ࡱ> rr% ybjbj%% "(GGt4lzzzzzzz(((8(D6*lk2+;(;;;<<<kkkkkkk$l n6kz<<<<<6kDzz;;KkDDD<pz;z;kD<kDDH6czzdf;+ [,&(C@ddfak0kdoSCodfDzzzzPAYOUT POLICY What is payout policy? To explain payout policy, we will identify three potentially interrelated policy categories: investment policy, financial structure policy, and payout policy. These three policy areas define the range of financial decisions within the firm. Investment Policy: Investment policy defines the composition of a companys asset base, i.e., what it owns (what it has invested in). Two different asset bases (i.e., two different investment policies) may involve the same total dollar firm asset value but a different asset composition. A pure investment policy change involves no change in the companys financial structure policy or payout policy. Financial Structure Policy (also called Financing Policy): Financial structure policy sets the companys capital structure, that is, the proportion of each type of financing that the company employs at each date. Financing methods include common stock, preferred stock, preference stock, debt, warrants, and variations of all of these (e.g., multiple classes of common, convertible securities, and fixed and floating interest rate debt). A pure financial structure policy change involves no change in the companys investment policy or payout policy. Payout Policy: Payout policy defines what the company does with respect to cash distributions to stockholders (dividends and share repurchases) and to cash receipts from stockholders (from selling new shares). A pure payout policy change does not affect the companys investment policy (its asset base) or financial structure policy (its relative proportions of debt, equity, etc.). PAYOUT POLICY IRRELEVANCE IN PERFECT MARKETS WHAT ARE PERFECT MARKETS AND WHY DO WE CARE ABOUT THEM? A perfect market is characterized by competition, enforcement of contracts, and no transaction costs, information costs, or taxes (more precisely, no taxes that affect financial decisions). We are concerned about financial outcomes in perfect markets because the world in which we live is very roughly a perfect market system. Perfect markets capture most of the primary forces that dominate current market systems. The main drivers of perfect markets (for example, arbitrage, asset valuation based on cash flows, and financial decisions based on market values) include most of the principle drivers of real markets. So, a perfect market is a good place to start in analyzing the world. Of course, it is not the place to stop; important market imperfections exist and, in some cases, produce significant deviations from a perfect market outcome. PAYOUT POLICY IRRELEVANCE We will now show the following: Payout Policy Irrelevance Theorem (referred to as the Miller-Modigliani Dividend Policy Irrelevance Theorem): In perfect markets a pure payout policy change is irrelevant, i.e., it does not affect the value of the firms equity or the value of the firm as a whole. We will consider the impact equity value of an expected change in the firms future payout policy. Now is time 0 and one period from now is time 1, etc. Time 1 payout policy is defined by the time 1 dividends, time 1 treasury stock purchases, and time 1 new share sales. Time 0 shares refers to the shares outstanding at time 0 (which does not include any new shares issued at time 1). Time 0 shareholders refers to those who own the time 0 shares. For convenience (it is not necessary for the final result) assume that: New shares issued at time t do not receive dividends until time t+1. Shares purchased (treasury stock) at time t are ex-dividend (i.e., the shareholder who sells the shares back to the firm receives the time t dividend). Define the following variables.  EMBED Equation.3  = time 0 (ex-dividend) market value of all shares outstanding at time 0  EMBED Equation.3  = time 1 ex-dividend market value of all shares outstanding at time 1  EMBED Equation.3  = dividends paid at time 1 (paid on time 0 shares but not paid on new shares issued at time 1; new time 1 share start to receive dividends after time 1)  EMBED Equation.3  = time 1 market value of treasury stock purchases (share repurchases) at time 1  EMBED Equation.3  = time 1 market value of new shares issued at time 1 The time 1 net cash payout from the firm to equity investors in the market is referred to as equity cash flow (ECF). The time t equity cash flow ( EMBED Equation.3 ) equals:  