ࡱ> gibcdefB bjbj?? I]]T/L$I{ !!!!Vs!$!HHHHHHHJLXH!!!!!H4!!H444!V!!H4!H444-% ' 44H0$I4M4M444!!! u:    PART 2 MODULE 1 LOGIC: STATEMENTS, NEGATIONS, QUANTIFIERS, TRUTH TABLES STATEMENTS A statement is a declarative sentence having truth value. Examples of statements: Today is Saturday. Today I have math class. 1 + 1 = 2 3 < 1 What's your sign? Some cats have fleas. All lawyers are dishonest. Today I have math class and today is Saturday. 1 + 1 = 2 or 3 < 1 For each of the sentences listed above (except the one that is stricken out) you should be able to determine its truth value (that is, you should be able to decide whether the statement is TRUE or FALSE). Questions and commands are not statements. SYMBOLS FOR STATEMENTS It is conventional to use lower case letters such as p, q, r, s to represent logic statements. Referring to the statements listed above, let p: Today is Saturday. q: Today I have math class. r: 1 + 1 = 2 s: 3 < 1 u: Some cats have fleas. v: All lawyers are dishonest. Note: In our discussion of logic, when we encounter a subjective or value-laden term (an opinion) such as "dishonest," we will assume for the sake of the discussion that that term has been precisely defined. QUANTIFIED STATEMENTS The words "all" "some" and "none" are examples of quantifiers. A statement containing one or more of these words is a quantified statement. Note: the word "some" means "at least one." EXAMPLE 2.1.1 According to your everyday experience, decide whether each statement is true or false: 1. All dogs are poodles. 2. Some books have hard covers. 3. No U.S. presidents were residents of Georgia. 4. Some cats are mammals. 5. Some cats aren't mammals. EXAMPLE 2.1.1 SOLUTIONS 1. False (because we know that there is at least one dog that is not a poodle). 2. True (because we know that there is at least one book that doesnt have a hard cover). 3. False (because we know that there was at least one president who was from Georgia). 4. True (because there is at least one cat that is a mammal; in fact every cat is a mammal). 5. False (because we know that it is not possible to find at least cat that isnt a mammal) EXAMPLE 2.1.1 #1 above illustrates the following fundamental fact: In order for a statement of the form All A are B to be false, we must be able to demonstrate that there is at least one member of category A that isnt a member of category B. This is equivalent to demonstrating that A is not a subset of B. This means that a statement of the form All A are B is true even in the odd case where category A has no members. EXAMPLES 1.4.1 #4 and #5 illustrate the following fundamental fact: Although the statements Some are and Some arent sound similar, they do not mean the same thing. EXAMPLE 2.1.1* True story: in the spring of 1999, a man in Tampa, Florida was diagnosed with stomach cancer. He underwent surgery to have the cancer removed. During this procedure, the surgical team discovered that in fact there was no cancer after all; the original diagnosis was incorrect. After the surgery, the physicians told the patient "All of the cancer has been removed." Did the physicians lie? NEGATIONS If p is a statement, the negation of p is another statement that is exactly the opposite of p. The negation of a statement p is denoted ~p ("not p"). A statement p and its negation ~p will always have opposite truth values; it is impossible to conceive of a situation in which a statement and its negation will have the same truth value. EXAMPLE Let p be the statement "Today is Saturday." Then ~p is the statement "Today is not Saturday." On any given day, if p is true then ~p will be false; if p is false, then ~p will be true. It is impossible to conceive of a situation in which p and ~p are simultaneously true. It is impossible to conceive of a situation in which p and ~p are simultaneously false. NEGATIONS OF QUANTIFIED STATEMENTS Fact: "None" is the opposite of "at least one." For example: The negation of "Some dogs are poodles" is "No dogs are poodles." Notice that "Some dogs are poodles" is a statement that is true according to our everyday experience, and "No dogs are poodles" is a statement that is false according to our everyday experience. In general: The negation of "Some A are B" is "No A are (is) B." (Note: this can also be phrased "All A are the opposite of B," although this construction sometimes sounds ambiguous.) EXAMPLE 2.1.2 Write the negation of "Some used cars are reliable." Fact: "Some aren't" is the opposite of "all are." For example, the negation of "All goats are mammals" is "Some goats aren't mammals." Notice that "All goats are mammals" is a statement that is true according to our everyday experience, while "Some goats aren't mammals" is a statement that is false according to our everyday experience. In fact, it is logically impossible to imagine a situation in which those two statements have the same truth value. In general, the negation of "All A are B" is "Some A aren't B." EXAMPLE 2.1.3 Write the negation of "All acute angles are less than 90 in measure." EXAMPLE 2.1.4 Write the negation of "No triangles are quadrilaterals." WORLD WIDE WEB NOTE For practice in recognizing the negations of quantified statements, visit the companion website and try The QUANTIFIER-ER. LOGICAL CONNECTIVES The words "and" "or" "but" "if...then" are examples of logical connectives. They are words that can be used to connect two or more simple statements to form a more complicated compound statement. Examples of compound statements: "I am taking a math class but I'm not a math major." "If I pass MGF1106 and I pass MGF1107 then my liberal studies math requirement will be fulfilled." EQUIVALENT STATEMENTS Any two statements p and q are logically equivalent if they have exactly the same meaning. This means that p and q will always have the same truth value, in any conceivable situation. If p and q are equivalent statements, then it is logically impossible to imagine a situation in which the two statements would have differing truth values. Examples: "Today I have math class and today is Saturday" is equivalent to "Today is Saturday and today I have math class." This equivalency follows simply from our everyday understanding of the meaning ot the word "and." "This and that" means the same as "That and this." Likewise, "I have a dog or I have a cat" is equivalent to "I have a cat or I have a dog" This equivalency follows simply from our everyday understanding of the meaning ot the word "or." "This or that" means the same as "That or this." Logical equivalence is denoted by this symbol: ( Referring back to examples 1.4.1 #4 and #5 we saw that the statement "Some cats are mammals" was true, while the statement "Some cats aren't mammals" was false. This means that those two statements are NOT equivalent. The pair of statements cited above illustrate this general fact: "Some A are B" is not equivalent to "Some A aren't B." THE CONJUNCTION AND THE DISJUNCTION THE CONJUNCTION If p, q are statements, their conjunction is the statement "p and q." It is denoted: p ( q For example, let p be the statement "I have a dime" and let q be the statement "I have a nickel. Then p ( q is the statement "I have a dime and I have a nickel." In general, in order for any statement of the form p ( q to be true, both p and q must be true. Example: "Tallahassee is in Florida and Orlando is in Georgia" is a false statement. MORE ON THE CONJUNCTION The word but is also a conjunction; it is sometimes used to precede a negative phrase. Example: I've fallen and I can't get up" means the same as "I've fallen but I can't get up." In either case, if p is "I've fallen" and q is "I can get up" the conjunction above is symbolized as p ( ~q. THE DISJUNCTION If p, q are statements, their disjunction is the statement "p or q." It is denoted: p ( q. For example, let p be the statement "Today is Tuesday" and let q be the statement "1 + 1 = 2." In that case, p ( q is the statement "Today is Tuesday or 1 + 1 = 2." In general, in order for a statement of the form p ( q to be true, at least one of its two parts must be true. The only time a disjunction is false is when both parts (both components) are false. The statement "Today is Tuesday or 1 + 1 = 2" is TRUE. EQUIVALENCIES FOR THE CONJUNCTION ("AND") AND THE DISJUNCTION ("OR") As we observed earlier, according to our everyday usage of the words "and" and "or" we have the following equivalencies: 1. "p and q" is equivalent to "q and p" p ( q ( q ( p 2. "p or q" is equivalent to "q or p" p ( q ( p ( q For example, "I have a dime or I have a nickel" equivalent to "I have a nickel or I have a dime." Likewise, "It is raining and it isn't snowing" is equivalent to "It isn't snowing and it is raining." EXAMPLE 2.1.6 Suppose p and q are true statements, while r is a false statement. Determine the truth value of 1. ~q ( r 2. ~( r ( q) 3. ~[(p ( ~r) ( q] Solution for EXAMPLE 2.1.6 #2 We are given the statement ~( r ( q) where q is true, r is false. Substitute the value T for the variable q, and the value F for the variable r: ~(F ( T) Now, evaluate the expression inside the parentheses. A conjunction is only true in the case where both of its components are true, so in this case the expression inside the parentheses is false. Now the statement simplifies to: ~(F) The negation of false means the opposite of false, which is true. So, the truth value of the given statement, under the given conditions, is TRUE. WORLD WIDE WEB NOTE For practice problems involving the truth values of symbolic statements, visit the companion website and try The Logicizer TRUTH TABLES A truth table is a device that allows us to analyze and compare compound logic statements. Consider the symbolic statement p ( ~q. Whether this statement is true or false depends upon whether its variable parts are true or false, as well as on the behavior of the or connective and the negation operator. Later, we will make a truth table for this statement. A truth table for this statement will take into account every possible combination of the variables being true or false, and show the truth value of the compound statement in each case. EXAMPLE 2.1.7 As an introduction, we will make truth tables for these two statements 1. p ( q 2. p ( q Solution to EXAMPLE 2.1.7 #1 pqp(qTTTTFFFTFFFF Note that in this truth table there is only one row in which the statement p ( q is true. This the row where p is true and q is true. This conforms to our earlier observation that the only situation in which is conjunction is true is the case in which both of its component statements are true. Solution to EXAMPLE 2.1.7 #2 pqp(qTTTTFTFTTFFF Note that in this truth table there is only one row in which the statement p ( q false. This is the row where p is false and q is false. This conforms to our earlier observation that the only situation in which is disjunction is false is the case in which both of its component statements are false. THE BASIC RULES FOR CONSTRUCTING A TRUTH TABLE FOR A COMPOUND STATEMENT 1. The number of rows in the truth table depends upon the number of basic variables in the compound statement. To determine the number of rows required, count the number of basic variables in the statement, but don't re-count multiple occurrences of a variable. 1 variable---2 rows 2 variables--4 rows 3 variables--8 rows 4 variables--16 rows and so forth. 2. The number of columns in a truth table depends upon the number of logical connectives in the statement. The following guidelines are usually reliable. A. There will be one column for each basic variable; and B. To determine the number of other columns, count the number of logical connectives in the statement; do re-count multiple occurrences of the same connective. The ~ symbol counts as a logical connective. In addition to the columns for each basic variable, there will usually be one column for each occurrence of a logical connective. 3. The beginning columns are filled in so as to take into account every possible combination of the basic variables being true or false. Each row represents one of the possible combinations. 