ࡱ>  ` bjbjss z0D=7VVVVVVV$zkkkPlrzhw4<<<nuwwwwww$hjV_m"__VV<<1T_ V<V<u_uVV <zw 8jk(~j007J0 0V $Q,3,<____zk>skN-=z>s-zzzVVVVVV TORTS OUTLINE Sargentich, Spring 2008  TOC \o "1-4" \h \z \u  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085120" I. INTENTIONAL TORTS: PERSON  PAGEREF _Toc166085120 \h 1  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085121" A. BATTERY  PAGEREF _Toc166085121 \h 1  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085122" 1. Overview  PAGEREF _Toc166085122 \h 1  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085123" 2. Intent  PAGEREF _Toc166085123 \h 1  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085124" 3. Consent  PAGEREF _Toc166085124 \h 3  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085125" i. Generally  PAGEREF _Toc166085125 \h 3  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085126" ii. Medical Consent  PAGEREF _Toc166085126 \h 4  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085127" 5. Privilege  PAGEREF _Toc166085127 \h 4  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085128" 6. Remedies  PAGEREF _Toc166085128 \h 5  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085129" B. ASSAULT  PAGEREF _Toc166085129 \h 6  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085130" C. INTENTIONAL INFLICTION OF EMOTIONAL DISTRESS  PAGEREF _Toc166085130 \h 6  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085131" II. NEGLIGENCE  PAGEREF _Toc166085131 \h 8  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085132" A. STANDARD OF CARE  PAGEREF _Toc166085132 \h 8  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085133" 1. Utility  PAGEREF _Toc166085133 \h 9  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085134" i. Standard  PAGEREF _Toc166085134 \h 9  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085135" ii. Application  PAGEREF _Toc166085135 \h 9  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085136" 2. Culpability  PAGEREF _Toc166085136 \h 10  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085137" i. Standard  PAGEREF _Toc166085137 \h 10  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085138" ii. Factors Taken Into Account  PAGEREF _Toc166085138 \h 11  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085139" iii. Factors Not Taken Into Account  PAGEREF _Toc166085139 \h 11  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085140" 3. Custom  PAGEREF _Toc166085140 \h 12  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085141" 4. Negligence Per Se  PAGEREF _Toc166085141 \h 14  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085142" B. PROOF OF NEGLIGENCE  PAGEREF _Toc166085142 \h 15  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085143" 1. Circumstantial Evidence  PAGEREF _Toc166085143 \h 15  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085144" 2. Res ipsa loquitur  PAGEREF _Toc166085144 \h 16  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085145" C. DEFENSES  PAGEREF _Toc166085145 \h 17  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085146" 1. Contributory Negligence  PAGEREF _Toc166085146 \h 17  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085147" i. Traditionally  PAGEREF _Toc166085147 \h 17  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085148" ii. Comparative Fault  PAGEREF _Toc166085148 \h 18  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085149" 2. Assumption of Risk  PAGEREF _Toc166085149 \h 19  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085150" 3. No Duty to Act  PAGEREF _Toc166085150 \h 20  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085151" i. Stranger in Peril  PAGEREF _Toc166085151 \h 20  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085152" ii. Landowners  PAGEREF _Toc166085152 \h 21  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085153" D. CAUSATION  PAGEREF _Toc166085153 \h 22  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085154" 1. Actual Cause  PAGEREF _Toc166085154 \h 22  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085155" 2. Proximate Cause  PAGEREF _Toc166085155 \h 23  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085156" i. Foresight Approach  PAGEREF _Toc166085156 \h 23  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085157" ii. Hindsight Approach  PAGEREF _Toc166085157 \h 24  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085158" iii. Thin Skulled Victims  PAGEREF _Toc166085158 \h 25  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085159" iv. Intervening Actor  PAGEREF _Toc166085159 \h 25  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085160" E. COMPENSATION  PAGEREF _Toc166085160 \h 26  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085161" 1. Calculation  PAGEREF _Toc166085161 \h 26  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085162" 2. Relational Damages  PAGEREF _Toc166085162 \h 27  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085163" i. Wrongful Death  PAGEREF _Toc166085163 \h 27  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085164" ii. Loss of Consortium  PAGEREF _Toc166085164 \h 28  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085165" iii. Unwanted Children  PAGEREF _Toc166085165 \h 28  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085166" 3. Enhanced Risk  PAGEREF _Toc166085166 \h 29  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085167" 4. Economic Loss Damages  PAGEREF _Toc166085167 \h 29  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085168" III. STRICT LIABILITY  PAGEREF _Toc166085168 \h 31  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085169" A. VICARIOUS LIABILITY  PAGEREF _Toc166085169 \h 31  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085170" 