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  +  EMBED Equation.3 (  EMBED Equation.3  (1) The time 0 value of the firms equity ( EMBED Equation.3 ) equals the present value of the time 1 cash received by the time 0 shareholders ( EMBED Equation.3  +  EMBED Equation.3 ) plus the time 1 market value of the shares that they hold. This can be expressed as (where r is the discount rate):  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  (2) where [ EMBED Equation.3 ( EMBED Equation.3 ] = time 1 market value of shares owned at time 1 by time 0 shareholders. For example, assume that the time 1 market value of all of the firms shares ( EMBED Equation.3 ) is $500, and the dollar value of new shares issued at time 1 ( EMBED Equation.3 ) is $150. Then the shares that were outstanding at time 1 are worth $350. Note two things. [I] Recall the earlier statement: A pure payout policy change does not affect the firms investment policy (its asset base) or financial structure policy (its relative proportions of debt, equity, etc.). That means that a change from time t payout policy A to time t payout policy B is a pure payout policy change only if the  EMBED Equation.3  is the same for both A and B. This is so because  EMBED Equation.3  is the net cash payout to equity. If the  EMBED Equation.3  is greater under A than under B, the assets remaining in the firm after the payout will be smaller with A than with B (which means that assets have changed, an investment policy change). [II] If a time t payout policy change does not affect the firms assets or liabilities (i.e., if the payout policy change is pure and  EMBED Equation.3  is unaffected), then it will not affect  EMBED Equation.3 .  EMBED Equation.3  will not be affected because it depends on cash flows to shareholders after time t, and this is unaffected by a pure payout policy change at time t. Let t = 1 in [I] and [II]. It follows that if a time 1 payout policy change from policy A to policy B is pure, then, by [1], it does not change  EMBED Equation.3 . And, by [II], the policy change does not affect  EMBED Equation.3 . But, by (2), this means it does not change  EMBED Equation.3 . That is, it is irrelevant. Example: Assume that before time 0 (that is, before now) the firm had announced that, at time 1 it would conduct the following payout transactions (this is the Old Payout Policy, or OPP): Old Payout Policy:  EMBED Equation.3  = $50,  EMBED Equation.3  = $40,  EMBED Equation.3  = $20 Notice that the above implies the following net outflow from the firm of:  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  +  EMBED Equation.3  (  EMBED Equation.3  = $50 + $40 ( $20 = $70 (3a) For a change from the Old Payout Policy (OPP) to a New Payout Policy (NPP) to be a pure change in payout policy it must also involve the same net equity cash outflow ( EMBED Equation.3 ); since  EMBED Equation.3  = $70, it must be that  EMBED Equation.3  = $70. That is: New Payout Policy: Any policy for which  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  +  EMBED Equation.3  (  EMBED Equation.3  = $70 (3b) Since the assets and liabilities at time 1 are the same with the OPP and the NPP, the total value of the equity at time 1 will be the same for OPP and NPP, i.e.,  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  (3c) Using (2) we have (given (3a), (3b) and (3c)):  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  (3d) Equity value is the same under OPP and NPP. Further Examples: The exhibit below shows five distinct dividend policies. . Exhibit 1. Various Payout Policies* PolicyTime 0 Initial SituationIIIIIIIVVTime 0 Assets$800$800$800$800$800Time 0 Liabilities$300$300$300$300$300Time 0 Equity$500$500$500$500$500Time 1 Payout PolicyTime 1 Dividends ( EMBED Equation.3 )$0$80$50$90$20Time 1 Treasur Stock ( EMBED Equation.3 )$0$30$100$10$85Time 1 New Shares ( EMBED Equation.3 )$0$110$150$40$45Time 1 Equity Cash Flow ( EMBED Equation.3 )$0$0$0$60$60Time 2 OutcomeTime 2 Assets$840$840$840$850$850Time 2 Liabilities$320$320$320$300$300Time 2 Equity$520$520$520$550$550 *Assume that I, II and III involve identical asset and liabilities compositions; similarly for IV and V. A change from policy I to policy II or III (or vice versa) is a pure payout policy change and is irrelevant. Similarly, a change from IV to V (or V to IV) is a pure payout policy change and is irrelevant. However, a shift from one of policies I, II or III, to one of policies IV to V is not a pure payout policy