4. In order to fill in any other column in the truth table, you must refer to a previous column or columns. EXAMPLE 2.1.7 #3 Make a truth table for the following statement: (p (~q) (~p EXAMPLE 2.1.8 Make truth tables for the following statements: 1. p(~q 2. q(~(~p(q) Solution to EXAMPLE 2.1.8 #1 Step 1: Determine the number of rows required. Since the statement contains two basic variables, the truth table will require four rows, because 22 = 4. Step 2: Determine the number of columns required. There will be one column for each basic variable, and one column for each occurrence of a logical connective in the statement p(~q. This means that we will have a total of four columns. Step 3: Begin filling in the columns. The first two columns represent the basic variables p, q. We label them accordingly, and fill them in in such a way that each row takes into account a different combination of truth values for these basic variables. The configuration shown below is standard. pqTTTFFTFF STEP 4: Label the remaining columns, bearing in mind which simpler components are required in order to construct the statement p(~q. In order to construct the statement p(~q, we need a column for p and a column for ~q. The truth table already has a column for p and a column for q, so we now label the next column ~q. We fill in this column by referring to the values in the column for q; every entry in the column ~q will be the opposite of the corresponding entry in the column for q: pq~qTTFTFTFTFFFT Now that we have a column for p as well as a column for ~q, we can combine them to construct a column for p(~q . We fill in this column by referring to the columns for p and for ~q, and bearing in mind the behavior of the "or" connective: p(~q will be TRUE in any row where the column for p is true, or the column for ~q is true, or both; p(~q will be FALSE only in a row where the p and ~q are both false. pq~qp(~qTTFTTFTTFTFFFFTT This complete truth table shows the behavior of the statement in every conceivable situation. As we will see later, it can be used to compare the statement p(~q with other compound statements, and to identify other, different-looking statements that are equivalent to p(~q. WORLD WIDE WEB NOTE For practice problems involving truth tables, visit the companion website and try THE TRUTH TABLER TAUTOLOGIES Referring to the truth table for the statement q(~ (~p(q) in the previous example: notice that the column for that statement shows only "true." This means that it is never possible for a statement of the form q(~ (~p(q) to be false. A tautology is a statement that cannot possibly be false, due to its logical structure (its syntax). The statement q(~ (~p(q) is an example of a tautology. EXAMPLE 2.1.9 Is the statement (p(r)(~(p(q) a tautology? We can answer this question by making a truth table. EXAMPLE 2.1.9A Is the statement (p(~q)((~p(q) a tautology? We can answer this question by making a truth table. EXAMPLE 2.1.10 Compare the truth table column for p(~q (EXAMPLE 2.1.8 #1) to the column for ~(~p(q) (this is the second column from the right in the solution for EXAMPLE 2.1.8 #2). Solution to EXAMPLE 2.1.10 In making the comparison, we see that the two columns are identical: each column has "T" in the first row, "T" in the second row, "F" in the third row, and "T" in the fourth row. When two statements have identical truth table columns, the statements are equivalent. USING TRUTH TABLES TO TEST FOR LOGICAL EQUIVALENCY To determine if two statements are equivalent, make a truth table having a column for each statement. If the columns are identical, then the statements are equivalent. From EXAMPLE 2.1.10, we see that p(~q ( ~(~p(q) EXAMPLE 2.1.12 Use the result from EXAMPLE 2.1.10 to write a statement that is equivalent to "It is not the case that both I won't order a taco and I will order a burrito." Solution to EXAMPLE 2.1.12 If p represents "I will order a taco" and q represents "I will order a burrito" then the statement "It is not the case that both I won't order a taco and I will order a burrito" is symbolized as ~(~p(q). The result from EXAMPLE 2.1.10 tells us that ~(~p(q) is equivalent to "I will order a taco or I won't order a burrito." EXAMPLE 2.1.14 1. Use a truth table to determine whether ~(p(q) is equivalent to ~p(~q. 2. Use a truth table to determine whether ~(p(q) is equivalent to ~p(~q. 3. Use a truth table to determine whether ~(p(q) is equivalent to ~p(~q. 4. Use a truth table to determine whether ~(p(q) is equivalent to ~p(~q. EXAMPLE 2.1.15 Complete the following truth table. pq~p~qp(~q~p(q~(~p(q)~p(( p(~q)q(~(~p(q)TTFFTFFTFTTFFFTT Identify any equivalencies or tautologies. EXAMPLE 2.1.16 Make a truth table for ~(p(r)(q DeMORGAN'S LAWS From EXAMPLE 2.1.12 #2 and 1.4.12 #4 we have the following rules of logical equivalency: ~(p(q) (~p(~q ~(p(q) (~p(~q These two rules are called DeMorgan's Laws for Logic. Compare them with DeMorgans Laws for Set Mathematics (see Unit 1 Module 2). Although they are written as equivalencies, in fact they tell us how to write the negation of a conjunction or disjunction. In words: THE NEGATION OF A CONJUNCTION The negation of "p and q" is "not p or not q." THE NEGATION OF A DISJUNCTION The negation of "p or q" is "not p and not q." EXAMPLE 2.1.17 Use DeMorgan's Laws to write the negation of each statement: 1. I want a car and a motorcycle. 2. My cat stays outside or it makes a mess. 3. I've fallen and I can't get up. 4. You study or you don't get a good grade. Solutions to EXAMPLE 2.1.17 1. I don't want a car or I don't want a motorcycle. 2. My cat doesn't stay outside and it doesn't make a mess. 3. I haven't fallen or I can get up. 4. You don't study and you get a good grade. EXAMPLE 2.1.18 1. Select the statement that is the negation of "Today is Monday and it isn't raining." A. Today isn't Monday and it isn't raining. B. Today isn't Monday or it isn't raining. C. Today isn't Monday or it is raining. D. Today isn't Monday and it is raining. E. Today is Friday and it is snowing. 2. Select the statement that is the negation of "I'm careful or I make mistakes." A. I'm not careful and I don't make mistakes. B. I'm not careful or I don't make mistakes. C. I'm not careful and I make mistakes. D. I'm not careful or I make mistakes. E. I never make misteaks. EXAMPLE 2.1.19 1. Select the statement that is the negation of "I walk or I chew gum." A. I don't walk and I chew gum. B. I don't walk or I chew gum. C. I don't walk and I don't chew gum. D. I don't walk or I don't chew gum. E. I walk until I step on chewed gum. 2. Select the statement that is the negation of "I'm mad as heck and I'm not going to take it anymore." A. I'm not mad as heck and I'm not going to take it anymore. B. I'm not mad as heck or I'm not going to take it anymore. C. I'm not mad as heck and I am going to take it anymore. D. I'm not mad as heck or I am going to take it anymore. 3. Select the statement that is the negation of "All of the businesses are closed." A. Some of the businesses are closed. B. Some of the businesses are not closed. C. None of the businesses are closed. D. All of the businesses are open. E. All of my clothes are businesslike. 4. Select the statement that is the negation of the statement "Some pilots are pirates." A. All pilots are pirates. B. No pilots are pirates. C. Some pilots are not pirates. D. All pirates are pilots. EXAMPLE 2.1.20 'But wait a bit,' the Oysters cried, 'Before we have our chat; For some of us are out of breath, And all of us are fat!' "No hurry!' said the Carpenter. They thanked him much for that. Select the statement that is the negation of "Some of us are out of breath, and all of us are fat." A. Some of us aren't out of breath or none of us is fat. B. Some of us aren't out of breath and none of us is fat. C. None of us is out of breath and some of us aren't fat. D. None of us is out of breath or some of us aren't fat. ANOTHER EQUIVALENCY FOR THE "OR" STATEMENT Consider this disjunction: "You will behave or you won't get a reward." Can you think of another statement that conveys exactly the same meaning without using the word "or"? Fact: any statement of the form "p or q" can be written equivalently in the form "If not p, then q." This is denoted and will be discussed in detail in Module 1.5. Convince yourself that the warning You will behave or you wont get a reward conveys the same information as the warning If you dont behave, then you wont get a reward. A SUMMARY OF FACTS ABOUT THE CONJUNCTION AND THE DISJUNCTION. Equivalencies Statement Equivalent form p and q q and p p or q q or p p or q If not p then q Negations (DeMorgan's Laws) Statement Negation p and q not p or not q p or q not p and not q EXAMPLE 2.1.21 Select the statement that is logically equivalent to "I'm careful or I make mistakes." A. I'm careful and I make mistakes. B. I make mistakes and I'm careful. C. If I'm not careful, then I make mistakes. D. None of these. DIAGRAMMING CATEGORICAL STATEMENTS Diagramming is a technique involving the use of Venn diagrams to study the relationships between multiple categorical statements. It is particularly useful in situations involving two or three categories, and two or more categorical statements. When diagramming a universal statement, such as All dogs are mammals or No dogs are cats, we use shading to indicate that a certain region of the diagram must contain no elements. When diagramming an existential statement, such as Some dogs are poodles or Some dogs arent scavengers, we use an X to indicate that a certain region of the diagram must contain at least one element. If it is not certain which of two regions must contain an element, then we place an X on the border between the two regions. If a region of a marked diagram contains no marks, then it is uncertain whether that region contains any elements. EXAMPLE 2.1.22 Mark the diagram according to the statement No dogs are cats.  SOLUTION If no dogs are cats, then the part of the diagram where those two circles intersect must contain no elements. We use shading to indicate that a region of the diagram must contain no elements.  EXAMPLE 2.1.23 Mark the diagram according to both of these statements: All poodles are dogs and Some dogs are predators.  SOLUTION First, the universal statement All poodles are dogs asserts, indirectly, that a certain region of the diagram must contain no elements (and this is the only thing that such a statement asserts; in particular, a universal statement never asserts the existence of any elements).  Next, continue marking the diagram according to the existential statement Some dogs are predators. This means that there must be at least one element in the part of the diagram that is where dogs and predators intersect.  EXAMPLE 2.1.24 Suppose the marked diagram below conveys information about relationships between pirates, ruffians and scoundrels. We use shading to indicate that a region contains no elements. An X in a region indicates the existence of at least one element; an X on the boundary between two regions indicates that the union of those two regions contains at least one element. If a region is unmarked, then whether that region contains any elements is uncertain. Select the choice that must be true according to the marked diagram.  A. No pirates are ruffians and some ruffians arent scoundrels. B. No pirates are ruffians and some scoundrels arent ruffians. C. All pirates are ruffians and some ruffians arent scoundrels. D. All pirates are ruffians and some scoundrels arent ruffians. E. None of these is correct. PRACTICE EXERCISES 1. Suppose p is the statement 'You need a credit card' and q is the statement 'I have a nickel.' Select the correct statement corresponding to the symbols ~(p(q). A. You don't need a credit card and I have a nickel. B. It is not the case that either you need a credit card or I have a nickel. C. You don't need a credit card or I have a nickel. D. None of these. 2. Suppose p is the statement 'There are 1,000 meters in one kilometer' and q is the statement 'You will give me a cake.' Select the correct symbolization for the statement 'There are 1,000 meters in one kilometer or you will not give me a cake'. A. ~(p(q) B. p(~q C. p(~q D. None of these 3. Suppose p is the statement 'There are 1,000 meters in one kilometer' and q is the statement 'You will order a burrito.' Select the correct symbolization for the statement 'There are not 1,000 meters in one kilometer and you won't order a burrito'. A. ~p(~q B. ~(p(q) C. ~ p(~q D. None of these 4. Suppose p is the statement 'I play softball' and q is the statement 'The moon is 250,000 miles from Earth.' Select the correct statement corresponding to the symbols ~p(q. A. I don't play softball and the moon is 250,000 miles from Earth. B. It is not the case that either I play softball or the moon is 250,000 miles from Earth. C. I don't play softball or the moon is 250,000 miles from Earth. D. It is not the case that both I play softball and the moon is 250,000 miles from Earth. 5. Suppose p is false, q is false, s is true. Find the truth value of (s(p)((q(~s) 6. Suppose p is true, q is true, r is false, s is false. Find the truth value of (s(p)((~r(~s) 7. Suppose p is true, q is true, s is false. Find the truth value of (~s(p) ( (q(~s) 8. Suppose p is false, s is false, r is true. Find the truth value of ~[(s(p) ( ~r] 9. Suppose p is false, q is true, s is true. Find the truth value of (p(~q) ( ~s 10. Suppose p is false, q is true, r is false. Find the truth value of (p(~q) ( r 11. Suppose p is true, q is true, r is true, s is false. Find the truth value of (~p(s) ( (s(r) 12-17: Make a truth table for the given expression. 