ࡱ> KMJg@ >jbjb "^8Jl86$Z$! "  , +Z   x   ~ g ! !  A Examination of the effects of Sea-Surface Temperatures on North Atlantic Hurricanes Abstract: Is global warming causing an increase in the number or the intensity of hurricanes? This is a question that has been on many peoples minds the past several years. Many studies have been conducted to look at the potential effects of global warming on hurricanes. This review attempts to examine three studies that all compare past changes in sea-surface temperature with changes in hurricane numbers, intensity, and power. These studies provide some insight into the debate on whether or not global warming is having an impact on recent hurricanes. This review will discuss the findings of these studies and offer some discussion on the debate. Ever since a record four hurricanes slammed the Florida coast in the summer of 2004, the potential of human impacts on hurricanes have become a hot topic in the media. Research has been done on this topic for many years, but it has only been recently that it has started to gain widespread media attention, and a heated debate has begun both inside and outside of the scientific community. Many questions remain unanswered. Many studies are being conducted to try to find answers, and to try to determine if there is actually a link between hurricanes and climate change. This review will examine just a few of the many studies that have been done to examine the relationship between hurricanes and climate change. First, I will offer a summary of each study. I will then compare each of their approaches and offer some of my own conclusions. This research topic is surprisingly broad. There are so many combinations of factors that can possibly effect each other. It seems that every researcher has a different approach as to how to deal with this issue. So, I tried to select a somewhat diverse cross section of ideas to represent the bigger picture. I did, however, focus on studies that focused on the Atlantic Ocean basin and changes in sea-surface temperatures (SST). In order to determine if global warming is having an impact on hurricanes, we must first understand what natural variations and connections may be occurring. This means that we must examine past changes in climate and see how hurricanes have been affected. This will allow us to remove the natural variability from the trend and just focus on the human changes. Briefly, these are the studies that will be looked at in this review. Goldberg et al. examined the link between SSTs in the tropical Atlantic Ocean and hurricane activity, as well as a link between the vertical shear of the horizontal wind and hurricane activity (2001). Emanuel determined the Power Dissipation Index (PDI) of hurricane seasons and compared them to SST values (2005). Webster et al. looked at global changes in the number of hurricanes and their intensity over the past 35 years (2005). A common theme throughout these studies is that they all examine the effects of SST. This review will look at the various ways that these studies approach this issue, and the conclusions that each study comes to. First I will look at the study conducted by Goldberg et al. This study examined the trends in hurricanes over about the past 60 years. In this study, Goldberg et al. discuss local and remote climatic factors that affect the main development region (MDR) of the North Atlantic Ocean basin. The MDR is the area between 10( and 20( N that extends from the west coast of Africa, westward across the Atlantic to the Caribbean Sea (2001). A local climatic factor is defined as a variable that occurs in the MDR and has a direct connection to tropical cyclone development; while a remote climatic factor occurs outside the MDR but is connected with conditions in that region. Local factors are variables such as sea-level pressure (SLP), lower tropospheric moisture, sea-surface temperature (SST), and the vertical wind shear. The most important remote factor for North Atlantic is the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), which occurs in the tropical Pacific Ocean. In their study, Goldberg et al. focused on the effects of SST and of vertical shear of the horizontal wind. Figure 1 shows the number of major hurricanes (defined as a category 3,4,or 5 on the Saffir-Simpson scale) in the north Atlantic for the period from 1944 to 2000, and figure 2 shows the annual means of the temperature variability averaged over the MDR. Comparing these two figures, Goldenberg et al. noted that the multidecadal-scale fluctuations in SSTs closely follow the long-term fluctuations in Atlantic tropical cyclone activity. In this study, periods with high hurricane activity (1947-1965 and 1995-2000) are defined as warm phases, and periods with low hurricane activity (1966-1983) are defined as cold phases. This is because of the correlation between increased SSTs and increased major hurricane activity.  