change. This is because  EMBED Equation.3  = 0 under I, II and III; but  EMBED Equation.3  = $60 under IV and IV. Under I, II or III, assets remaining within the firm are $60 greater than under IV or V. So, investment policy (the asset base) is different. The Price and Quantity of Newly Issued Shares and of Repurchased Shares: The value of newly issued shares is  EMBED Equation.3 , and the time 2 value of the firms equity is  EMBED Equation.3 . Let  EMBED Equation.3 ,  EMBED Equation.3 ,  EMBED Equation.3  and  EMBED Equation.3  signify the number of shares outstanding at time 0, the number of treasury shares purchased at time 1, the number of new shares issued at time 1, and the number of shares outstanding at time 2, respectively. We assume perfect markets, so everyone knows about the payout policy and new share sales. This means that prices are fairly established, and that all investors know  EMBED Equation.3 ,  EMBED Equation.3 ,  EMBED Equation.3  and  EMBED Equation.3  once management decides on its policy and announces the dividend and share repurchase. From the definition of the terms it follows that:  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  (  EMBED Equation.3  +  EMBED Equation.3  (4) The time 2 ex-dividend market price of a share,  EMBED Equation.3 , will equal:  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  (5a)  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  (5b)  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  (5c)  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  (5d) Equations (5a) through (5d) state that the time 2 price of a share,  EMBED Equation.3 , can be expressed in four ways. Equations (5a) through (5d) hold for the following reasons. Equation (5a) holds by the definition of  EMBED Equation.3 . Equation (5b) holds because the time 2 value of a time 0 share still outstanding at time 2 (the right-hand side of (5b)) must equal the market price of any other share at time 2. Equation (5c) holds because the price that new investors pay per new share (the right-hand side of (5c)) cannot be more than  EMBED Equation.3  in (5a) (or new investors will not buy the shares) or less than  EMBED Equation.3  (or the firm would not sell the shares). Equation (5d) holds because time 0 shareholders will not want the firm to pay more than  EMBED Equation.3  in (5a) for the shares since that is all that they will be worth at time 2; and anyone selling shares back to the firm will not take less than that price when selling a share to the firm. We could rearrange any of (5a) through (5c) to express a variable on the right-hand side in terms of the other variables. For example, (5a) implies that  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3 / EMBED Equation.3  Brealey, Myers & Allen (BM&A) Dividend Irrelevance Illustration: BM&A (see Section 16.5) provides an illustration of payout policy irrelevance that uses the above concepts. In the subsection Payout Policy An Illustration, BM&A compare two payout policies that involve the same investment and financial structure policies. BM&A therefore compare the following two payout policies (NPV signifies the net present value of the firms investment opportunity): Policy I: Pay No Dividend Pay no dividend; and adopt the positive NPV investment, financing it with $1,000 of firm cash. This produces  EMBED Equation.3 = $10,000 + NPV. Policy II: Pay a Dividend Pay a $1,000 dividend and finance the dividend by issuing $1,000 of new stock; and adopt the positive NPV investment, financing it with $1,000 of firm cash. This produces  EMBED Equation.3 = $10,000 + NPV. As BM&A note, the firm could pay a $1,000 dividend from firm cash, and not adopt the $1,000 investment. But that would violate BM&As assumption of no difference in investment policy for the two payout policies being compared. BM&A also point out that the firm could pay a $1,000 dividend and still adopt the $1,000 investment by issuing debt. But that would violate BM&As assumption of no difference in financial structure policy for the two payout policies being compared. To keep investment and financial structure policies the same for the two payout policies the firm must finance the dividend by issuing new shares. Under both Policy I and Policy II,  EMBED Equation.3  = 0 in equation (1) as shown below. Policy I:  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  +  EMBED Equation.3  (  EMBED Equation.3  = 0 ( 0 ( 0 = 0 Policy II:  