ࡱ> a Gjbjb11 %[[APPPPPPPjQjQjQjQDQ^RRRRRRRR]]]]]]],^RLa]PRRRRR]ZPPRR]ZZZR>PRPR]ZdxPPPPR]ZZZPP]R 5 jQWo]]]0^w]aZa]ZPMjQjQ Four Types of Tissues Tissues are collections of cells and cell products that perform specific, limited functions Types of tissue Epithelial tissue Covers exposed surfaces Lines internal passageways Forms glands Connective tissue Fills internal spaces Supports other tissues Transports materials Stores energy Muscle tissue Specialized for contraction Skeletal muscle, heart muscle, and walls of hollow organs Neural tissue Carries electrical signals from one part of the body to another Epithelial Tissues Epithelia Layers of cells covering internal or external surfaces Glands Structures that produce secretions Characteristics of Epithelia Cellularity (cell junctions) Polarity (apical and basal surfaces) Attachment (basal lamina) Avascularity Regeneration Functions of Epithelial Tissue Provide physical protection Control permeability Provide sensation Produce specialized secretions (glandular epithelium) Specializations of Epithelial Cells Move fluids over the epithelium (protection) Move fluids through the epithelium (permeability) Produce secretions (protection and messengers) Free Surface and Attached Surface Polarity Apical surfaces: microvilli increase absorption or secretion cilia (ciliated epithelium) move fluid Basolateral surfaces Maintaining the Integrity of Epithelia Intercellular connections Attachment to basal lamina Epithelial maintenance and repair Intercellular Connections Support and communication CAMs (cell adhesion molecules): transmembrane proteins Intercellular cement: proteoglycans Hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid): glycosaminoglycans Cell junctions Form bonds with other cells or extracellular material: occluding (tight) junctions gap junctions macula adherens (desmosomes) [Insert Animation: Intercellular Connections] Occluding (Tight) junctionsbetween two plasma membranes Adhesion belt attaches to terminal web Prevents passage of water and solutes Isolates wastes in the lumen Gap junctionsallow rapid communication Held together by channel proteins (junctional proteins, connexons) Allow ions to pass Coordinate contractions in heart muscle Macula adherens (Desmosomes) CAMs, dense areas, and intercellular cement Spot desmosomes tie cells together allow bending and twisting Hemidesmosomes attach cells to the basal lamina Attachment to the Basal Lamina Clear layer (Lamina lucida) Thin layer Secreted by epithelia Barrier to proteins Dense layer (Lamina densa) Thick fibers Produced by connective tissue Strength and filtration Epithelial Maintenance and Repair Epithelia are replaced by division of germinative cells (stem cells) Near basal lamina Classification of Epithelia Singular epithelium; plural epithelia Classes of Epithelia Based on shape Squamous epithelia: thin and flat Cuboidal epithelia: square shaped Columnar epithelia: tall, slender rectangles Based on layers Simple epithelium: single layer of cells Stratified epithelium: several layers of cells Squamous Epithelia Simple squamous epithelium Absorption and diffusion Mesothelium Lines body cavities Endothelium Lines heart and blood vessels Squamous Epithelia Stratified squamous epithelium Protects against attacks Keratin protein adds strength and water resistance Cuboidal Epithelia Simple cuboidal epithelium Secretion and absorption Stratified cuboidal epithelia Sweat ducts and mammary ducts Transitional Epithelium Tolerates repeated cycles of stretching and recoiling and returns to its previous shape without damage Appearance changes as stretching occurs Situated in regions of the urinary system (e.g. urinary bladder) Columnar Epithelia Simple columnar epithelium Absorption and secretion Pseudostratified columnar epithelium Cilia movement Stratified columnar epithelium Protection Glandular Epithelia Endocrine glands Release hormones: into interstitial fluid no ducts Exocrine glands Produce secretions: onto epithelial surfaces through ducts Modes of Secretion in Glandular Epithelia Merocrine secretion Is produced in Golgi