Figure 1. The number of major hurricanes from 1948 to 2000. The solid line is the sample mean. Dashed curved line is 5-year running mean. (Figure taken from Goldenberg et al., 2001)  Figure 2. Annual means of the SST variability averaged over the MDR for 1870-1998. (Figure taken from Goldenberg et al., 2001) Goldenberg et al. also state that the magnitude of the vertical shear of the horizontal wind is the dominant local factor in determining hurricane activity, and that a strong  EMBED Equation.DSMT4  inhibits the formation and intensification of hurricanes (2001). Figure 3 shows the percentage of the south-central portion of the MDR with low values of  EMBED Equation.DSMT4 . Comparing this figure with figures1 and 2, we see that the  EMBED Equation.DSMT4  loosely correlates with the SST and major hurricane activity. Goldenberg et al., conclude that there seems to be a correlation between SST, low  EMBED Equation.DSMT4 , and major hurricane activity. They also show that the current active period (1995-2000) appears to be more active than the previous active period (1926-1970). They do point out that it is possible that it only looks that way because of the better observational network that is available now.  Figure 3. Percentage of the south-central portion of the MDR where  EMBED Equation.DSMT4  < 6m/s (Figure taken from Goldenberg et al., 2001) Next I will look at the findings of Emanuel and his power density index (PDI). Emanuel notes that there is no apparent trend in the global annual frequency of tropical cyclones, so he developed an index to examine the power of a hurricane. He calls this the total power dissipation and is given by the following equation:  EMBED Equation.DSMT4  (1) where  EMBED Equation.DSMT4  is the surface drag coefficient,  EMBED Equation.DSMT4  is the surface air density,  EMBED Equation.DSMT4  is the magnitude of the surface wind, and the integral is computed over the radius of the storm to an outer limit denoted by  EMBED Equation.DSMT4 , and over the lifetime of the storm,  EMBED Equation.DSMT4  (2005). Until recently, very little data has been collected on the storm dimensions, making it difficult to compute the integral in equation (1). Therefore, Emanuel simplified this equation using several assumptions, including the assumption that the product  EMBED Equation.DSMT4  is a constant. The resulting equation is referred to as the power dissipation index (PDI), and is found using the following:  EMBED Equation.DSMT4 . (2) In equation (2),  EMBED Equation.DSMT4  is the maximum sustained wind measured at 10 m. Using equation (2), Emanuel then computed the PDI for each storm, and summed up the PDI over an entire year to examine long-term trends and interdecadal variability. He also applied a smoothing filter twice, in succession, to minimize the effect of interannual variability. The results of this are plotted in figure 4.  Figure 4. September SST and the PDI for tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic for the years 1930-2010. The PDI is multiplied by 2.1x10-12, and the SST has been obtained from the Hadley Centre Sea Ice and SST data set. Both quantities were smoothed twice using the smoothing filter, and a constant offset was added to the temperature data for easy comparison. (Figure taken from Emanuel, 2005). Looking at figure 4, we see that there is a relationship between September SST and the PDI. Emanuel also points out, from looking at figure 4, that the Atlantic PDI has doubled in the past 30 years (2005). Emanuel states that there is an obvious strong relationship between the two time series (r2=0.65), suggesting that tropical SST exerts a strong control on the [PDI] (2005). He then notes that the recent increase in SST is generally assumed to be related to global warming thereby implying that the increase in PDI values is related to global warming as well. Although there is a correlation between PDI and SSTs, and it is generally argued that the increase in SSTs is partially due to anthropogenic sources, Emanuel goes on to show that the increase in SST alone cannot account for the total increase in PDI. Since 1949, the accumulated annual duration of storms has increased by about 60%. However, according to theory, for every 1( C increase in tropical ocean temperature, the peak wind speed should increase by about 5%. As shown above there has only been an increase in SST of about 0.5( C, so the peak winds should only increase by about 2-3%, which would increase the PDI by only 6-9%. This falls very short of the observed increase in PDI. Emanuel concludes