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  +  EMBED Equation.3  (  EMBED Equation.3  = $1,000 + 0 ( $1,000 = 0 With  EMBED Equation.3  = 0 and  EMBED Equation.3  = $10,000 + NPV under both Policy I and Policy II, it follows from (3) that the time 2 wealth of the time 0 shareholders ( EMBED Equation.3 ) under the two policies is the same: Policy I:  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  +  EMBED Equation.3  = 0 + [$10,000 + NPV] = $10,000 + NPV Policy II:  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  +  EMBED Equation.3  = 0 + [$10,000 + NPV] = $10,000 + NPV BM&A assume NPV = $2,000, implying  EMBED Equation.3  = $10,000 + NPV = $12,000. So, under Policy I, the price per share is, using (5a),  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3 / EMBED Equation.3 = [$10,000 + NPV]/1,000 = $12,000/1,000 = $12. Under Policy II, the price of the time 0 shares (BM&As old shares) is solved using (5b).  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  = $11 (6) BM&A point out that, under Policy II, at time 2 the new shares must sell for the same price as the old (time 0) shares, which is $11 in (6) above. BM&A note that the number of new shares is 91, which is determined by rearranging (5c):  EMBED Equation.3 =  EMBED Equation.3 / EMBED Equation.3  = $1,000/$11 = 91. Brealey, Myers & Allen (BM&A) Share Repurchase Illustration: On pages 445-446, BM&A compare two policies, which we will refer to as Policy III and Policy IV: Policy III: Pay A Dividend Pay a $1,000 dividend and reject the negative NPV investment. This reduces firm cash by $1,000 and produces  EMBED Equation.3 = $9,000. Policy IV: Make a Treasury Stock Purchase Repurchase $1,000 of the firms shares and reject the negative NPV investment. This reduces firm cash by $1,000 and produces  EMBED Equation.3 = $9,000. Under both Policy III and Policy IV,  EMBED Equation.3  = $1,000 in equation (1) as shown below. Policy III:  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  +  EMBED Equation.3  (  EMBED Equation.3  = $1,000 ( 0 ( 0 = $1,000 Policy IV:  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  +  EMBED Equation.3  (  EMBED Equation.3  = 0 + $1,000 ( 0 = $1,000 Using equation (2b), the wealth of the time 0 shareholders under the two policies is the same: Policy III:  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  +  EMBED Equation.3  = $1,000 + $9,000 = $10,000 Policy IV:  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  +  EMBED Equation.3  = $1,000 + $9,000 = $10,000 Before the dividend or treasury stock purchase, each share of stock was worth $10 because equity value was $10,000 and the number of shares was 1,000. Under Policy III, a dividend of $1,000 is paid and therefore the firms equity value drops by $1,000, producing  EMBED Equation.3 = $9,000. The price per share at time 2 is computed using equation (5a), where  EMBED Equation.3 = $9,000 and  EMBED Equation.3  = 1,000; therefore, time 2 share price  EMBED Equation.3  = $9. Under Policy IV, $1,000 is spent in repurchasing shares and therefore the firms equity value drops by $1,000, producing  EMBED Equation.3 = $9,000. Since the shares were worth $10 each before the repurchase, the $1,000 will buy 100 shares (making  EMBED Equation.3  = 900). So, after the share repurchase, the firm has 900 shares. Using equation (5a), and noting that  EMBED Equation.3 = $9,000 and  EMBED Equation.3  = 900, time 2 share price  EMBED Equation.3  = $10. Another Illustration: The firm has 100 million shares outstanding at time 0. Management is considering the three payout policies (A, B and C) in Exhibit 1 below. Exhibit 1. Alternative Dividend Policies A and B (all amounts in $million) Policy EMBED Equation.3  EMBED Equation.3  EMBED Equation.3  EMBED Equation.3  EMBED Equation.3 [ EMBED Equation.3 (  EMBED Equation.3 ] EMBED Equation.3 A$30$0$0$30$8,000$8,000$8,030B$50$0$20$30$8,000$7,980$8,030C$80$40$90$30$8,000$7,910$8,030 Under policy A, the firm pays the shareholders a $30 (in $million) dividend out of firm cash. The time 0 shareholders end up with the $30 dividend plus stock worth $8,000 ([ EMBED Equation.3  (  EMBED Equation.3 ] = $8,000). This produces a wealth outcome for the time 0 shareholders of $8,030 ($30 + $8,000). Under policy B, the firm pays a $50 dividend, but to do so it reduces its cash by $30 and sells new shares worth $20. The time 0 shareholders receive the $50 dividend and have stock worth $7,980 (the $8,000 equity market value minus the $20 portion