apparatus Is released by vesicles (exocytosis) For example, sweat glands Apocrine secretion Is produced in Golgi apparatus Is released by shedding cytoplasm For example, mammary gland Holocrine secretion Is released by cells bursting, killing gland cells Gland cells replaced by stem cells For example, sebaceous gland Glandular Epithelia Types of secretions Serous glands: watery secretions Mucous glands: secrete mucins Mixed exocrine glands: both serous and mucous Gland structure Unicellular glands Mucous (goblet) cells are the only unicellular exocrine glands: scattered among epithelia for example, in intestinal lining Multicellular glands: structure of the duct: simple (undivided) compound (divided) shape of secretory portion of the gland: tubular (tube shaped) alveolar or acinar (blind pockets) relationship between ducts and glandular areas: branched (several secretory areas sharing one duct) Connective Tissues Connect epithelium to the rest of the body (basal lamina) Provide structure (bone) Store energy (fat) Transport materials (blood) Have no contact with environment Characteristics of Connective Tissues Specialized cells Solid extracellular protein fibers Fluid extracellular ground substance The extracellular components of connective tissues (fibers and ground substance) make up the matrix Majority of tissue volume Determines specialized function Classification of Connective Tissues Connective tissue proper Connect and protect Fluid connective tissues Transport Supportive connective tissues Structural strength Categories of Connective Tissue Proper Loose connective tissue More ground substance, less fibers For example, fat (adipose tissue) Dense connective tissue More fibers, less ground substance For example, tendons Fibroblasts Fibrocytes Macrophages Adipocytes Mesenchymal cells Melanocytes Mast cells Lymphocytes Microphages Connective Tissue Proper Cells Fibroblasts The most abundant cell type: found in all connective tissue proper secrete proteins and hyaluronan (cellular cement) Fibrocytes The second most abundant cell type: found in all connective tissue proper maintain the fibers of connective tissue proper Macrophages Large, amoeba-like cells of the immune system: eat pathogens and damaged cells fixed macrophages stay in tissue free macrophages migrate Adipocytes Fat cells: each cell stores a single, large fat droplet Mesenchymal Cells Stem cells that respond to injury or infection: differentiate into fibroblasts, macrophages, etc. Melanocytes Synthesize and store the brown pigment melanin Mast Cells Stimulate inflammation after injury or infection: release histamine and heparin Basophils are leukocytes (white blood cells) that also contain histamine and heparin Lymphocytes Specialized immune cells in lymphoid (lymphatic) system: For example, lymphocytes may develop into plasma cells (plasmocytes) that produce antibodies Microphages Phagocytic blood cells: respond to signals from macrophages and mast cells For example, neutrophils and eosinophils Connective Tissue Fibers Collagen fibers Most common fibers in connective tissue proper Long, straight, and unbranched Strong and flexible Resist force in one direction For example, tendons and ligaments Reticular fibers Network of interwoven fibers (stroma) Strong and flexible Resist force in many directions Stabilize functional cells (parenchyma) and structures For example, sheaths around organs Elastic fibers Contain elastin Branched and wavy Return to original length after stretching For example, elastic ligaments of vertebrae Ground Substance Is clear, colorless, and viscous Fills spaces between cells and slows pathogen movement Embryonic Connective Tissues Are not found in adults Mesenchyme (embryonic stem cells) The first connective tissue in embryos Mucous connective tissue Loose embryonic connective tissue Loose Connective Tissues The packing materials of the body Three types in adults Areolar Adipose Reticular Areolar Tissue Least specialized Open framework Viscous ground substance Elastic fibers Holds blood vessels and capillary beds For example, under skin (subcutaneous layer) Adipose Tissue Contains many adipocytes (fat cells) Types of adipose tissue White fat: most common stores fat absorbs shocks slows heat loss (insulation) Brown fat: more vascularized adipocytes have many mitochondria when stimulated by nervous system, fat break down accelerates, releasing energy absorbs energy from surrounding tissues Adipose cells Adipocytes in adults do not divide: expand to store fat shrink as fats are released Mesenchymal cells divide and differentiate: to produce more fat cells when more storage is needed Reticular Tissue Provides support Complex, three-dimensional network Supportive fibers (stroma) Support functional cells (parenchyma) Reticular organs Spleen, liver, lymph nodes, and bone marrow Dense Connective Tissues Connective tissues proper, tightly packed with high numbers of collagen or elastic fibers Dense regular connective tissue Dense irregular connective tissue Elastic tissue Connective Tissues Dense Regular Connective Tissue Tightly packed, parallel collagen fibers Tendons attach muscles to bones Ligaments connect bone to bone and stabilize organs Aponeuroses attach in sheets to large, flat muscles Dense Irregular Connective Tissue Interwoven networks of collagen fibers Layered in skin Around cartilages (perichondrium) Around bones (periosteum) Form capsules around some organs (e.g., liver, kidneys) Elastic Tissue Made of elastic fibers For example, elastic ligaments of spinal vertebrae Fluid Connective Tissues Blood and lymph Watery matrix of dissolved proteins Carry specific cell types (formed elements) Formed elements of blood red blood cells (erythrocytes) white blood cells (leukocytes) platelets Fluid Elements of Fluid Connective Tissues Extracellular Plasma Interstitial fluid Lymph Lymph Extracellular fluid Collected from interstitial space Monitored by immune system Transported by lymphoid (lymphatic) system Returned to venous system Fluid Tissue Transport Systems Cardiovascular system (blood) Arteries Capillaries Veins Lymphoid (lymphatic) system (lymph) Lymphatic vessels Supportive Connective Tissues Support soft tissues and body weight Cartilage Gel-type ground substance For shock absorption and protection Bone Calcified (made rigid by calcium salts, minerals) For weight support Cartilage Matrix Proteoglycans derived from chondroitin sulfates Ground substance proteins Chondrocytes (cartilage cells) surrounded by lacunae (chambers) Cartilage Structure No blood vessels: Chondrocytes produce antiangiogenesis factor Perichondrium: Outer, fibrous layer (for strength) Inner, cellular layer (for growth and maintenance) Types of Cartilage Hyaline cartilage Stiff, flexible support Reduces friction between bones Found in synovial joints, rib tips, sternum, and trachea Elastic cartilage Supportive but bends easily Found in external ear and epiglottis Fibrous cartilage (fibrocartilage) Limits movement Prevents bone-to-bone contact Pads knee joints Found between pubic bones and intervertebral discs Bone or osseous tissue Strong (calcified: calcium salt deposits) Resists shattering (flexible collagen fibers) Bone cells or osteocytes Arranged around central canals within matrix Small channels through matrix (canaliculi) access blood supply Periosteum Covers bone surfaces Fibrous layer Cellular layer Membranes Are physical barriers That line or cover portions of the body Consist of An epithelium Supported by connective tissues Four Types of Membranes Mucous membranes Serous membranes Cutaneous membrane Synovial membranes Mucous membranes (mucosae) Line passageways that have external connections In digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts Epithelial surfaces must be moist To reduce friction To facilitate absorption and excretion Lamina propria Is areolar tissue Serous Membranes Line cavities not open to the outside Are thin but strong Have fluid transudate to reduce friction Have a parietal portion covering the cavity Have a visceral portion (serosa) covering the organs Three Serous Membranes Pleura: Lines pleural cavities Covers lungs Peritoneum: Lines peritoneal cavity