1. Vertical  PAGEREF _Toc166085170 \h 31  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085171" i. Servants  PAGEREF _Toc166085171 \h 31  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085172" ii. Independent Contractors  PAGEREF _Toc166085172 \h 32  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085173" iv. Control  PAGEREF _Toc166085173 \h 33  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085174" 2. Horizontal  PAGEREF _Toc166085174 \h 34  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085175" B. ANBORMALLY DANGEROUS ACTIVITY  PAGEREF _Toc166085175 \h 35  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085176" 1. Rule of Rylands  PAGEREF _Toc166085176 \h 35  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085177" i. Historical Development  PAGEREF _Toc166085177 \h 35  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085178" ii. Animals  PAGEREF _Toc166085178 \h 35  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085179" iii. The Rule of Rylands  PAGEREF _Toc166085179 \h 36  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085180" 2. Modern Rule  PAGEREF _Toc166085180 \h 36  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085181" i. Second Restatement  PAGEREF _Toc166085181 \h 36  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085182" ii. Attribution  PAGEREF _Toc166085182 \h 37  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085183" iii. Notes  PAGEREF _Toc166085183 \h 38  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085184" 3. Defenses  PAGEREF _Toc166085184 \h 38  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085185" IV. INTENTIONAL TORTS: PROPERTY  PAGEREF _Toc166085185 \h 40  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085186" A. TRESPASS  PAGEREF _Toc166085186 \h 40  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085187" 1. Cause of Action  PAGEREF _Toc166085187 \h 40  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085188" 2. Privilege  PAGEREF _Toc166085188 \h 41  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085189" i. Public  PAGEREF _Toc166085189 \h 41  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085190" ii. Private  PAGEREF _Toc166085190 \h 41  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085191" 3. Fallout Cases  PAGEREF _Toc166085191 \h 42  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085192" 4. Remedies  PAGEREF _Toc166085192 \h 43  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085193" B. NUISANCE  PAGEREF _Toc166085193 \h 44  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085194" 1. Cause of Action  PAGEREF _Toc166085194 \h 44  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085195" 2. Attribution Rule  PAGEREF _Toc166085195 \h 46  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085196" 3. Remedies  PAGEREF _Toc166085196 \h 47  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085197" 3. Entitlement Approach  PAGEREF _Toc166085197 \h 48  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085198" V. PRODUCTS LIABILITY  PAGEREF _Toc166085198 \h 50  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085199" A. NOTES  PAGEREF _Toc166085199 \h 50  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085200" B. MANUFACTURERS LIABILITY  PAGEREF _Toc166085200 \h 51  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085201" 1. Negligence  PAGEREF _Toc166085201 \h 51  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085202" 2. Warranty  PAGEREF _Toc166085202 \h 52  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085203" 3. Strict Liability (Defect)  PAGEREF _Toc166085203 \h 52  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085204" i. In General  PAGEREF _Toc166085204 \h 52  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085205" ii. Between Manufacturers  PAGEREF _Toc166085205 \h 53  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085206" iii. Defect  PAGEREF _Toc166085206 \h 54  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085207" iv. Application  PAGEREF _Toc166085207 \h 56  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085208" v. Unavoidably Unsafe Products  PAGEREF _Toc166085208 \h 56  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085209" 4. Strict Liability (Misrepresentation)  PAGEREF _Toc166085209 \h 57  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085210" C. WARNINGS  PAGEREF _Toc166085210 \h 57  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085211" 1. Duty to Warn  PAGEREF _Toc166085211 \h 57  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085212" i. When Arises  PAGEREF _Toc166085212 \h 58  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085213" ii. Doctrines  PAGEREF _Toc166085213 \h 58  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085214" iii. Inadequate Warnings  PAGEREF _Toc166085214 \h 59  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085215" D. USER CONDUCT  PAGEREF _Toc166085215 \h 60  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085216" 1. Contributory Negligence  PAGEREF _Toc166085216 \h 60  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085217" 2. Safeguards  PAGEREF _Toc166085217 \h 60  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085218" E. DAMAGES  PAGEREF _Toc166085218 \h 60  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085219" VI. BEYOND TORT  PAGEREF _Toc166085219 \h 62  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085220" A. WORKERS COMPENSATION  PAGEREF _Toc166085220 \h 62  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085221" 1. In General  PAGEREF _Toc166085221 \h 62  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085222" 2. Constitutionality  