owned by the new shareholders). The result is a wealth outcome for the time 0 shareholders of $8,030 ($50 + $7,980). Notice that under policy B the firm has sold $20 of new shares and paid the proceeds to the time 0 shareholders as a dividend. The outcome would have been the same had the firm paid a $30 dividend and the time 0 shareholders simply sold $20 of their shares themselves in the marketplace. Under policy B, the $20 of cash proceeds from selling the new shares flows into the company, and then flows out of the company as a $20 dividend (the $20 portion of the dividend that was not financed from the firms existing cash balances). Under policy C, the firm pays an $80 dividend, buys $40 of the firms shares, and finances these payouts by selling new shares for $90 and reducing firm cash by $30. The time 0 shareholders receive the $80 dividend plus the $40 from selling shares to the firm, and they have stock worth $7,910 ($7,910 = $8,000 firm equity value minus the $90 portion owned by new shareholders). The wealth outcome for the time 0 shareholders is $8,030 ($80 + $40 + $7,910). Under policy C, the firm has sold $90 million of new shares and used the $90 million to pay dividends and buy back shares. The policy C outcome could have been achieved if the time 0 shareholders had sold $90 of their shares in the market and the firm had paid a $30 dividend from firm cash. Lets see if we can figure out, for each of policies A, B and C, the price per share at time 2 ( EMBED Equation.3 ) and also the number of treasury shares purchased ( EMBED Equation.3 ) and/or new shares issued ( EMBED Equation.3 ). We know from the assumptions that  EMBED Equation.3  = 100 million. Under policy A,  EMBED Equation.3  = 0 and  EMBED Equation.3  = 0; so, using equation (4),  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  (  EMBED Equation.3  +  EMBED Equation.3 =  EMBED Equation.3  = 100 million.  EMBED Equation.3  = $8,000 (in $million). The time 2 price of a share is, from equation (5a):  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  = $80 (7a) Under policy B,  EMBED Equation.3  = 0,  EMBED Equation.3  = $20 (in $million) and  EMBED Equation.3 > 0.  EMBED Equation.3  = $8,000 (in $million). At time 2, the time 0 shareholders still own  EMBED Equation.3  = 100 million shares and, from Exhibit 1, the value of those shares is $7,980 (in $million). Using this information equation (5b),  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  = $79.80 (7b) Also, rearranging equation (5c) and using  EMBED Equation.3  = $79.80 and  EMBED Equation.3  = $20 million, we have:  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  = 250,627 shares (rounded) (7c) Under policy C,  EMBED Equation.3 = $40 (in $million),  EMBED Equation.3  > 0,  EMBED Equation.3  = $90 (in $million) and  EMBED Equation.3 > 0.  EMBED Equation.3  = $8,000 (in $million). We have three unknowns:  EMBED Equation.3 ,  EMBED Equation.3  and  EMBED Equation.3 . Using equation (5b), (5c) and (5d) we have:  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  (7d)  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  (7e)  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3 =  EMBED Equation.3  (7f) We can use (7d) and (7f) to solve for  EMBED Equation.3  and  EMBED Equation.3 . Set the right-hand side of (7d) equal to the right-hand side of (7f) and solve for  EMBED Equation.3 . We find that:  EMBED Equation.3  = 503,145 (rounded) (7g) Substitute 503,145 for  EMBED Equation.3  in equation (7f) and solve for  EMBED Equation.3 . We find that:  EMBED Equation.3  = $79.50 (7h) Now use (7e) to solve for  EMBED Equation.3  using  EMBED Equation.3  = $79.50 from (7h). Substituting into (7e), we have: $79.50 =  EMBED Equation.3  (7i) Solving (7i) for  EMBED Equation.3 :  EMBED Equation.3  = 1,132,075 (rounded) (7j) TAXES Taxes change the picture. We will consider two aspects of the tax issue. First, we examine whether the firm should sell shares to pay dividends or to buy back shares, either of which would be pure payout policy change (because it would not effect equity cash flow; see the above discussion). Second, we consider whether a firm should retain funds or pay them out as dividends or through a treasury stock purchase. We will use the following definitions:  EMBED Equation.3 = tax rate on dividends payments  EMBED Equation.3  = effective tax rate on capital gains  EMBED Equation.3 = after-tax wealth of shareholders  EMBED Equation.3 is generally