12. (~p(q) ( (p(~q) 13. (p(~q) ( r 14. ~[(p(~q) ( ~p] 15. (p(q) ( ~(~q(r) 16. (~p(q) ( (~p(q) 17. ~[(p(q) ( ~q] 18 21: In each case, decide whether the statement is true or false. 18. True or false: (~p(q) ( (~p(q)( ~[(p(q) ( ~q] Hint: refer to the answers to #16 and #17 above. 19. True or false: (~p(q) ( (p(~q) is a tautology. Hint: refer to the answer to #12 above. 20. True or false: (~p(q) ( (~p(q)( (~p(q) Hint: refer to the answer to #16 above. 21. True or false: (p(q) ( ~(~q(r) ((p(~q) ( r Hint: refer to the answers to #15 and #13 above 22. Select the statement that is the negation of All summer days are muggy. A. All muggy days are summer. B. Some summer days are muggy. C. Some summer days are not muggy. D. No summer days are muggy. 23. Select the statement that is the negation of Some weasels are cuddly. A. No weasels are cuddly. B. All weasels are cuddly. C. Some weasels are not cuddly. D. All cuttlefish are weasely. 24. Select the statement that is the negation of Coach Spurrier is charming and Coach Spurrier is modest. A. Coach Spurrier is not charming and Coach Spurrier is not modest. B. Coach Spurrier is not charming or Coach Spurrier is not modest. C. Coach Spurrier is not charming and Coach Spurrier is modest. D. Lets get serious for a minute. 25. Select the statement that is the negation of The speed limit is 55 and granny is driving 35. A. The speed limit is not 55 or granny is not driving 35. B. The speed limit is not 55 and granny is not driving 35 C. The speed limit is not 55 or granny is driving 35. D. The speed limit is not 55 and granny is driving 35. E. Counseling for road rage is available at 1 - 900 - calmdown. 26. Select the statement that is the negation of All circus clowns are undignified. A. All circus clowns are dignified. B. All cirrus clouds are indistinguishable. C. Some circus clowns are dignified. D. No circus clowns are dignified. 27. Select the statement that is the negation of You wear matching socks to the interview or you dont get hired. A. You dont wear matching socks to the interview or you get hired. B. You dont wear matching socks to the interview and you get hired. C. You dont wear matching socks to the interview and you dont get hired. D. If you dont wear matching socks to the interview, then you dont get hired. 28. Suppose the marked diagram below conveys information about relationships between pirates, ruffians and scoundrels. We use shading to indicate that a region contains no elements. An X in a region indicates the existence of at least one element; an X on the boundary between two regions indicates that the union of those two regions contains at least one element. If a region is unmarked, then whether that region contains any elements is uncertain. Select the choice that must be true according to the marked diagram.  A. No scoundrels are ruffians and some pirates arent scoundrels. B. All ruffians are scoundrels and some scoundrels arent pirates. C. No pirates are scoundrels and some ruffians are scoundrels. D. All ruffians are scoundrels and some pirates are ruffians. E. None of these is correct. ANSWERS TO LINKED EXAMPLES EXAMPLE 2.1.1* Although the physicians could have been more candid, from the point of view of logic they did not lie. EXAMPLE 2.1.2 No used car is reliable. EXAMPLE 2.1.3 Some acute angles are not less than 90 in measure. EXAMPLE 2.1.4 Some triangles are quadrilaterals. EXAMPLE 2.1.6 1. F 3. F EXAMPLE 2.1.7 #3 pq~p~qp(~q(p(~q) (~pTTFFFFTFFTTTFTTFFTFFTTFT EXAMPLE 2.1.8 #2 pq~p~q~p(q~(~ p(q)q(~(~ p(q)TTFFFTTTFFTFTTFTTFTFTFFTTFTT EXAMPLE 2.1.9 pqrp(q~(p(q)p(r(p(r )(~(p(q)TTTTFTTTTFTFTTTFTFTTTTFFFTTTFTTFTTTFTFFTFTFFTFTTTFFFFTFTThe truth table shows that the statement (p(r)(~(p(q) is a tautology. EXAMPLE 2.1.9A The statement (p(~q)((~p(q) is not a tautology. EXAMPLE 2.1.14 1. Not equivalent 2. Equivalent 3. Not equivalent 4. Equivalent EXAMPLE 2.1.15 pq~p~qp(~q~p(q~(~p(q)~p(( p(~q)q(~(~p(q)TTFFFTFFFTFFTTFTTFFTTFFTFTFFFTTFTFTF The truth table shows no tautologies. The truth table shows the following equivalency: p(~q ( ~(~p(q) EXAMPLE 2.1.18 1. C 2. A EXAMPLE 2.1.19 1. C 2. D 3. B 4. B EXAMPLE 2.1.20 D EXAMPLE 2.1.21 C EXAMPLE 2.1.24 D ANSWERS TO PRACTICE EXERCISES 1. B 2. C 3. A 4. A 5. Suppose p is false, q is false, s is true. Then (s(p)((q(~s) is F. 6. Suppose p is true, q is true, r is false, s is false. Then (s(p)((~r(~s) is T. 7. Suppose p is true, q is true, s is false. Then (~s(p) ( (q(~s) is T. 8. Suppose p is false, s is false, r is true. Then ~[(s(p) ( ~r] is T. 9. Suppose p is false, q is true, s is true. Then (p(~q) ( ~s is F. 10. Suppose p is false, q is true, r is false. Then (p(~q) ( r is F. 11. Suppose p is true, q is true, r is true, s is false. Then (~p(s) ( (s(r) is F. 12. (~p(q) ( (p(~q)  13. (p(~q) ( r  14. ~[(p(~q) ( ~p]  15. (p(q) ( ~(~q(r)  16. (~p(q) ( (~p(q)  17. ~[(p(q) ( ~q]  18. True 19. False 20. True 21. False 22. C 23. A 24. B 25. A 26. C 27. B 28. D PART 2 MODULE 2 THE CONDITIONAL STATEMENT AND ITS VARIATIONS THE CONDITIONAL STATEMENT A conditional statement is a statement of the form "If p, then q." The symbol for this "if...then" connective is the arrow: ( That is, the statement "if p, then q" is denoted p(q EXAMPLE 2.2.1 Let p represent "You drink Pepsi." Let q represent "You are happy." In this case p(q is the statement: "If you drink Pepsi, then you are happy." TERMINOLOGY "You drink Pepsi" is called the antecedent. "You are happy" is called the consequent. More generally, the antecedent is associated with the if part of a conditional statement, while the consequent is associated with the then part of a conditional statement. EXAMPLE 2.2.2 Let p be the statement "It rains." Let q be the statement "I stay home." Symbolize each statement. 1. If it rains, then I stay home. 2. It is not the case that if it rains, then I stay home. 3. If I don't stay home, then it doesn't rain. 4. It is not the case that if I stay home, then it doesn't rain. Solutions to EXAMPLE 2.2.2 1. p(q 2. ~( p(q) Note that in this case it is the entire ifthen statement, rather than just one or both of its components, than is being negated. 3. ~q(~p 4. ~( q(~p) For any conditional statement there are several other similar-sounding conditional statements. Some of these variations have special names. VARIATIONS ON THE CONDITIONAL STATEMENT Direct statement Converse Inverse Contrapositive If p, then q. If q, then p. If not p, then not q. If not q, then not p. p(q q(p ~p(~q ~q(~p EXAMPLES Direct statement: If you drink Pepsi, then you are happy. Converse: If you are happy, then you drink Pepsi. Inverse: If you don't drink Pepsi, then you aren't happy. Contrapositive: If you aren't happy, then you don't drink Pepsi. EXAMPLE 2.2.3 Symbolize this statement, taken from the instructions for IRS From 1040, line 10: If you received a refund of state income taxes or you received a refund of local income taxes, then, if your itemized deduction of state income taxes resulted in a tax benefit or your itemized deduction of local income taxes resulted in a tax benefit, then you must report this tax benefit as income. Let p: you received a refund of state income taxes q: you received a refund of local income taxes r: your itemized deduction of state income taxes resulted in a tax benefit s: your itemized deduction of local income taxes resulted in a tax benefit w: you must report this tax benefit as income World Wide Web Note For practice problems involving translation of statements from words into symbols and vice-versa, visit the companion website and try The Symbolizer EXAMPLE 2.2.4 Let p be the statement "You drink Pepsi." Let q be the statement "You are happy." Make a truth table for the statement p(q. The solution to the previous example illustrates the following: FUNDAMENTAL PRPOERTY OF THE CONDITIONAL STATEMENT The only situation in which a conditional statement is FALSE is when the ANTECEDENT is TRUE while the CONSEQUENT is FALSE. EXAMPLE 2.2.5 1. Let p represent a true statement, while q and r represent false statements. Determine the truth value of this compound statement: (p(~q)(r 2. Let p, s, and w represent true statements, while q, r and u represent false statements. Determine the truth value of this compound statement: ~p( {~[(q(~r)((w(~q) ([ u(~w]]} Hint for problem #2: This particular problem is not as complicated as it at first appears to be. World Wide Web Note For practice problems involving truth values of symbolic statements, visit the companion website and try The Logicizer. EXAMPLE 2.2.6 Complete the following truth table. pq~p~q~p(qp(~q(~p(q)(q(p(~q)((~p(q)TTFFTFFTFTTFFFTT World Wide Web Note For practice problems involving truth tables, visit the companion website home page and try The Truth Tabler. A FACT ABOUT EQUIVALENCY "If p, then q" is logically equivalent to "not p, or q" Symbolically: p(q ( ~p(q We can use a truth table to verify this claim. pq~pp(q~p(qTTFTTTFFFFFTTTTFFTTT EXAMPLE 2.2.7 Select that statement that is logically equivalent to: "If you don't carry an umbrella, you'll get soaked." A. You carry an umbrella and you won't get soaked. B. You carry an umbrella or you get soaked. C. You don't carry an umbrella and you get soaked. D. You don't carry an umbrella or you get soaked. E. You leave your umbrella in the classroom, so you get soaked anyway. THE NEGATION OF THE CONDITIONAL STATEMENT The negation of "if p, then q" is "p, and not q" Symbolically: ~(p(q) ( p(~q We can use a truth table to verify this claim. pq~qp(q~(p(q) p(~qTTFTFFTFTFTTFTFTFFFFTTFF EXAMPLE 2.2.8 1. Select the statement that is the negation of "If you know the password, then you can get in." A. If you don't know the password, then you can get in. B. You don't know the password or you can get in. C. You don't know the password and you can't get in. D. You know the password and you can't get in. 2. Select the statement that is logically equivalent to "If you pass MGF1106, then a liberal studies math requirement is fulfilled." A. If a liberal studies math requirement is fulfilled, then you passed MGF1106. B. You pass MGF1106 and a liberal studies math requirement is fulfilled. C. You don't pass MGF1106, or a liberal studies math requirement is fulfilled. D. You pass MGF1106, or a liberal studies math requirement is not fulfilled. 3. Select the statement that is the negation of "If you have income from royalties, then you must complete Schedule E." A. You have income from royalties and you must complete Schedule E. B. You have income from royalties and you don't have to complete Schedule E. C. You have income from royalties or you must complete Schedule E. D. You have income from royalties or you don't have to complete Schedule E. EXAMPLE 2.2.9 1. Select the statement that is the negation of "If we get a pay raise, then we will be content." A. If we don't get a pay raise, then we won't be content. B. We get a pay raise and we are content. C. We get a pay raise and we aren't content. D. We don't get a pay raise or we aren't content. 2. Select the statement that is logically equivalent to "If it is raining, then we will watch TV." A. It isn't raining or we don't watch TV. B. It isn't raining or we watch TV. C. It is raining and we watch TV. D. It is raining and we don't watch TV. E. It is not safe to watch TV in the rain. 3. Select the statement that is the negation of "If a dog wags its tail, then it won't bite." A. A dog wags its tail and it bites. B. A dog wags its tail and it doesn't bite. C. A dog doesn't wag its tail or it bites. D. If a dog doesn't wag its tail, then it will bite. SOME INFORMAL EQUIVALENCIES FOR THE CONDITIONAL STATEMENT "If p, then q" is equivalent to "All p are q." "If p, then not q" is equivalent to "No p are q." For example, "If something is a poodle, then it is a dog" is a round-about way of saying "All poodles are dogs." Likewise, "If something is a dog, then it isn't a cat" means the same as "No dogs are cats." EXAMPLE 2.2.10 1. Select the statement that is the converse of "If I had a hammer, I would hammer in the morning." A. If I didn't have a hammer, I wouldn't hammer in the morning." B. If I don't hammer in the morning, I don't have a hammer. C. If I hammer in the morning, I have a hammer. D. If I had a ham, I would eat ham in the morning. 2. Select the statement that is the inverse of "If it rains, then I won't go to class." A. If I don't go to class, then it rains. B. If it doesn't rain, then I will go to class. C. If I go to class, then it isn't raining. D. Since it's Friday I probably won't go to class, anyway. 