Covers abdominal organs Pericardium: Lines pericardial cavity Covers heart Cutaneous membrane Is skin, surface of the body Thick, waterproof, and dry Synovial membranes Line moving, articulating joint cavities Produce synovial fluid (lubricant) Protect the ends of bones Lack a true epithelium Internal Framework of the Body Connective tissues Provide strength and stability Maintain positions of internal organs Provide routes for blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves Fasciae Singular form is fascia The bodys framework of connective tissue Layers and wrappings that support or surround organs Superficial fascia Deep fascia Subserous fascia Specialized for contraction Produces all body movement Three types of muscle tissue Skeletal muscle Large body muscles responsible for movement Cardiac muscle Found only in the heart Smooth muscle Found in walls of hollow, contracting organs (blood vessels; urinary bladder; respiratory, digestive, and reproductive tracts) Classification of Muscle Cells Striated (muscle cells with a banded appearance) Nonstriated (not banded; smooth) Muscle cells can have a single nucleus Muscle cells can be multinucleate Muscle cells can be controlled voluntarily (consciously) Muscle cells can be controlled involuntarily (automatically) Skeletal Muscle Cells Are long and thin Are usually called muscle fibers Do not divide New fibers are produced by stem cells (myosatellite cells) Cardiac muscle cells Are called cardiocytes Form branching networks connected at intercalated discs Are regulated by pacemaker cells Smooth muscle cells Are small and tapered Can divide and regenerate Also called nervous or nerve tissue Specialized for conducting electrical impulses Rapidly senses internal or external environment Processes information and controls responses Neural tissue is concentrated in the central nervous system Brain Spinal cord Two Kinds of Neural Cells Neurons Nerve cells Perform electrical communication Neuroglia Supporting cells Repair and supply nutrients to neurons Cell Parts of a Neuron Cell body Contains the nucleus and nucleolus Dendrites Short branches extending from the cell body Receive incoming signals Axon (nerve fiber) Long, thin extension of the cell body Carries outgoing electrical signals to their destination Tissue Injuries and Repair Tissues respond to injuries to maintain homeostasis Cells restore homeostasis with two processes Inflammation Regeneration Inflammation = inflammatory response The tissues first response to injury Signs and symptoms of the inflammatory response include Swelling Redness Heat Pain Inflammatory Response Can be triggered by Trauma (physical injury) Infection (the presence of harmful pathogens) The Process of Inflammation Damaged cells release chemical signals into the surrounding interstitial fluid Prostaglandins Proteins Potassium ions As cells break down Lysosomes release enzymes That destroy the injured cell And attack surrounding tissues Tissue destruction is called necrosis The Process of Inflammation Necrotic tissues and cellular debris (pus) accumulate in the wound Abscess: pus trapped in an enclosed area Injury stimulates mast cells to release Histamine Heparin Prostaglandins Dilation of blood vessels Increases blood circulation in the area Causes warmth and redness Brings more nutrients and oxygen to the area Removes wastes Plasma diffuses into the area Causing swelling and pain Phagocytic white blood cells Clean up the area Regeneration When the injury or infection is cleaned up Healing (regeneration) begins The Process of Regeneration Fibrocytes move into necrotic area Lay down collagen fibers To bind 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B-(w-@) -)E->),p-))i->)t-)he->)Ml-)ia)7 - )  :-(-@) -)La-)@y-)ers-@r)P -)of- )0 -F)c-)ells-)W -F)c-)ov-F)=e-)!rin-F)@g-)! in-F)=t-)e-F) r-)nal or e-F)xte-)Ornal su-F)r-)fa-F)0c-)es-)=  B-($w-@) -)Gl->)Ean-)Ods)M - )  :-(j-@) -)Struc-F)t-)u-F) r-)es-)= -F)t-)hat p-F)r-)o-F) d-)!uce se-F)c-)ret-F)Ci-)ons-)]  B-(w-@) -)Characte->(r-)is->)7t-)ics o->)f-) ->)E-)-p->)(i-)th->)>e-)&lia- )I  :-(-@) -)Cellul-F)a-)!rit- )0y-F) -)(cell-)j -F)j-)un-F)@c-)tio-F)=n-)!s)-)0 -(=-@) -)Polari-F)t- )y-) -F)(-)api-F)Mc-)al-)- -F)a-)!nd ba-F)s-)al-)- -)s-F)u-)!r-F)f-)ace-F)]s-))-) -(-@) -)Attac-F)h-)!m-F)0e-)!nt (-F)Tb-)!asal-)j -F)l-)a-) m-F)0i-)n-F) a-)!)