lower than the statutory rate, now at most 15 percent, because a shareholder can postpone the sale of the stock and thereby postpone capital gains tax. PURE PAYOUT POLICY CHANGES Selling Shares to Pay Dividends: Suppose first that Barker Corporation sells $X worth of new shares pays out the proceeds as a dividend. The new shareholders now own amount $X of the firms equity, and the old shareholders own $X of the firms equity. The sale of stock lowers the ownership interest in the corporation by $X. Change in  EMBED Equation.3  =  EMBED Equation.3  EMBED Equation.3  = (1 (  EMBED Equation.3 ) $X ( (1 (  EMBED Equation.3 ) $X = ( EMBED Equation.3  (  EMBED Equation.3 ) $X Under US tax law,  EMBED Equation.3  is typically less than  EMBED Equation.3 . The exception is a C-corporation for which the tax rate on dividends is less than the effective tax rate on capital gains. So, shareholders are in most cases worse off by an issuance new shares to pay dividends. Selling Shares to Buy Back Shares: You might think that this would be a wash; neither a gain or a loss. But it is not. Shareholders are now better off, and may be worse off, because the firm is forcing shareholders to sell a portion of their stock. Shareholders who do not want to reduce their share position, are worse off. MIXING PAYOUT POLICY, INVESTMENT POLICY AND FINANCIAL STRUCTURE POLICY Paying Dividends versus Buying Back Stock: Suppose that a firm plans to reduce its cash holdings by paying a dividend or by repurchasing shares. This is an investment decision; it is also a financial structure decision because a payout raises the debt-to-equity ratio. From a tax standpoint, a share repurchase is better because the effective tax rate on capital gains is less than the tax rate on dividends (because the capital gains tax can be postponed by not selling the shares). Furthermore, the dividend tax applies to the entire dividend, whereas the capital gains tax applies only to the amount paid for the shares less the tax basis on the shares (what was paid for the shares). Buying Back Stock versus Retaining the Cash to Produce a Capital Gain: Brealey, Myers and Allen (BM&A) provide an example showing that there is a tax advantage to retaining cash in the firm relative to paying a dividend. Assume that the firm will either pay out $Y as a dividend, or retain the $Y in the company. The BM&A argument makes at least two implicit assumptions: If the firm retain $Y it can earn, after corporate taxes, at least enough such that the retention will produce a capital gain of $Y. This would not be true if, for example, the corporate tax rate were very high. The firm will not misuse the $Y, e.g., make very low or negative net present value investments. The above implicit assumptions need not hold. WHY FIRMS PAY DIVIDENDS Transaction Costs: There are transaction costs in selling shares. It is inconvenient and there are brokerage costs. Those who want current income may prefer to receive a regular dividend. Discipline: Shareholders may find it easier to budget (i.e., to limit consumption spending) if they commit to spending only dividend income rather than having to sell shares to support consumption. . Information Content of Dividends: Dividends, and dividend increases, may be a cost effective way for the firm to signal the financial health of the company. Market Discipline Effect: Firms that have a medium or high dividend payout ratio will attract tax-exempt financial institutions as shareholders. These institutions are highly observant and demanding. A well-managed firm can signal its worth to the market by its willingness to attract these institutions as shareholders. Investment Opportunities: Unless a firm can invest its cash profitably, it better serves its shareholders by paying the funds out either as a dividend or through share repurchases. THE CLIENTELE ARGUMENT AND DIVIDEND IRRELEVANCE RESURRECTED Some taxpayers prefer capital gains, some are indifferent, and corporations may actually prefer dividends. At equilibrium, each firm has its clientele. Firms will adjust their dividend policy if they see an opportunity to increase value. At equilibrium, all clienteles are satisfied, and there is no way that a firm can change its policy and increase its value. In this way, a firm will find that dividend policy is irrelevant. Taking into account all factors, here are the natural clienteles as they relate to payout policy. 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