3. From Shakespeare (Henry IV, Part II): Select the statement that is the negation of this line, spoken by Falstaff addressing Doll Tearsheet: "If the cook help [sic] to make the gluttony, you help to make the diseases." A. If the cook doesn't help to make the gluttony, you don't help to make the diseases. B. If you help to make the diseases, the cook helps to make the gluttony. C. If you don't help to make the diseases, the cook doesn't help to make the gluttony . D. The cook helps to make the gluttony and you don't help to make the diseases. FACTS ABOUT CONVERSE-INVERSE-CONTRAPOSITIVE The direct statement is equivalent to the contrapositive. p(q( ~q(~p The converse is equivalent to the inverse. q(p( ~p(~q However, the converse is NOT equivalent to the direct statement and the inverse is NOT equivalent to the direct statement. These claims can be verified by using truth tables. If you make a truth table having columns for all four statements listed above you will see, for instance, that the column for p(q is identical to the column for ~q(~p, but these two columns are different from the column for q(p and different from the column for ~p(~q. However, the column for q(p will be identical to the column for ~p(~q. EXAMPLE 2.2.11 1. Select the statement that is logically equivalent to "If today is Sunday, then school is closed." A. If today isn't Sunday, then school isn't closed. B. If school is closed, then today is Sunday. C. If school isn't closed, then today isn't Sunday. D. A, B, & C are all equivalent to the statement above. 2. Select the statement that is logically equivalent to "If you are a duck, then you aren't willing to waltz." (Adapted from Lewis Carrol.) A. If you aren't willing to waltz, then you are a duck. B. If you aren't a duck, then you are willing to waltz. C. If you are willing to waltz, then you aren't a duck. D. A, B & C are all equivalent to the given statement. 3. Select the statement that is NOT equivalent to "If I don't invest wisely, then I'll lose my money." A. I invest wisely or I lose my money. B. If I don't lose my money, then I invested wisely. C. I lose my money or I invest wisely. D. If I invest wisely, then I won't lose my money. World Wide Web Note For practice problems involving negations, equivalencies, DeMorgan's Laws and variations on the conditional statement, visit the companion website and try The Implicator. EXAMPLE 2.2.12 Select the statement that is logically equivalent to: "If all of my friends got hired, then some losers are gainfully employed." A. If some losers are not gainfully employed, then none of my friends got hired. B. If no losers are gainfully employed, then some of my friends didn't get hired. C. If some of my friends didn't get hired, then no losers are gainfully employed. D. If none of my friends got hired, then some losers aren't gainfully employed. EXAMPLE 2.2.13 A passage from Lewis Carroll: "And now, if e'er by chance I put My fingers into glue, Or madly squeeze a right-hand foot Into a left-hand shoe, Or if I drop upon my toe A very heavy weight, I weep,for it reminds me so Of that old man I used to know ..." Select the statement that is equivalent to "If I put my fingers into glue or squeeze a right-hand foot into a left-hand shoe or drop a heavy weight upon my toe, then I weep." A. If I don't weep then I don't put my fingers into glue or squeeze a right-hand foot into a left-hand shoe or drop a heavy weight upon my toe. B. I put my fingers into glue or squeeze a right-hand foot into a left-hand shoe or drop a heavy weight upon my toe and I don't weep. C. I don't put my fingers into glue and I don't squeeze a right-hand foot into a left-hand shoe and I don't drop a heavy weight upon my toe, or I weep. D. If I weep, then I put my fingers into glue or squeeze a right-hand foot into a left-hand shoe or drop a heavy weight upon my toe. EXAMPLE 2.2.14 "I didn't know I was to have a party at all," said Alice; "but if there is to be one, I think I ought to invite the guests." Select the statement that is the negation of "I didn't know I would have a party, but if I will have a party I will choose the guests." A. I knew I would have a party and if I won't have a party then I won't choose the guests. B. I knew I would have a party or, I will have a party but I won't choose the guests. C. I knew I would have a party or if I won't have a party then I won't choose the guests. D. I knew I would have a party and, I will have a party but I won't choose the guests. PRACTICE EXERCISES 1. Suppose p is the statement 'You eat carrots' and q is the statement 'You have good eyesight.' Select the correct statement corresponding to the symbols ~(p(q). A. You don't eat carrots or you have good eyesight. B. If you don't eat carrots then you have good eyesight. C. It is not the case that if you eat carrots then you have good eyesight. D. It is not the case that either you eat carrots or you have good eyesight. 2. Suppose p is the statement 'I pass my math course' and q is the statement 'I will change my major to nuclear physics.' Select the correct statement corresponding to the symbols ~p(q. A. It is not the case that if I pass my math course then I will change my major to nuclear physics. B. It is not the case that either I pass my math course or I will change my major to nuclear physics. C. I don't pass my math course and I will change my major to nuclear physics. D. None of these. 3. Suppose p is the statement 'You get a speeding ticket' and q is the statement 'Your insurance rate goes up.' Select the correct symbolization for the statement 'If your insurance rate doesn't go up then you don't get a speeding ticket'. A. ~p(~q B. ~q(~p C. ~q(~p D. None of these 4. Suppose p is true, q is false, s is true. Find the truth value of (~s(p)((~q(s) 5. Suppose p is true, q is true, s is false. Find the truth value of ~[(s(~p)((~q(s)] 6. Suppose p is false, q is true, r is true, s is false. Find the truth value of (~p(q)((r(s) 7. Suppose p is false, q is true, s is true. Find the truth value of (~p(q)((q(s) 8. Suppose p is false, q is true, r is true, s is true. Find the truth value of (p(q) ( (r(~s) 9. Suppose p is false, q is true, s is false. Find the truth value of ~[(s(~p) ( (~q(~s)] 10-18: Make a truth table for the given statement. 10. (~p(~q) ( ~(~p(r) 11. (p(q) ( (~p (q) 12. ~[(~p(~q) ( p] 13. (p(q) ( (p(q) 14. (~p(q) ( ~q 15. (p(q) ( ~r 16. ~[(~p(~q) ( q] 17. (~p(~q) ( r 18. ~[(~p(q) ( p] 19-23: Decide whether the given statement is true or false. 19. True or false: (p(q) ( (~p (q) is a tautology. Hint: refer to the answer to #11 above. 20. True or false: ~p (q((~p(~q) ( q Hint: refer to the answers to #11 and #16 above. 21. True or false: (~p(~q) ( r is a tautology. Hint: refer to the answer to #17 above. 22. True or false: (~p(q) ( ~q (~[(~p(~q) ( p] Hint: refer to the answers to #14 and #12 above. 23. True or false: (~p(q) ( ~q is a tautology. Hint: refer to the answer to #14 above. 24. Select the statement that is the negation of If you are a fish, then you have cold lips. A. You are a fish and you dont have cold lips. B. You are a fish or you dont have cold lips. C. You arent a fish or you have cold lips. D. If you arent a fish, then you dont have cold lips. 25. Select the statement that is logically equivalent to Class is cancelled or this is not my lucky day. A. Class is cancelled and this is not my lucky day. B. Class is not cancelled and this is my lucky day. C. Class is not cancelled or this is my lucky day. D. If class is not cancelled then this is not my lucky day. 26. Select the statement that is logically equivalent to If an offer sounds too good to be true, then Im interested. A. An offer sounds too good to be true or Im interested. B. An offer doesnt sound too good to be true, or Im interested. C. An offer sounds too good to be true and Im not interested. D. If Im interested in an offer, then it sounds too good to be true. 27. Select the statement that is the negation of If my computer breaks, then I wont be able to waste so much paper. A. If my computer doesnt break then I will be able to waste so much paper. B. My computer breaks and I am able to waste so much paper. C. My computer doesnt break or I am able to waste so much paper. D. If I am able to waste so much paper, then my computer didnt break. 28. Select the statement that is logically equivalent to If you want to be on my team, then you like getting bossed around. A. If you dont like getting bossed around, then you dont want to be on my team. B. If you dont want to be on my team, then you dont like getting bossed around. C. If you like getting bossed around, then you want to be on my team. D. A, B, & C are all correct. E. Stop whining and get to work. 29. Select the statement that is the negation of Some of us dont have our textbooks. A. None of us have our textbooks. B. Some of us have our textbooks. C. All of us have our textbooks. D. We have this website instead. 30. Select the statement that is logically equivalent to If you have passed MAC4411, then you cant receive credit for MGF1106. A. You havent passed MAC4411 or you cant receive credit for MGF1106. B. If you can receive credit for MGF1106, then you havent passed MAC4411. C. All of those who have passed MAC4411 are ineligible to receive credit for MGF1106. D. A, B and C are all correct. 31. Select the statement that is logically equivalent to You can pick your friends or you can pick your nose. A. You cant pick your friends and you cant pick your nose. B. You cant pick your friends or you cant pick your nose. C. If you cant pick your friends then you can pick your nose. D. ...but you cant pick your friends nose. 32. Select the statement that is logically equivalent to If you eat that day-old burrito, you will use lots of hot sauce. A. If you didnt use lots of hot sauce, then you didnt eat that day-old burrito. B. If you dont eat that day-old burrito, then you wont use lots of hot sauce. C. If you used lots of hot sauce, then you ate that day-old burrito. D. A, B, & C are all equivalent to the given statement. 33. Select the statement that is the negation of All bulldogs are sweet and some poodles are mean. A. No bulldogs are sweet and some poodles arent mean. B. No bulldogs are sweet or some poodles arent mean. C. Some bulldogs arent sweet and no poodles are mean. D. Some bulldogs arent sweet or no poodles are mean. 34. Select the statement that is the negation of If some bees fly into your face, then all of your plans for the day are ruined. A. If no bees fly into your face, then all of your plans for the day are ruined. B. If some bees fly into your face, then some of your plans for the day arent ruined. C. Some bees fly into your face and some of your plans for the day arent ruined. D. No bees fly into your face and none of your plans for the day are ruined. 35. Select the statement that is logically equivalent to If all of us are OK, then all of them are losers. A. If all of them are losers, then all of us are OK. B. Some of us are OK and all of them are losers. C. If some of them arent losers, then some of us arent OK. D. If some of us arent OK, then some of them arent losers. 36. Select the statement that is logically equivalent to If I lock my cat in the house, then she beats up the dog. A. I lock my cat in the house and she doesnt beat up the dog. B. I dont lock my cat in the house or she beats up the dog. C. If I dont lock my cat in the house, then she doesnt beat up the dog. D. None of these. 37. Select the statement that is the negation of If all things are considered, then I listen to public radio. A. If I dont listen to public radio, then some things arent considered. B. If all things are considered then I dont listen to public radio. C. Some things arent considered or I listen to public radio. D. All things are considered and I dont listen to public radio. 38. Select the statement that is logically equivalent to We make a first down or we punt. A. If we dont make a first down, then we punt. B. We punt or we make a first down. C. Both A & B. D. None of these. 39. Select the statement that is the negation of No campaign promises are sincere. A. Some campaign promises are sincere. B. Some campiagn promises are insincere. C. All campaign promises are insincere. D. All camping prom roses are sinister. 40. Select the statement that is logically equivalent to "No elephants are forgetful." A. If you aren't an elephant, then you are forgetful. B. If you are an elephant, then you aren't forgetful. C. If you aren't forgetful, then you are an elephant. D. All of these. 41. Referring to #28, select the converse of the given statement. 42. Referring to #30, select the contrapositive of the given statement. 43. Referring to #37, select the contrapositive of the given statement. 44. Referring to #35, select the inverse of the given statement. 45. Select the statement that is equivalent to "No beggars are choosers." A. If you aren't a beggar, then you are a chooser. B. All beggars are choosers. C. If one is a beggar, then one isn't a chooser. D. One is a beggar and one isn't a chooser. 