that only part of the observed increase in PDI can be attributed directly to increases in SSTs. The rest is left to be explained by other factors. Finally, Webster et al. looked at changes in hurricane characteristics over the past 35 years (1970-2004) for all ocean basins. They chose this time period because this is when we have reliable satellite data available. From 1970-2004, there has been an increase of about 0.5 C in each of the major tropical ocean basins. Webster et al. showed that there is no significant global trend in the number of storms or the number of storm days. They did show, however, that there is one exception to this, the North Atlantic Ocean basin. They say that the North Atlantic possesses an increasing trend in frequency and duration that is significant at the 99% confidence level. They conclude, however that the increase in the number of storms in the North Atlantic cannot be attributed to the warming in SST because there is no correlation in the other ocean basins. Next, Webster et al. looked at changes in intensity (according to the Saffir-Simpson scale) of hurricanes over the past 35 years. Figure 5 shows the number of intense hurricanes and the percentage of intense hurricanes when compared with the total number of hurricanes. Looking at these figures it can be seen that the number of category 4 and 5 hurricanes have been increasing (almost doubling in number) (Webster et al., 2005). Webster et al. conclude that this information indicates a 30-year trend toward more frequent and intense hurricanes. However, they state that more research still needs to be done before this can be attributed to global warming.  Figure 5. (A) The total number of hurricanes divided by intensity. The horizontal dashed lines are the 1970-2004 average for each category. (B) The percent of the total number of hurricanes for each category. Dashed lines are the 1970-2004 average percentages in each category. (Figure taken from Webster et al., 2005) This review examined 3 different methods for looking at global warming's potential effects on hurricanes. Goldenberg et al. focused on the trend of major hurricanes while Emanuel examined changes in his power dissipation index, and Webster et al. looked at changes in the number of intense hurricanes. All three studies found that there was some sort of correlation between these factors and an increase in SST in the North Atlantic Ocean basin. They also all agreed that there is still a lot of uncertainty as to what global warmings role is in these changes. It is inconclusive if these changes are due to human activities, or if they are just part of the natural cycle. One of the main setbacks that we face in this research is a lack of good, long-term, data. Over the past 100 years, many changes have been made to the way we study hurricanes. Prior to satellites, most of the information we gained was from landfall. This allowed us to miss a lot of information about hurricane formation and lifetime. Also, in more recent times, there has been a change in the application of the Dvorak technique, which may lead to a trend toward more intense cyclones (Webster et al., 2005). All of these changes are likely to cause unintended errors in our data. The satellite era began in 1966 and this isnt a long enough time period to determine some of the interannual variability that is apparent, and until we can figure out the natural variability, it will be very difficult to determine the impact humans may have. In addition to getting more data, we simply need a better understanding of hurricane formation and activity. There is still a lot of uncertainty in the causes of hurricane formation, and there is still much research to be done in this field. As we learn more about why hurricanes form, this will also help us determine what impact we might be having. In conclusion, it appears that it is too soon to tell if humans have indeed had an impact on hurricane activity. It has been determined that SST is not the only thing that affects hurricane formation and development, and has Emanuel shows in his study, SST increases alone cannot account for the increases in hurricane intensity that we have seen in recent years (2005). There doesnt seem to be a question that we are in an upward trend of hurricanes, the main question seems to be, is this trend explained by natural variability? Works Cited Emanuel, K., 2005: Increasing Destructiveness of Tropical Cyclones Over the Past 30 Years. Nature, 436, 686-688. Goldenberg, S.B., C.W. Landsea, A.M. Mestas-Nunez, W.M. Gray, 2001: The Recent Increase in Atlantic Hurricane Activity: Causes and Implications. Science, 293, 474-479. Webster, P.J., G.J. Holland, J.A. Curry, H-R. 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