PAGEREF _Toc166085222 \h 64  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085223" B. AUTO NO-FAULT  PAGEREF _Toc166085223 \h 64  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085224" C. REGULATION  PAGEREF _Toc166085224 \h 66  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085225" VII. THEORY  PAGEREF _Toc166085225 \h 68  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085226" A. FAULT / STRICT LIABILITY  PAGEREF _Toc166085226 \h 68  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085227" 1. Primary and Secondary Criticism  PAGEREF _Toc166085227 \h 68  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085228" 2. Arguments for Fault  PAGEREF _Toc166085228 \h 68  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085229" 3. Arguments for Strict Liability  PAGEREF _Toc166085229 \h 69  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085230" B. INSURANCE  PAGEREF _Toc166085230 \h 71  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085231" C. MARKET MECHANISMS  PAGEREF _Toc166085231 \h 72  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085232" 1. Market vs. Regulatory Utilitarianism  PAGEREF _Toc166085232 \h 72  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085233" 2. Subjective BPL  PAGEREF _Toc166085233 \h 73  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085234" i. Market Principles  PAGEREF _Toc166085234 \h 73  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085235" ii. As a sword  PAGEREF _Toc166085235 \h 73  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085236" D. PRINCIPLES OF COMPENSATION  PAGEREF _Toc166085236 \h 73  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085237" 1. Institutions  PAGEREF _Toc166085237 \h 73  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085238" 2. Principles  PAGEREF _Toc166085238 \h 74  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085239" i. Four Principles  PAGEREF _Toc166085239 \h 74  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085240" ii. Fault and Activity Liability  PAGEREF _Toc166085240 \h 74  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085241" iii. Choice and Need  PAGEREF _Toc166085241 \h 75  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085242" E. LEVELS OF SAFETY  PAGEREF _Toc166085242 \h 75  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085243" 1. Regulatory Standards  PAGEREF _Toc166085243 \h 75  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085244" 2. Notes  PAGEREF _Toc166085244 \h 76  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085245" F. DISTRIBUTIONAL PRINCIPLE  PAGEREF _Toc166085245 \h 78  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085246" 1. Rawls  PAGEREF _Toc166085246 \h 78  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085247" 2. In Tort Law  PAGEREF _Toc166085247 \h 78  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085248" VIII. ADDENDUM  PAGEREF _Toc166085248 \h 79  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085249" A. NOTES ON FAULT  PAGEREF _Toc166085249 \h 79  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc166085250" B. NOTES ON STRICT LIABILITY  PAGEREF _Toc166085250 \h 79  I. INTENTIONAL TORTS: PERSON A. BATTERY (Intentional Harming) Act ! R1, R2, R3 R1 = Contact R2 = Harmful or offensive quality R3 = Specific Injury 1. Overview ELEMENTS: (a) intent to cause (b) contact (c) that is harmful or offensive (e.g., without consent) CONTACT: Need not be between the  and the ". Garratt v. Dailey (WA): Liability found for moving a chair and causing contact between plaintiff and the ground. Mink v. University of Chicago (IL): Hospital liable for battery for administering pills to " s, even though " s were ones who took pills  All that is necessary is that the actor intent to cause the other, directly or indirectly, to come in contact with a foreign substance in a manner which the other will reasonably regard as offensive Manipulation of anothers body can constitute contact HARM OR OFFENSE: Determined according to an objective standard. A lack of consent is equivalent to offense. In Mink v. University of Chicago, mothers who were given a drug without their consent that harmed their childrens health sued for battery. There was no physical harm to the mothers. Held, offense was present in absence of consent. The gist of the action for battery is not the hostile intent of the defendant, but rather the absence of consent to the contact. 2. Intent Note: battery requires subjective intent (knowledge or purpose) on the part of the actor. In general: (a) Requires: Knowledge to a substantial certainty, or Purpose (b) Extent: (i) Specific injuries (R3): no intent required (ii) Contact (R1): intent always required Intent to commit assault is sufficient to constitute battery, if contact results, and vice versa. (iii) Harm or offense (R2): Jurisdictions vary: Majority require fault! intent as to some harm or offense. Others do not. Terminology:  Core Battery! Intent goes to harm or offense  Technical Battery! Intent goes only to contact White v. University of Idaho (ID): Piano teacher raps his fingers on pupil, causing her extreme injuries. Held, intent as to harm or offense not required for battery. Intent as to contact is sufficient. Children: The same subjective test is applied. Allowance is made for capacity, in determining knowledge. Not relevant to purpose. Garratt v. Dailey (WA): Five year, nine month old child pulls chair out from under woman as she is sitting. Held, liability is proper if the child knew to a substantial certainty (given his capacity) that woman would sit where the chair had been. Ellis v. DAngelo (CA): Four year old shoves babysitter to the floor. Held, although