46. Referring to #32, select the inverse of the given statement. ANSWERS TO LINKED EXAMPLES EXAMPLE 2.2.3 (p(q)([(r(s)(w] EXAMPLE 2.2.4 pqp(qTTTTFFFTTFFT EXAMPLE 2.2.5 1. T 2. T EXAMPLE 2.2.6 pq~p~q~p(qp(~q(~p(q)(q(p(~q)((~p(q)TTFFFFTFTFFTFTTTFTTFTTTTFFTTFTTT EXAMPLE 2.2.7 B EXAMPLE 2.2.8 1. D 2. C 3. B EXAMPLE 2.2.9 1. C 2. B 3. A EXAMPLE 2.2.10 1. C 2. B 3. D EXAMPLE 2.2.11 1. C 2. C 3. D EXAMPLE 2.2.12 B EXAMPLE 2.2.13 C EXAMPLE 2.2.14 D ANSWERS TO PRACTICE EXERCISES 1. C 2. D 3. C 4. Suppose p is true, q is false, s is true. Then (~s(p)((~q(s) is T. 5. Suppose p is true, q is true, s is false. Then ~[(s(~p)((~q(s)] is F. 6. Suppose p is false, q is true, r is true, s is false. Then (~p(q)((r(s) is F. 7. Suppose p is false, q is true, s is true. Then (~p(q)((q(s) is T. 8. Suppose p is false, q is true, r is true, s is true. Then (p(q) ( (r(~s) is T. 9. Suppose p is false, q is true, s is false. Then ~[(s(~p) ( (~q(~s)] is F. 10. (~p(~q) ( ~(~p(r)  11. (p(q) ( (~p (q)  12. ~[(~p(~q) ( p]  13. (p(q) ( (p(q)  14. (~p(q) ( ~q  15. (p(q) ( ~r  16. ~[(~p(~q) ( q]  17. (~p(~q) ( r  18. ~[(~p(q) ( p]  19. True 20. True 21. False 22. False 23. False 24. A 25. D 26. B 27. B 28. A 29. C 30. D 31. C 32. A 33. D 34. C 35. C 36. B 37. D 38. C 39. A 40. B 41. C 42. B 43. A 44. D 45. C 46. B PART 2 MODULE 3 ARGUMENTS AND PATTERNS OF REASONING An argument is formed when we try to connect bits of evidence (premises) in a way that will force the audience to draw a desired conclusion. Consider these two arguments, such as a prosecutor might present to a jury: 1. The person who robbed the Mini-Mart drives a 1989 Toyota Tercel. Gomer drives a 1989 Toyota Tercel. Therefore, Gomer robbed the Mini-Mart. 2. The person who drank my coffee left this fingerprint on the cup. Gomer is the only person in the world who has this fingerprint. Therefore, Gomer is the person who drank my coffee. One of these arguments is convincing, and one is not. Why? 1. The person who robbed the Mini-Mart drives a 1989 Toyota Tercel. Gomer drives a 1989 Toyota Tercel. Therefore, Gomer robbed the Mini-Mart. Evidence (premises): A. The person who robbed the Mini-Mart drives a 1989 Toyota Tercel. B. Gomer drives a 1989 Toyota Tercel. Desired conclusion: Therefore, Gomer robbed the Mini-Mart. 2. The person who drank my coffee left this fingerprint on the cup. Gomer is the only person in the world who has this fingerprint. Therefore, Gomer is the person who drank my coffee. Evidence (premises): A. The person who drank my coffee left this fingerprint on the cup. B. Gomer is the only person in the world who has this fingerprint. Desired conclusion: Therefore, Gomer is the person who drank my coffee. VALID ARGUMENTS In a well-formulated argument, it should be logically impossible to reject the conclusion if we accept all of the evidence ("the truth of the premises forces the conclusion to be true;" or "the conclusion is an inescapable consequence of the premises"). Such an argument is called VALID. On the other hand: INVALID ARGUMENTS An argument is poorly-formed if it is logically possible for the audience to believe all of the evidence and yet reject the conclusion. More formally: An argument is said to be INVALID if it is logically possible for the CONCLUSION to be FALSE even though EVERY PREMISE is assumed to be TRUE. The preceding statement may be referred to as the Fundamental Principle of Argumentation. It governs our entire discussion of arguments and reasoning. Notice that in the first argument given above, even if the jury believes all of the evidence, they don't necessarily have to believe the conclusion (because there are many people besides Gomer who drive 1989 Toyota Tercels). That is what makes the first argument invalid. Notice that in the second argument, however, if the jury believes all of the evidence, then they must accept the conclusion. That is what makes the second argument valid. Based on the Fundamental Principle of Argumentation, we have the following procedure that can be used to analyze arguments whose statements can be symbolized with logical connectives: TECHNIQUE FOR USING TRUTH TABLES TO ANALYZE ARGUMENTS 1. Symbolize (consistently) all of the premises and the conclusion. 2. Make a truth table having a column for each premise and for the conclusion. 3. If there is a row in the truth table where every premise column is true but the conclusion column is false (a bad row) then the argument is invalid. If there are no bad rows, then the argument is valid. EXAMPLE 2.3.1 Use a truth table to test the validity of the following argument. If the apartment is damaged, then the deposit won't be refunded. The apartment isn't damaged. Therefore, the deposit will be refunded. EXAMPLE 2.3.1 Solution Step 1: Symbolize the argument. Let p be the statement "The apartment is damaged." Let q be the statement "The deposit won't be refunded." The argument has this form:  EMBED Equation.3  Note: the triangular configuration of dots represents the word "therefore." Step 2: Make a truth table having a column for each premise and for the conclusion. PREM PREM CONC pqp(q~p~qTTTFFTFFFTFTTTFFFTTT Step 3: Look for the indication of an INVALID argument (a row where every premise is true while the conclusion is false). Notice that in the third row, both premises are true while the conclusion is false; this "bad row" tells us that the argument is INVALID. EXAMPLE 2.3.2 Use a truth table to test the validity of this argument. If I had a hammer, I would hammer in the morning. I don't hammer in the morning. Therefore, I don't have a hammer. EXAMPLE 2.3.2 Solution Step 1: Symbolize the argument. Let p be the statement "I have a hammer." Let q be the statement "I hammer in the morning." Then the argument has this form:  EMBED Equation.3  Step 2: Make a truth table having a column for each premise and for the conclusion. PREM PREM CONC pqp(q~q~pTTTFFTFFTFFTTFTFFTTT Step 3: Look for the indication of an INVALID argument (a row where every premise is true while the conclusion is false). Notice that there is no row where the conclusion column is false while both premise columns are true; the absence of a "bad row" tells us that the argument is VALID. COMMON PATTERNS OF REASONING: CONTRAPOSITIVE REASONING From the result in EXAMPLE 2.3.2 we have the following general fact Any argument that can be reduced to the form  EMBED Equation.3  will be a valid argument. This is a common form of valid reasoning known as Contrapositive Reasoning or Modus Tollens. EXAMPLE 2.3.3 Without making a truth table, we know automatically that this is a valid argument: If it rains, then I won't go out. I went out. Therefore, it didn't rain. Here is another example of Contrapositive Reasoning (in set language): All cats have rodent breath. Whiskers doesn't have rodent breath. Thus, Whiskers isn't a cat. Note: the previous argument agrees with the form Contrapositive Reasoning because it can be rephrased in "if...then" language: If one is a cat, then one has rodent breath. Whiskers doesn't have rodent breath. Therefore, Whiskers isn't a cat (where the individual "Whiskers" is taking the place of the general subject "one..." in the first premise). COMMON PATTERNS OF REASONING: FALLACY OF THE INVERSE Generalizing from the result of EXAMPLE 2.3.1 above, we see that any argument that can be reduced to the form  EMBED Equation.3  will be an invalid argument. This is a common form of invalid reasoning known as Fallacy of the Inverse. EXAMPLE 2.3.4 Without having to make a truth table, we automatically know that the following argument is INVALID: If you drink Pepsi, then you are happy. You don't drink Pepsi. Therefore, you aren't happy. Here is another example of Fallacy of the Inverse (in set language): All firefighters are courageous. Gomer the Bold isn't a firefighter. Thus, Gomer the Bold isn't courageous. EXAMPLE 2.3.5 "There's a fine line between clever and stupid." Nigel Tufnel, lead guitarist, Spinal Tap Can you discern the "fine line between clever and stupid" in these two arguments? Argument 1: If I get a huge tax refund, then I'll buy a Yugo. I didn't buy a Yugo. Therefore, I didn't get a huge tax refund. Argument 2: If I get a huge tax refund, then I'll buy a Yugo. I didn't get a huge tax refund. Therefore, I didn't buy a Yugo. EXAMPLE 2.3.5 Solution Argument 1 is VALID (it is Contrapositive Reasoning), whereas Argument 2 is INVALID (it is Fallacy of the Inverse). EXAMPLE 2.3.6 Use a truth table to test the validity of this argument. If one grows vegetables, then one is a gardener. Gomer is a gardener. Therefore, Gomer grows vegetables. COMMON PATTERNS OF REASONING: FALLACY OF THE CONVERSE Generalizing from the result of EXAMPLE 2.3.6, we have this fact: Any argument that can be reduced to the form  EMBED Equation.3  will be an invalid argument. This is a common form of invalid reasoning known as Fallacy of the Converse. EXAMPLE 2.3.7 Test the validity of the following arguments. If I eat Wheaties, then I am healthy. I am healthy. Therefore, I eat Wheaties. All great writers are philosophical. Thoreau was philosophical. Thus, Thoreau was a great writer. EXAMPLE 2.3.7 Solution Both arguments are INVALID, because they are examples of Fallacy of the Converse. It is not necessary to make the truth tables, although the truth tables will verify the claims that these arguments are invalid. EXAMPLE 2.3.8 Test the validity of this argument (from Aristotle): All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal. COMMON PATTERNS OF REASONING: DIRECT REASONING Any argument that can be reduced to the form  EMBED Equation.3  is a valid argument. This common form of valid reasoning is called Direct Reasoning or Modus Ponens. EXAMPLES The following arguments are automatically valid (because they are examples of Direct Reasoning): If I quit school, I'll sell apples on the corner. I did quit school. Therefore, I sell apples on the corner. In set language: All Gators are obnoxious. Steve is a Gator. Thus, Steve is obnoxious. No beggars are choosers. Diogenes is a beggar. Hence, Diogenes is not a chooser. Note: This last argument conforms to the pattern of Direct Reasoning because the statement "No beggars are choosers" can be rephrased as "If one is a beggar, then one isn't a chooser." EXAMPLE 2.3.8A Test the validity of each argument. 1. All men are mortal. 2. All women are normal. Socrates is a man. Socrates isnt a woman. Therefore, Socrates is mortal. Therefore, Socrates isnt normal. 3. All toads are wartful. 4. All edifices have portals. Socrates is wartful. Socrates doesnt have portals. Therefore, Socrates is a toad. Therefore, Socrates isnt an edifice. EXAMPLE 2.3.9 Test the validity of this argument: I have my keys or I'm locked out. I'm not locked out. Therefore, I have my keys. COMMON PATTERNS OF REASONING: DISJUNCTIVE SYLLOGISM Any argument that can be reduced to the form  EMBED Equation.3  will be a valid argument. This is a common form of valid reasoning known as disjunctive syllogism. Note: because the "or" connective is symmetric, this pattern can also be written as  EMBED Equation.3  EXAMPLE This argument is automatically valid: Socrates is in Athens or Socrates is in Sparta. Socrates isn't in Sparta. Thus, Socrates is in Athens. EXAMPLE 2.3.9A Test the validity of this argument: I walk or I chew gum. I'm walking. Therefore, I'm not chewing gum. COMMON PATTERNS OF REASONING: DISJUNCTIVE FALLACY Any argument that can be reduced to one of these forms:  EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3  is automatically INVALID. This incorrect attempt to use the disjunctive syllogism is called DISJUNCTIVE FALLACY. EXAMPLES The following arguments are INVALID, because they are examples of Disjunctive Fallacy; Today isn't Sunday or I can stay home. I can stay home. Therefore, today is Sunday. Fido is a poodle or has brown fur. Fido is a poodle. Therefore, Fido doesn't have brown fur. WORLD WIDE WEB NOTE For lots of practice in the art of using truth tables to analyze arguments, visit the companion website and try THE ARGUE-MENTOR EXAMPLE 2.3.10 Test the validity of the argument. If I get elected, I'll reduce taxes. If I reduce taxes, the economy will prosper. Thus, if I get elected, the economy will prosper. COMMON PATTERNS OF REASONING: TRANSITIVE REASONING Any argument that can be reduced to the form  EMBED Equation.3  will be a valid argument. This is a common form of valid reasoning known as Transitive Reasoning. EXAMPLE 2.3.10A The following arguments are valid because they are examples of Transitive Reasoning. If today is Monday, then tomorrow is Tuesday. If tomorrow is Tuesday, then the day after tomorrow is Wednesday. Therefore, if today is Monday, then the day after tomorrow is Wednesday. In natural language: All bulldogs are mean-looking dogs. All mean-looking dogs are good watchdogs. Therefore, all bulldogs are good watchdogs. EXAMPLE 2.3.10B The following argument is valid, because of Transitive Reasoning If I eat my spinach, then I'll become muscular. If I become muscular, then I'll become a professional wrestler. If I become I professional wrestler, then I'll bleach my hair. If I bleach my hair, then I'll wear