 Notes payable--current (9%) 0 150 Current liabilities 200 300 Long-term debt 600 600 Owners equity Common stock 300 300 Paid-in capital 600 600 Retained earnings 700 800 Total owners equity 1,600 1,700 Total liabilities and owners equity 2,400 2,600 Pamplin, Inc., Income Statement for years ending 12/31/01 and 12/31/02 2005 2006 Sales $ 1,200 $ 1,450 Cost of goods sold 700 850 Gross profit 500 600 Operating expenses 30 40 Depreciation 220 200 Net operating income 250 360 Interest expense 50 64 Net income before taxes 200 296 Taxes (40%) 80 118 Net income 120 178 2. (Cash Flow Statement) Compute the cash flow for Pamplin, Inc., for the year ended December 31, 2006, both for the firm and for the investors. 3. For the Jarmon Company, compute the free cash flows and answer the four questions. For year ending June 30, 2007. T. P. Jarmon Company Balance Sheets For 6/30/03 and 6/30/04 2006 2007 Cash $ 15,000 $ 14,000 Marketable securities 6,000 6,200 Accounts receivable 42,000 33,000 Inventory 51,000 84,000 Prepaid rent 1,200 1,100 Total current assets $ 115,200 $ 138,300 Net plant and equipment 286,000 270,000 Total assets $ 401,000 $ 408,300 2006 2007 Accounts payable $ 48,000 $ 57,000 Notes payable 15,000 13,000 Accruals 6,000 5,000 Total current liabilities $ 69,000 $ 75,000 Long-term debt $ 160,000 $ 150,000 Common stockholders equity $ 172,200 $ 183,300 Total liabilities and equity $ 401,200 $ 408,300 T. P. Jarmon Company Income Statement For the Year Ended 6/30/04 Sales $600,000 Less: cost of goods sold 460,000 Gross profits $140,000 Less: expenses General and administrative $30,000 Interest 10,000 Depreciation 30,000 Total 70,000 Earnings before taxes 70,000 Less: taxes 27,100 Net income avail. to common 42,900 Less: cash dividends 31,800 To retained earnings $ 11,100 INDUSTRY NORMS Current Ratio 1.8 Acid Test Ratio .9 Debt Ratio .5 Times Interest Earned 10 Average Collection Period 20, days Inventory Turnover 7 Oper. Income Return on Invest. 16.8% Operating Profit Margin 14% Gross Profit Margin 25% Total Asset Turnover 1.2 Fixed Asset Turnover) 1.8 Return on equity 12% Dun and Bradstreet annually publishes a set of 14 key ratios for each of the 125 lines of business. Robert Morris Associates, the association of bank loan and credit officers, publishes a set of 16 key ratios for over 350 lines of business. In both cases the ratios are classified by industry and by firm size to provide the basis for more meaningful comparisons. We could also measure the accounts receivable turnover by dividing 365 days by the average collection period: 365/34.30 = 10.64. While our logic may be correct to use cost of goods sold in the numerator, practicality may dictate that we use sales instead. Most suppliers of industry norm data use sales in the numerator. Thus, for consistency in our comparisons, we too may need to use sales. We will often see the relationship stated in term of debt to equity, rather than debt to total assets. We come to the same conclusion with either ratio.     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