-) -(-@) -)Avascu-F)l-)arit-)Py-) -) -( -@) -)Reg-F)je-)!n-F) e-)!rat-F)Ci-)on-)@ -( I  B-( w-@) -)F->)(u-))nc->)Mti-)*on->)Ps -)9of ->)QE-)-pi->):t-)h->)(e-)&li->)$a-)&l T->)Mi-)ssue- )  :-( -@) -)Provi-F)d-)!e-)  -F)p-)!h- ) y-)si-F)*c-)al-)- -F)p-)!ro-F)3t-)ect-F)Mi-)on-)@ -( -@) -)Con-F)jt-)rol p-F)qe-)!rmeabil-F)i-)t- )y-) -( _-@) -)Provi-F)d-)!e-)  -F)s-)en-F)@s-)ati-F)=o-)!n-)  -( -@) -)Pro-F)Zd-)!uce sp-F)e-)!ciali- )dz-)ed-@r)@ -F)s-)ec-F)=r-)eti-F)=o-)!ns (gl-F)a-)!n-F) du-)Blar-)@ -F)e-)!pit-F)=h-)!eli-F):u-)!m-)0)-) -(  -( (w - ) -)Spe-F)jc-)!ial-F)@i-)za-F)=t-)i-F)o-)$n-F)#s-)! -F)o-)$f-) -)E-F)'p-)$i-F)t-)hel-F)Si-)al-)0 -F)C-)+el-F)0l-)s-)   2-( b - `3) - Q)M-)*ove-)Q -)f-)l-) u-)i-) ds- Q)5 -)o-)v-)er- Q)- -)t-)h-)e- Q) -)ep-)8i-) the-)Fliu-`)1m- Q)* -)(-)p-)rotect-)~io-)&n)-@ )- -(  - `3) - Q)M-)*ove-)Q -)f-)l-) u-)i-) ds- Q)5 -)t-) hrou-)eg-)h- Q) -)the-\)F -) ep-)8i-) the-)Fli-)u- Q)m-)) (p-);e-)r-`)m-)*e-)a-)b-)ili-)!ty)-\)8  ! ! ! !  ! ! !  ! ! !  ! ! !  ! ! !  ! ! !  ! ! !  ! ! !  ! ! ! ՜.+,0 `hpx  '$MW eFour Types of TissuesFour Types of TissuesU Tissues are collections of cells and cell products that perform specific, limite Types of tissue Epithelial tissue Connective tissue Muscle tissue Neural tissue Epithelial Tissues Epithelia ? Layers of cells covering internal or external surfaces Glands + Structures that produce secretions! Characteristics of Epithelia% Cellularity (cell junctions)- Polarity (apical and basal surfaces)" Attachment (basal lamina) Avascularity  Regeneration # Functions of Epithelial Tissue$ Provide physical protection Control permeability Provide sensation> Produce specialized secretions (glandular epithelium) ( Specializations of Epithelial Cells5 Move fluids over the epithelium (protection): Move fluids through the epithelium (permeability)7 Produce secretions (protection and messengers)& Free Surface and Attached Surface Polarity + Maintaining the Integrity of Epithelia" Intercellular connections# Attachment to basal lamina* Epithelial maintenance and repair Intercellular Connections$ Support and communication  Cell junctions A Occluding (Tight) junctionsbetween two plasma membranes0 Gap junctionsallow rapid communication% Macula adherens (Desmosomes)# Attachment to the Basal Lamina$ Clear layer (Lamina lucida)# Dense layer (Lamina densa) & Epithelial Maintenance and RepairM Epithelia are replaced by division of germinative cells (stem cells) Near basal lamina Classification of Epithelia* Singular epithelium; plural epithelia Classes of Epithelia Based on shape Based on layers Squamous Epithelia# Simple squamous epithelium Mesothelium Endothelium Squamous Epithelia' Stratified squamous epithelium  Cuboidal Epithelia# Simple cuboidal epithelium& Stratified cuboidal epithelia  Transitional EpitheliumY Tolerates repeated cycles of stretching and recoiling and returns to its previou0 Appearance changes as stretching occursI Situated in regions of the urinary system (e.g. urinary bladder)  Columnar Epithelia# Simple columnar epithelium- Pseudostratified columnar epithelium' Stratified columnar epithelium Glandular Epithelia Endocrine glands Exocrine glands . Modes of Secretion in Glandular Epithelia Merocrine secretion Apocrine secretion Holocrine secretion Glandular Epithelia Types of secretions Gland structure Connective Tissues> Connect epithelium to the rest of the body (basal lamina) Provide structure (bone) Store energy (fat) Transport materials (blood)% Have no contact with environment * Characteristics of Connective Tissues Specialized cells+ Solid extracellular protein fibers Title Headingsd  !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdefghiklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~Root Entry Fȉ赍1TablejaWordDocument%SummaryInformation(IDocumentSummaryInformation8CompObjX FMicrosoft Word DocumentNB6WWord.Document.8