sequined tights. If I wear sequined tights, then I'll be ridiculous. Therefore, if I eat my spinach, then I'll be ridiculous. The previous example illustrates an important property of Transitive Reasoning: This method of reasoning extends indefinitely. We easily can construct valid arguments that have as many "if...then" premises as we wish, as long as the fundamental pattern continues: namely, the antecedent of each new premise agrees with the consequent of the previous premise. EXAMPLE 2.3.11 Test the validity of this argument: If I get elected, I'll take lots of bribes. If I get elected, I'll reduce taxes. Thus, if I take lots of bribes, then I'll reduce taxes. Common patterns of reasoning FALSE CHAINS Any argument that can be reduced to one of these forms  EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3  will be invalid. These common forms of invalid reasoning are called False Chains. The following arguments are INVALID because they are examples of False Chains. If today is a state holiday, then school is closed. If today is Sunday, then school is closed. Therefore, if today is a state holiday, then today is Sunday. All cats are mammals. All cats are predators. Therefore, all mammals are predators. ARGUMENTS THAT DON'T CONFORM TO COMMON PATTERNS Common patterns of reasoning are useful in that they allow us to analyze arguments without having to construct truth tables. Of course, not every argument will conform to one of the familiar patterns that we have identified. EXAMPLE 2.3.12 Test the validity of the following argument. You have jumper cables or our date is cancelled. You have a credit card or our date is cancelled. Our date is cancelled. Therefore, you don't have jumper cables or you don't have a credit card. EXAMPLE 2.3.13 Test the validity of this argument: I got a scholarship and I got an "A" in math. I'm not good at logic or I got an "A" in math. Therefore, I'm good at logic or I don't get a scholarship. EXAMPLE 2.3.14 I will hire Gomer or I will hire Homer. If I don't hire Homer then I'm not having a bad hair day. I don't hire Gomer. Therefore I'm having a bad hair day. EXAMPLE 2.3.15 Test the validity of the following argument. If I want to be a lawyer, then I want to study logic. If I don't want to be a lawyer, then I don't like to argue. Therefore, if I like to argue, then I want to study logic. EXAMPLE 2.3.16 Test the validity of the following argument: If I buy cheap gasoline, then my car runs badly. If I don't change the oil, then my car runs badly. Therefore, if I buy cheap gasoline, then I don't change the oil. PRACTICE EXERCISES 1 27: Test the validity of each argument. 1. If I plant a tree, then I will get dirt under my nails. I didnt get dirt under my nails. Therefore, I didnt plant a tree. 2. If I dont change my oil regularly, my engine will die. My engine died. Thus, I didnt change my oil regularly. 3. All frogs are amphibians. All frogs have gills. Therefore, all amphibians have gills. 4. You will meet a tall, handsome stranger or you will stay home and pick fleas off of your cat. You didnt meet and tall, handsome stranger. Therefore, you stayed home and picked fleas off of your cat. 5. If I dont tie my shoes, then I trip. I didnt tie my shoes. Hence, I tripped. 6. All racers live dangerously. Gomer is a racer. Therefore, Gomer lives dangerously. 7. If you arent polite, you wont be treated with respect. You arent treated with respect. Therefore, you arent polite. 8. If you are kind to a puppy, then he will be your friend. You werent kind to that puppy. Hence, he isnt your friend. 9. If you drink Surge, then you wont fall off of your skateboard. You fell off of your skateboard. Therefore, you didnt drink Surge. 10. If I dont pay my income taxes, then I file for an extension or I am a felon. Im not a felon and I didnt file for an extension. Therefore, I paid my income taxes. 11. I wash the dishes or I dont eat. I eat. Thus, I wash the dishes. 12. All protons are subatomic particles. All neutrons are subatomic particles. Hence, all protons are neutrons. 13. All sneaks are devious. All swindlers are sneaks. Therefore, all swindlers are devious. 14. All superheroes wear capes. The Masked Gomer wears a cape. Hence, The Masked Gomer is a superhero. 15. All wolverines are cuddly. No weasels are wolverines. Thus, no weasels are cuddly. 16. If you want to be a used-car salesman, then you have to be a flashy dresser. You dont want to be a used-car salesman. Thus, you dont have to be a flashy dresser. 17. If an animal is cute, then it isnt a squid. This animal isnt a squid. Therefore, this animal is cute. 18. If you play golf during a thunderstorm, youll get hit by lightning. You didnt get hit by lightning. Therefore, you didnt play golf during a thunderstorm. 19. I will run for office or I will shut my mouth. I ran for office. Thus, I didnt shut my mouth. 20. If I am literate, then I can read and write. I can read but I cant write. Thus, I am not literate. 21. If it rains or snows, then my roof leaks. My roof is leaking. Thus, it is raining and snowing. 22. All cyclists wear helmets. Gomer doesnt wear a helmet. Therefore, Gomer isnt a cyclist. 23. All firefighters wear red suspenders. Gomer wears red suspenders. Therefore, Gomer is a firefighter. 24. All Yugo-owners are used to hitchhiking. Gomer isnt a Yugo-owner. Therefore, Gomer isnt used to hitchhiking. 25. If I lose my keys, then I cant start my car. If I lose my keys, then I cant get in my house. Therefore, if I cant start my car, then I cant get in my house. 26. If an animal is a squid, then it has tentacles. If an animal is an octopus, then it has tentacles. Therefore, if an animal is a squid, then it is an octopus. 27. If you are a fire-eater, then you work in the circus. If you dont like cotton candy, then you dont work in the circus. Therefore, if you are a fire-eater, then you like cotton candy. ANSWERS TO LINKED EXAMPLES EXAMPLE 2.3.6 Invalid EXAMPLE 2.3.8.A 1. Valid 2. Invalid 3. Invalid 4. Valid EXAMPLE 2.3.9 Valid EXAMPLE 2.3.9A Invalid EXAMPLE 2.3.10 Valid EXAMPLE 2.3.11 Invalid EXAMPLE 2.3.12 Invalid EXAMPLE 2.3.13 Invalid EXAMPLE 2.3.14 Invalid EXAMPLE 2.3.15 Valid EXAMPLE 2.3.16 Invalid ANSWERS TO PRACTICE EXERCISES 1. Valid (contrapositive reasoning) 2. Invalid (fallacy of converse) 3. Invalid (false chain) 4. Valid (disjunctive syllogism) 5. Valid (direct reasoning) 6. Valid (direct reasoning) 7. Invalid (fallacy of converse) 8. Invalid (fallacy of inverse) 9. Valid (contrapositive reasoning) 10. Valid (use truth table) 11. Valid (disjunctive syllogism) 12. Invalid (false chain) 13. Valid (transitive reasoning) 14. Invalid (fallacy of converse) 15. Invalid (false chain) 16. Invalid (fallacy of inverse) 17. Invalid (fallacy of converse) 18. Valid (contrapositive reasoning) 19. Invalid (not disjunctive syllogism) 20. Valid (use truth table) 21. Invalid (use truth table) 22. Valid (contrapositive reasoning) 23. Invalid (fallacy of converse) 24. Invalid (fallacy of inverse) 25. Invalid (false chain) 26. Invalid (false chain) 27. Valid (transitive reasoning) PART 2 MODULE 4 CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMS AND DIAGRAMMING Consider the following argument: Some lawyers are judges. Some judges are politicians. Therefore, some lawyers are politicians. Although the premises and conclusion of this argument sound reasonable, and although the structure of the argument looks similar to transitive reasoning, this argument is invalid. In order to show that the argument is invalid, all we have to do is conceive of a situation in which the conclusion is false, while both premises are true. In order to do so, it helps if we imagine a world with a small population of lawyers, judges and politicians. Suppose there are only two lawyers, Alice and Bill, and that Bill is also a judge, but Alice isn't. Suppose that in addition to Bill there is only one other judge, Carla, and Carla is also a politician, but Bill isn't a politician. Finally, suppose there is one other politician, Don, who isn't a lawyer and isn't a politician. In this conceivable world, some lawyers are judges (Bill), and some judges are politicians (Carla), but no lawyers are politicians. Since it is possible to conceive of a situation in which the conclusion is false while both premises are true, this argument is invalid. The previous argument is an example of a CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM, which is an argument involving two premises, both of which are categorical statements. Categorical statements are statements of the form "all are...," "none are..." or "some are..." A categorical statement of the form "all are..." is also called a positive universal statement. A categorical statement of the form "none are..." is also called a negative universal statement.A categorical statement of the form "some are..." or some arent is also called an existential statement. In this discussion we are primarily concerned with categorical syllogisms in which at least one premise is an existential statement, because such arguments cannot be analyzed using the methods of Unit 2 Module 1. Existential statements A statement of the form "Some are...," such as "Some lawyers are judges," is conceptually quite different from a universal statement, in that it cannot be restated in terms of logical connectives in any way that is of practical use. Whereas a positive universal statement such as "All cats are mammals" can be informally restated as "If __ is a cat, then __ is a mammal," and whereas a negative universal statement such as "No cats are dogs" can be restated as "If __ is a cat, then __ isn't a dog," it is not possible to make such a transition with an existential statement such as Some mammals are predators. This means that the techniques of Unit 2 Module 1, which are based on truth tables and logical connectives, are of no use for arguments involving the existential statement. Diagramming categorical statements There is an extensive literature on the topic of categorical syllogisms, dating back to medieval scholarship and earlier. This includes an impressive body of special terminology, symbols, and characterizations of forms, which a student might encounter in a more intense study of the subject, such as in a history of philosophy course. This discussion will be limited to the presentation of a method of analyzing categorical syllogisms through the use of three-circle Venn diagrams. This method is calleddiagramming. Individual statements are diagrammed as follows. 1. Use shading to diagram universal statements, by shading out any region that is known to contain no elements. 2. Use an "X" to diagram an existential statement. If a region is known to contain at least one element, place an "X" in that region. If it is uncertain which of two regions must contain the element(s), then place the "X" on the boundary between those two regions. 3. If a region contains no marking, then it is uncertain whether or not that region contains any elements. The marked Venn diagram below illustrates these ideas.  Diagramming categorical syllogisms To test the validity of a categorical syllogism, follow these steps. 1. In order to be valid, a categorical syllogism must have at least one premise that is a universal statement. If none of the premises is a universal statement, then the argument is invalid, and we are done. The following steps assume that at least one premise is a universal statement. 2. Begin by diagramming the universal premise(s). A universal statement will have the effect of shading (blotting out, so to speak) some region of the diagram, because a universal statement will always assert, directly or otherwise, that some region of the diagram has no elements. 3. Confining your attention to the part of the diagram that is unshaded, diagram an existential premise by placing an "X" in a region of the diagram that is known to contain at least one element. If it is uncertain which if two regions should contain the element(s), place the "X" on the boundary between those two regions. 4. After diagramming the premises, if the diagram shows the conclusion of the argument to be true, then the argument is valid. If the diagram shows the conclusion to be uncertain or false, then the argument is invalid. 5. If all the statements in the argument are universal statements, then the argument can be analyzed in terms of transitive reasoning or false chains (see Unit 2 Module 1), and so diagramming is unnecessary. 6. If the both remises are universal statements but the conclusion is an existential statement, then the argument is invalid. No diagram is necessary. You cannot deduce some from all or none. EXAMPLE A Use diagramming to test the validity of this argument: No terriers are timid. Some bulldogs are terriers. Therefore, some bulldogs are not timid. SOLUTION We will mark this three-circle Venn diagram, which shows the sets "terriers," "bulldogs" and "timid (things):"  First, diagram the negative universal premise "No terriers are timid." According to this premise, the overlap of those two sets contains no elements, so that part of the diagram is shaded, or "blotted out."  