ࡱ> rtq%` +bjbj"x"x 4~@@^1^1^1^1Z2Lc2$33336667c9c9c9c9c9c9c$FghiL]c}96^6}9}9]c33rc;;;}9(3(37c;}97c;;3_xJgb32 PnJ^19O`"bdc0cq`iE:piDgbigbl6vc7T;7D7666]c]c:B666c}9}9}9}9 8.1: THE LANGUAGE OF STATISTICAL DECISION MAKING DEFINITIONS: The population is the entire group of objects or individuals under study, about which information is desired. A sample is a part of the population that is actually used to get information. Statistical inference is the process of drawing conclusions about the population based on information from a sample of that population. The null hypothesis, denoted by , is the conventional belief--the status quo, or prevailing viewpoint, about a population. The alternative hypothesis, denoted by , is an alternative to the null hypothesis the statement that there is an effect, a difference, a change in the population. The null and alternative hypotheses are stated together, and the null hypothesis contains the equals sign, as shown (where k represents a specified number).  Table below shows some common phrases that are used in hypotheses, conjectures, and the corresponding symbols. This table should be helpful in translating verbal conjectures into mathematical symbols.  Lets Do It! 1 State the null and alternative hypotheses for each conjecture. a. A researcher thinks that if expectant mothers use vitamin pills, the birth weight of the babies will increase. The average birth weight of the population is 8.6 pounds. b. An engineer hypothesizes that the mean number of defects can be decreased in a manufacturing process of compact disks by using robots instead of humans for certain tasks. The mean number of defective disks per 1000 is 18. c. A psychologist feels that playing soft music during a test will change the results of the test. The psychologist is not sure whether the grades will be higher or lower. In the past, the mean of the scores was 73. d. Suppose we want to test the hypothesis that women with low socioeconomic status deliver babies whose birth weights are lower than normal. Suppose we know from nationwide survey based on millions deliveries that the mean birth weight in the US is 120 oz. e. Suppose the average cholesterol level in children is 175 mg/dL. A group of men who died from heart disease within the past year are identified, and the cholesterol levels of their offspring are measured to determine if the average cholesterol level of their offspring is greater than 175 mg/dL. A university of Florida economist conducted a study of Virginia elementary school lunch menus. During the state-mandated testing period, school lunches averaged at least 863 calories. The economist claims that after the testing period ends the average caloric content of Virginia school lunches drops significantly. Situation A A medical researcher is interested in finding out whether a new medication will have any undesirable side effects. The researcher is particularly concerned with the pulse rate of the patients who take the medication. Will the pulse rate increase, decrease, or remain unchanged after a patient takes the medication? Since the researcher knows that the mean pulse rate for the population under study is 82 beats per minute, the hypotheses for this situation are  EMBED Equation.3 :  EMBED Equation.3 82 and  EMBED Equation.3 :  EMBED Equation.3  82 The null hypothesis specifies that the mean will remain unchanged, and the alternative hypothesis states that it will be different. This test is called a two-tailed test (a term that will be formally defined later in this section), since the possible side effects of the medicine could be to raise or lower the pulse rate. Situation B A chemist invents an additive to increase the life of an automobile battery. If the mean lifetime of the automobile battery without the additive is 36 months, then her hypotheses are  EMBED Equation.3 :  EMBED Equation.3 36 and  EMBED Equation.3 :  EMBED Equation.3  36 In this situation, the chemist is interested only in increasing the lifetime of the batteries, so her alternative hypothesis is that the mean is greater than 36 months. The null hypothesis is that the mean is less than or equal to 36 months. This test is called right-tailed, since the interest is in an increase only. Situation C A contractor wishes to lower heating bills by using a special type of insulation in houses. If the average of the monthly heating bills is $78, her hypotheses about heating costs with the use of insulation are  EMBED Equation.3 :  EMBED Equation.3 $78 and  EMBED Equation.3 :  EMBED Equation.3  $78 This test is a left-tailed test, since the contractor is interested only in lowering heating costs. After stating the hypothesis, the researcher designs the study. The researcher selects the correct statistical test, chooses an appropriate level of significance, and formulates a plan for conducting the study. In situation A, for instance, the researcher will select a sample of patients who will be given the drug. After allowing a suitable time for the drug to be absorbed, the researcher will measure each persons pulse rate. So even if the null hypothesis is true, the mean of the pulse rates of the sample of patients will not, in most cases, be exactly equal to the population mean of 82 beats per minute. There are two possibilities: Either the null hypothesis is true, and the difference between the sample mean and the population mean is due to chance; or The null hypothesis is false, and the sample came from a population whose mean is not 82 beats per minute but is some other value that is not known. The farther away the sample mean is from the population mean, the more evidence there would be for rejecting the null hypothesis. The probability that the sample came from a population whose mean is 82 decreases as the distance or absolute value of the difference between the means increases. If the mean pulse rate of the sample were, say, 83, the researcher would probably conclude that this difference was due to chance and would not reject the null hypothesis. But if the sample mean were, say, 90, then in all likelihood the researcher would conclude that the medication increased the pulse rate of the users and would reject the null hypothesis. The question is, Where does the researcher draw the line? This decision is not made on feelings or intuition; it is made statistically. That is, the difference must be significant and in all likelihood not due to chance. Here is where the concepts of statistical test and level of significance are used.  In this type of statistical test, the mean is computed for the data obtained from the sample and is compared with the population mean. Then a decision is made to reject or not reject the null hypothesis on the basis of the value obtained from the statistical test. If the difference is significant, the null hypothesis is rejected. If it is not, then the null hypothesis is not rejected.  A one-tailed test indicates that the null hypothesis should be rejected when the test value is in the critical region on one side of the mean. A one-tailed test is either a right-tailed test or left-tailed test, depending on the direction of the inequality of the alternative hypothesis. Example Finding the Critical Value for  EMBED Equation.3 =0.01 (Right-Tailed Test) using The standard normal distribution N(0,1). Solution  The critical value is for  EMBED Equation.3 =0.01 is 2.33. Lets Do It! 2 Critical Values. Finding the Critical Value for  EMBED Equation.3 =0.05 (Left-Tailed Test) using The standard normal distribution N(0,1). Finding the Critical Value for  EMBED Equation.3 =0.05 (Two-Tailed Test) using The standard normal distribution N(0,1). In the hypothesis-testing situation, there are four possible outcomes. In reality, the null hypothesis may or may not be true, and a decision is made to reject or not reject it on the basis of the data obtained from a sample. The four possible outcomes are shown in Figure below. Notice that there are two possibilities for a correct decision and two possibilities for an incorrect decision.  HW 8.2 page 404: 12, 13 Definition A statistical test uses the data obtained from a sample to make a decision about whether the null hypothesis should be rejected. The numerical value obtained from a statistical test is called the test value. Definition A type I error  EMBED Equation.3  occurs if one rejects the null hypothesis when it is true. A type II error EMBED Equation.3  occurs if one does not reject the null hypothesis when it is false. 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