Next, diagram the existential premise "Some bulldogs are terriers" by placing an "X" in the appropriate location in the unshaded portion of the diagram.  Now that both premises have been diagrammed, check to see if the marked diagram shows the conclusion to be true.  Because the marked diagram shows that the conclusion is true, the argument is valid. EXAMPLE B Use diagramming to test the validity of this argument. Some useful things are interesting. All widgets are interesting. Therefore, some widgets are useful. SOLUTION We can use this three-circle Venn diagram, shows the sets of widgets, interesting (things) and useful (things):  Start by diagramming the universal premise, "All widgets are interesting."  Next, diagram the existential premise, "Some useful things are interesting." This means that there must be at least one element in the overlap of those two circles. However, that overlap entails two regions, and it is uncertain as which of those two regions contains the element(s), so we place an "X" on their border.  Now that we have diagrammed both premises, we check to see if the marked diagram shows the conclusion, "Some widgets are useful," to be true.  The argument is invalid, because the diagram shows that, based on those premises, the conclusion is not certain. That is, the X is not in the part of the diagram where widgets and useful intersect. EXAMPLE 2.4.1 Test the validity of this argument: All elephants are huge creatures. Some huge creatures have tusks. Therefore, some elephants have tusks. EXAMPLE 2.4.1 SOLUTION Use shading to diagram the universal premise All elephants are huge creatures. Shading indicates that a region has no elements.  Next, use an X to diagram the existential premise Some huge creatures have tusks.  Now that both premises have been diagrammed, if the marked diagram shows that the conclusion is true, then the argument is valid. If the marked diagram shows that the conclusion is false or uncertain, then the argument is invalid.  EXAMPLE 2.4.2 Test the validity of the argument: All porpoises are intelligent. Some sea mammals are porpoises. Therefore, some sea mammals are intelligent. EXAMPLE 2.4.2 SOLUTION First use shading to diagram the universal premise.  Next use an X to diagram the existential premise.  If the marked diagram shows that the conclusion is true, then the argument is valid. If the marked diagram shows that the conclusion is uncertain or false, then the argument is invalid.  EXAMPLE 2.4.3 Test the validity of the argument: All cows like to chew. Some dairy animals don't like to chew. Therefore, some dairy animals aren't cows. EXAMPLE 2.4.4 Test the validity of the argument: Some lawyers are judges. Some judges are politicians. Therefore, some lawyers are politicians. WORLD WIDE WEB NOTE For practice on arguments involving categorical syllogisms and diagramming, visit the companion website and try The CATEGORIZER. EXAMPLE 2.4.6 Test the validity of each argument. A. Some fish are tasty. All fish can swim. Therefore, some tasty things can swim. B. Some doctors are dentists. Some dentists are surgeons. Therefore, some doctors are surgeons. C. All hogs are smelly. Some swine aren't hogs. Therefore, some swine aren't smelly. D. All burglars are criminals. Some thieves are criminals. Therefore, some burglars are thieves. E. Some food preparers aren't cooks. All chefs are cooks. Some food preparers aren't chefs. F. No thieves are saintly. Some congressmen are thieves. Therefore, some congressmen arent saintly. EXAMPLE 2.4.7 Consider these premises: All poodles are dogs. All dogs bark. We should easily recognize that a valid conclusion is "All poodles bark." Question: since "All poodles bark" is a valid conclusion, wouldn't "Some poodles bark" also be a valid conclusion? After all, "some" sounds like a softer condition than "all," so common sense suggests that "some A are B" should be a valid conclusion whenever "all A are B" is a valid conclusion. However, the answer to the question above is "no." In fact, "all" does not imply "some," due to this peculiarity of the word "all:" A statement like "All poodles bite" is true even if there were no poodles. In other words, if all of the poodles went extinct, the statement "All poodles bite" would still be (vacuously) true, but the statement "Some poodles bite" would be false (because "some poodles bites" means that there must be at least one poodle). This example gives rise to the following observation, which holds for all arguments. If every premise in an argument has the form "All are...," or None are a valid conclusion will not have the form "Some are..." (unless a premise specifies that all of the sets in the argument are non-empty). PRACTICE EXERCISES 1 - 18: Test the validity of each argument. 1. All horses have hooves. Some horses eat oats. Therefore, some oat-eaters have hooves. 2. Some mammals are bats. All bats can fly. Thus, some mammals can fly. 3. No dogs can talk. Some searchers are dogs. Thus, some searchers cant talk. 4. Some squirrels fly. Some squirrels gather acorns. Therefore, some acorn-gatherers fly. 5. Some scavengers eat road-kill. All crows eat road-kill. Therefore, all crows are scavengers. 6. All successful politicians are persuasive. Some lawyers are persuasive. Thus, some lawyers are successful politicians. 7. Some skaters drink Surge. Some skaters drink Citra. Therefore, some Surge drinkers are Citra drinkers. 8. All tattooers are body-artists. Some tattooers drive Harleys. Therefore, some body-artists drive Harleys. 9. Some multiple-choice questions are tricky. No easy questions are tricky. Therefore, some multiple-choice questions are not easy. 10. Some snails live under rocks. All snails are slimy. Therefore, some things that live under rocks are slimy. 11. All primates are curious. Some primates are carnivores. Thus, some carnivores are curious. 12. All astronauts are bold. Some pilots are not bold. Therefore, some astronauts are not pilots. 13. Some ants are aggressive. All ants are insects. Therefore, some insects are aggressive. 14. All plumbers use monkey wrenches. Some mechanics dont use monkey wrenches. Hence, some mechanics arent plumbers. 15. All spies are secretive. Some agents arent spies. Therefore, some agents arent secretive. 16. Some poodles yap too much. Some dogs are poodles. Therefore, some dogs yap too much. 17. Some poodles are dogs. All poodles yap too much. Thus, some dogs yap too much. 18. All senators are politicians. Some corrupt people arent politicians. Therefore, some corrupt people arent senators. ANSWERS TO LINKED EXAMPLES EXAMPLE 2.4.3 Valid EXAMPLE 2.4.4 Invalid EXAMPLE 2.4.6 A. Valid B. Invalid C. Invalid D. Invalid E. Valid F. Valid ANSWERS TO PRACTICE EXERCISES 1. Valid 2. Valid 3. Valid 4. Invalid 5. Invalid 6. Invalid 7. Invalid 8. Valid 9. Valid 10. Valid 11. Valid 12. Invalid 13. Valid 14. Valid 15. Invalid 16. Invalid 17. Valid 18. Valid PART 2 MODULE 5 ANALYZING PREMISES, FORMING CONCLUSIONS First, we define a Trivial Valid Conclusion No matter how poorly formulated an argument may be, it is always possible to form a valid conclusion by merely restating one of the premises and calling it the conclusion. Such a conclusion is called a trivial valid conclusion. EXAMPLES OF ARGUMENTS HAVING TRIVIAL VALID CONCLUSIONS 1. It is raining. Therefore, it is raining. 2. My feet hurt and I'm having a bad hair day. Therefore, my feet hurt. 3. If I work hard, then I will succeed. I succeeded. Therefore, I succeeded. In the work that follows, we will analyze collections of premises in order to recognize whether valid conclusions are possible. In all cases, we will exclude trivial conclusions. We begin this module with a summary of important results observed in Unit 2, Module 1. SUMMARY: SOME COMMON PATTERNS OF VALID REASONING DIRECT REASONING CONTRAPOSITIVE REASONING  EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3  DISJUNCTIVE SYLLOGISMS TRANSITIVE REASONING  EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3  SUMMARY: SOME COMMON PATTERNS OF INVALID REASONING FALLACY OF THE CONVERSE FALLACY OF THE INVERSE  EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3  DISJUNCTIVE FALLACIES FALSE CHAINS  EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3  These patterns of reasoning are especially useful for exercises like the following example: EXAMPLE 2.5.1 Select the statement that is a valid conclusion from the following premises, if a valid conclusion is warranted. I use my computer or I don't get anything done. I get something done. A. I use my computer. B. I don't use my computer. C. I use an abacus. D. None of these is warranted. EXAMPLE 2.5.1 Solution This argument problem differs from the earlier examples in that we aren't given a conclusion for the argument. This means that if we try to use a truth table to analyze the argument, we may not be sure what statement to use in the "conclusion" column. However, it is easily solved by reference to the patterns of reasoning summarized above. We symbolize the premises: Let p be the statement "I use my computer." Let q be the statement "I don't get anything done." Then the symbolic representation for the two premises has this form:  EMBED Equation.3  Now we observe that this is the premise arrangement for one form of Disjunctive Syllogism, which is a form of valid reasoning. The pattern tells us that we can form a non-trivial valid conclusion:  EMBED Equation.3  That is, when Therefore, p is attached as the conclusion we will have a valid argument. This means that a valid conclusion is warranted, namely "I use my computer," which is choice A. EXAMPLE 2.5.2 Select the statement that is a valid conclusion from the following premises, if a valid conclusion is warranted. If I win the Lotto, then I'll reform my life. I reformed my life. A. I didn't win the Lotto. B. I'll run for President as the Reform Party nominee. C. I won the Lotto. D. None of these is warranted. EXAMPLE 2.5.2 solution Let p be the statement I win the Lotto. Let q be the statement I reform my life. The premise arrangement has this symbolic form:  EMBED Equation.3  We recognize that this is the premise arrangement for an invalid argument (Fallacy of the Converse). This tells us that the best-sounding choice (C. I won the Lotto) is not correct, because that choice would result in an invalid argument. More importantly, because we have the premise arrangement for an invalid argument, it is not possible to produce a non-trivial valid conclusion. This tells us that the correct choice must be D. EXAMPLE 2.5.3 Select the statement that is a valid conclusion from the following premises, if a valid conclusion is warranted. If we strive, then we excel. We didn't strive. A. We excelled. B. We didn't excel. C. We didn't inhale. D. None of these is warranted. EXAMPLE 2.5.4 Select the statement that is a valid conclusion from the following premises, if a valid conclusion is warranted. If we win, then we celebrate. We aren't celebrating. A. We won. B. We didn't win. C. We stink. D. None of these is warranted. EXAMPLE 2.5.5 Given: i. If my car doesn't start, then I'll be late for work; and ii. I'm not late for work. select the statement that is a valid conclusion, if a valid conclusion is warranted. A. My car started. B. I rode the bus. C. I'm late for work. D. None of these is warranted. EXAMPLE 2.5.6 Given: i. All nurses are kind; and ii. Florence isn't a nurse. select the statement that is a valid conclusion, if a valid conclusion is warranted. A. Florence is a city in Italy. B. Florence isn't kind. C. Florence is kind. D. None of these is warranted. EXAMPLE 2.5.7 Given: i. No kittens are fierce; and ii. Fluffy isn't fierce. select the statement that is a valid conclusion, if a valid conclusion is warranted. A. Fluffy is a kitten. B. Fluffy has fleas. C. Fluffy isn't a kitten. D. None of these is warranted. WORLD WIDE WEB NOTE For practice on problems like these, visit the companion website and try THE DEDUCER. SPECIAL CASES INVOLVING TRANSITIVE REASONING EXAMPLE 2.5.8 Select the statement that is a valid conclusion from the following premises, if a valid conclusion is warranted. If you want a better grade, then you bring an apple for the teacher. If you bring an apple for the teacher, then you expose the teacher to dangerous agricultural chemicals. A. If you expose the teacher to dangerous agricultural chemicals, then you want a better grade. B. If you don't expose the teacher to dangerous agricultural chemicals, then you don't want a better grade. C. You want a better grade. D. None of these is warranted. EXAMPLE 2.5.8 solution Let p be the statement "You want a better grade." Let q be the statement "You bring an apple for the teacher." Let r be the statement "You expose the teacher to dangerous agricultural chemicals." The premise arrangement has this form:  EMBED Equation.3  We see that this is the arrangement of premises for Transitive Reasoning, which is a form of valid reasoning. This means that we will be able to form a valid conclusion, namely:  EMBED Equation.3  In words, the valid conclusion is "If you want a better grade, then you expose the teacher to dangerous agricultural chemicals." Unfortunately, this isn't one of the listed choices. We may now refer to the following fundamental fact: If we have a statement that is a valid conclusion for an argument, then any equivalent statement will also be a valid conclusion. In this particular case, the statement p(r is a valid conclusion, so its equivalent contrapositive ~r(~p will also be a valid conclusion. In words, the contrapositive of "If you want a better grade, then you expose the teacher to dangerous agricultural chemicals," will also be a valid conclusion. This is the statement "If you don't expose the teacher to dangerous agricultural chemicals, then you don't want a better grade." The correct choice is B. EXAMPLE 2.5.9 Select the statement that is a valid conclusion from the following premises, if a valid conclusion is warranted. All people who get many tickets are uninsurable. All careless drivers get many tickets. All people who are uninsurable have bad credit ratings. A. All careless drivers have bad credit ratings. B. If your car is repossessed because you have bed credit, then you are a car-less driver. C. All people are uninsurable get many tickets. D. None of these is warranted. The previous two examples illustrate the following procedures that can be employed in order to use Transitive Reasoning to form a conclusion. TO FORM A VALID CONCLUSION USING TRANSITIVE REASONING: 1. We may replace any premises, or the conclusion, with equivalent statements. In particular, conditional statements may be replaced with their contrapositives (but not with converses or inverses). 2. We may rearrange the order in which the premises are listed. In particular, in order to use Transitive Reasoning, we will rearrange them premises so that the antecedent of the first premise is a variable that appears only one time in the entire premise scheme. We will then continue rearranging the order of the premises, and perhaps replacing premises with equivalent statements, so that the antecedent of each premise is exactly the same as the consequent of the preceding premise. If at any point it is impossible to continue this linkage of premises, then the argument involves a false chain, and so it is not possible to form a valid conclusion that uses every premise (although it may be possible to form valid conclusions that use only a subset of the original set of premises). EXAMPLE 2.5.10 Select the statement that is a valid conclusion from the following premises, if a valid conclusion is warranted. If I win the Lotto, then I won't need a job. If I have lots of bills, then I will need a job. A. If I have lots of bills, then I didn't win the Lotto. B. If I didn't win then Lotto, then I have lots of bills. C. If I don't need a job, then I won the Lotto. D. A valid conclusion is not warranted. EXAMPLE 2.5.11 Select the statement that is a valid conclusion from the following premises, if a valid conclusion is warranted. If I invest wisely, then I won't lose my money. If I don't invest wisely, then I buy junk bonds. If I read Investor's Weekly, then I won't buy junk bonds. A. If I invest wisely, then I read Investor's Weekly. B. If I buy junk bonds, then I don't invest wisely. C. If I lose my money, then I don't read Investor's Weekly. D. If I eat junk food, then I invest weakly. E. None of these is warranted. EXAMPLE 2.5.12 Select the statement that is a valid conclusion from the following premises, if a valid conclusion is warranted. All poodles love noodles. All pooches love noodles. A. All pooches are poodles. B. All poodles are pooches. C. No poodles are pooches. D. None of these is warranted. EXAMPLE 2.5.13 Select the statement that is a valid conclusion from the following premises, if a valid conclusion is warranted. All compact cars are uncomfortable. All compact cars get good gas mileage. A. No compact cars get good gas mileage. B. All compact cars are cheap. C. All cars that get good gas mileage are uncomfortable. D. None of these is warranted. EXAMPLE 2.5.14 Select the statement that is a valid conclusion from the following premises, if a valid conclusion is warranted. People who dislike cats are degenerates. All pirates own parrots. People who like cats never own parrots. A. If you are a pirate, then you are a degenerate. B. All degenerates own parrots. C. All cats lick parrots. D. None of these is warranted. EXAMPLE 2.5.15 Select the statement that is a valid conclusion from the following premises, if a valid conclusion is warranted. No body builders are weak. All professional wrestlers are body builders. All 300-pound men with bleached hair and sequined tights are professional wrestlers. Plato is weak. A. Plato is a 300-pound man with bleached hair and sequined tights. B. Plato is not a 300-pound man with bleached hair and sequined tights. C. Plato is the Masked Warrior and hits people with chairs. D. None of these is a valid conclusion. EXAMPLE 2.5.16 Select the statement that is a valid conclusion from the following premises, if a valid conclusion is warranted. Sylvester isn't a parakeet. Elephants never squawk. All parakeets squawk. No elephants are tiny. A. Sylvester is an elephant. B. Sylvester isn't tiny. C. All parakeets are tiny. D. None of these is warranted. EXAMPLE 2.5.17 Select the statement that is a valid conclusion from the following premises, if a valid conclusion is warranted. If you aren't a good stirrer, then you aren't handy with a swizzle stick. If you are a graduate of Billy Bob's Big Bold School of Mixology, then you are a bartender. No good stirrers have weak wrist muscles. If you don't have weak wrist muscles, then you have a firm handshake. All bartenders are handy with a swizzle stick. A. If you are a graduate of Billy Bob's Big Bold School of Mixology, then you don't have a firm handshake. B. If you don't have a firm handshake, then you aren't a graduate of Billy Bob's Big Bold School of Mixology. C. If you have a firm handshake, then you are a graduate of Billy Bob's Big Bold School of Mixology. D. None of these is warranted. PRACTICE EXERCISES 1 21: Select the statement that is a valid conclusion from the following premises, if a non-trivial valid conclusion is warranted. If none of the given conclusions is warranted, select the option that indicates so. 1. If you pet that wolverine, he will tear off your fingers. You are not missing any fingers. A. You petted that wolverine. B. You didnt pet that wolverine. C. Check your toes. D. None of these is warranted. 2. All carpenters are patient. Gomer isnt a carpenter. A. Gomer isnt patient. B. Some carpenters arent patient. C. Gomer is a painter. D. None of these is warranted. 3. I wont go to school or I will live off campus. Im going to school. A. Im living off campus. B. Im living on campus. C. Id rather live in a tent than on campus. D. None of these is warranted. 4. If we go to the concert, you will drive. You are driving. A. We are going to the concert. B. We arent going to the concert. C. If we dont go to the concert, you wont drive. D. None of these is warranted. 5. If you park in the wrong spot, youll get a parking ticket. You didnt park in the wrong spot. A. You didnt get a parking ticket. B. You got a parking ticket. C. The attendant gave you a ticket because your car is ugly. D. None of these is warranted. 6. All misers are skinflints. All skinflints are cheapskates. Cheapskates never donate to Public Broadcasting pledge drives. Gomer donates to public broadcasting pledge drives. A. Some cheapskates arent misers. B. Gomer isnt a miser. C. Gomer dusts his furniture with Pledge. D. None of these is warranted. 7. All school-crossing guards are cautious. Socrates isnt cautious. A. Socrates was a Greek philosopher. B. Socrates is dead. C. Socrates isnt a school-crossing guard. D. None of these is warranted. 8. All conspiracy buffs are suspicious by nature. Aristotle is suspicious by nature. A. Aristotle is a conspiracy buff. B. Aristotle isnt a conspiracy buff. C. Aristotle conspires in the buff. D. None of these is warranted. 9. All junkyard dogs are mean. All junkyard dogs are ugly. A. All ugly dogs are mean. B. All mean dogs are ugly. C. Some mean dogs are ugly. D. None of these is warranted. 10. If I quit school, then Ill buy a car. If I get a good job offer, then Ill quit school. A. If I dont buy a car, then I didnt get a good job offer. B. If I get a dont good job offer, then I wont buy a car. C. If I buy a car, then I got a good job offer. D. None of these is warranted. 11. All party-animals are rowdy. Plato is a party-animal. A. Plato is rowdy. B. People who arent party-animals arent rowdy. C. Plato wears a cool toga. D. None of these is warranted. 12. All life insurance salespeople are persistent. Gomer is not persistent. A. Some life insurance salespeople are not persistent. B. All persistent people are life insurance salespeople. C. Gomer does not sell life insurance. D. None of these is warranted. 13. All lyre-strummers are lyrical. All epic poets are lyre-strummers. Homer was an epic poet. A. Homer was lyrical. B. Homer was married to Marge. C. Homer was Gomers cousin. D. None of these is warranted. 14. All poodles bark. All dogs bark. A. All poodles are dogs B. Some dogs are poodles. C. Some poodles bark. D. None of these is warranted. 15. All alligators are reptiles. All reptiles are cold-blooded. A. All cold-blooded animals are reptiles. B. All alligators are cold-blooded. C. Some alligators eat people. D. None of these is warranted. 16. All school-crossing guards are dedicated public servants. No scoundrels are dedicated public servants. If you carry a ping-pong paddle STOP sign, then you are a school-crossing guard. All terrible people are scoundrels. A. All school-crossing guards are terrible people. B. All dedicated public servants carry ping-pong paddle STOP signs. C. No terrible people carry ping-pong paddle STOP signs. D. None of these is warranted. 17. (Adapted from Lewis Carroll) No promise-breakers are trustworthy. All wine-drinkers are communicative. If you arent a promise-breaker then you are honest. All pawnbrokers are wine-drinkers. Communicative people are trustworthy. A. All pawnbrokers are untrustworthy. B. If you arent honest then you arent a pawnbroker. C. If you arent a promise-breaker then you are communicative. D. None of these is warranted. 18. If I sell some of my books then Ill pay the rent. I didnt pay the rent. A. Some of my books are sold. B. All of my books are sold. C. None of my books is sold. D. None of these is warranted. 19. If you wear dark glasses then you look mysterious. If you wear dark socks with sandals then you look dorky. If you look dorky then you dont look mysterious. A. If you wear dark socks with sandals then you dont wear dark glasses.. B. If you look dorky then you wear dark glasses. C. If you dont wear dark glasses then you wear dark socks with sandals. D. None of these is warranted. 20. If your house has termites, then you cant sell it. If your house has passed inspection then you can sell it. A. If you can sell your house, then it has passed inspection. B. If your house doesnt have termites then it has passed inspection. C. If your house has passed inspection then it doesnt have termites. D. None of these is warranted. 21. All of my classes are cancelled or some of my plans are cancelled. None of my plans is cancelled. A. Some of my classes arent cancelled. B. None of my classes is cancelled. C. All of my classes are cancelled. D. None of these is warranted. ANSWERS TO LINKED EXAMPLES EXAMPLE 2.5.3 D EXAMPLE 2.5.4 B EXAMPLE 2.5.5 A EXAMPLE 2.5.6 D EXAMPLE 2.5.7 D EXAMPLE 2.5.9 A EXAMPLE 2.5.10 A EXAMPLE 2.5.11 C EXAMPLE 2.5.12 D EXAMPLE 2.5.13 D EXAMPLE 2.5.14 A EXAMPLE 2.5.15 B EXAMPLE 2.5.16 D EXAMPLE 2.5.17 B ANSWERS TO PRACTICE EXERCISES 1. B (contrapositive reasoning) 2. D (fallacy of inverse) 3. A (disjunctive syllogism) 4. D (fallacy of converse) 5. D (fallacy of inverse) 6. B (transitive reasoning/direct reasoning) 7. C (contrapositive reasoning) 8. D (fallacy of converse) 9. D (false chain) 10. A (transitive reasoning) 11. A (direct reasoning) 12. C (contrapositive reasoning) 13. A (transitive or direct reasoning) 14. D (false chain) 15. B (transitive reasoning) 16. C (transitive reasoning) 17. B (transitive reasoning) 18. C (contrapositive reasoning) 19. A (transitive reasoning) 20. C (transitive reasoning) 21. 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