not guilty of negligence due to lack of capacity, the child was guilty of batterybeing in possession of the necessary subjective intent as to contact. Not possible for a four-year-old to have the mental capacity to foresee the possibilities of their conduct which would rationally support a finding that he was negligent. BUT, yes possible for a four-year-old to form the intent violently to strike another, which is all that a charge for battery requires The Insane: Most courts hold insane persons liable for their intentional torts. Justified on grounds that, between two innocent persons, loss should lie with the actor. (Palmatier v. Russ) Moreover, gives caretakers of the insane incentive to keep watch. Only necessary that the individual made a choiceeven a crazy choice. I.e. a rational choice not required for an intentional tort See, for instance: Polmatier v. Russ (CT): Individual found not guilty by reason of insanity nevertheless held liable for wrongful death. Contra, White v. Pile (Australia): Individual who fell within MNaghten rule not subject to liability in tort. 3. Consent i. Generally Consent is determined according to an objective standard. Jury is asked whether the  s behavior was such as to indicate consent. Consent may be revoked DETERMINE: (a) Presence of consent Would a reasonable person have thought  was consenting? Mere fact that contact benefits  does not imply consent Clayton (NJ): " liable for battery for setting broken arm without consent (b) Scope of consent What would a reasonable person in  s situation have understood herself to been consenting to? VARIETIES OF CONSENT: (a) Explicit (b) Tacit Construed from context. For instance, in a football game one is held to have consented to certain types of contact (viz., contact falling within the rules) No tacit consent unless  had reasonable opportunity to refuse without violation legal or moral duty. Mullen O Brien v. Cunard Steamship (MA): Immigrant is vaccinated onboard a steamship, by the doctor. She does not explicitly consent, but she does not refuse. She stands in line to receive vaccination and holds up her arm to be vaccinated. Held, consent could fairly be implied from  s actions, so consent present. (c) Implied Neither explicit nor tacit consent in fact. However, a situation where most people would give consent if they had the chance. For instance, A is walking unwittingly towards a cliff. B jumps on A, to save her from death. Consent is implied. Usually a weak argument (usu. doesnt win) SCOPE: When consent is tacit, scope of consent is determined from social context. Plaintiff rushed by classmates Markley v. Whiman (MI): ", pushed by child behind him, had consented to playing the game. Held,  could recover, as he had not consented to the game. Hard Case: What if  had participated in past? Consent to ongoing game? Or, past iniquity not indicating consent? Good Samaritan Society State v. Williams (NC): Accepting membership in society did not constitute consent to violent rituals. Football Player Battery Hackbart (10th Cir.): Held, although football is a violent sport, player did not consent to contact outside the rules. " liable because striking  was prohibited by general customs of football. ii. Medical Consent Prior to an operation, we require informed consent. It is considered negligent not to inform the consent of the patient EXTENSION OF SURGERY: (1) Negligence / Malpractice Approach (majority rule) Authorized when required by correct surgical procedure or the sound judgment of the surgeon. Kennedy v. Parrott (NC): " doctor not liable for puncturing  s cyst during operation, leading to phlebitis, because doing so was  accepted medical practice in the course of general surgery Today! build in the value of consent Justified, given need for procedure & value of consent? (2) Narrower Approach Authorized only if there is: (a) Life-threatening emergency (b) Consent of close relative (3) Most Narrow Approach Authorized only if there is a life-threatening emergency. CONDITIONAL CONSENT: Patients may place conditions on their consent, and if they do so expressly doctors may be held liable. Ashcraft v. King (CA): Liability for HIV infection where patient consented to transfusion only if family-donated blood was used but doctor used non-family blood In Mink, hospital could try arguing patients had consented for doctors to do whatever doctors thought would help them, but this probably would fail 5. Privilege (1) Self Defense Either: (a) To defend self from physical attack. (b) To defend other people from physical attack. Requires a reasonable belief that harm is imminent. Moreover, the injured party must be culpably responsible for this reasonable belief. Chapman v. Hargrove. Extent of force: Cannot be greater than is required to repel the threatened attack The defendant must know that the force is excessive. There must be intent to inflict unnecessary injury to defeat the defense. (2) Defense of property Limited, but existing (3) To make an arrest By a public officer and sometimes civilians (4) Privilege of discipline of children Qualified and limited in states by many statutes. 6. Remedies NOMINAL DAMAGES: Even if there is no harm, plaintiff is entitled to nominal damages. (Mink) COMPENSATORY DAMAGES: Aim to make the plaintiff whole at the expense of the defendant Only intent running to R1 required. Ellis v. DAngelo (CA) Three Elements: (a) Medical Costs (b) Lost wages (c) Pain and suffering Pain and suffering: Calculated according to the jurys good sense. Reviewed on appeal to see that they approximate a sane estimate and do not shock the judicial conscience. Jones v. Fisher (WI) (dentures case) PUNITIVE DAMAGES: Aim to punish the wrongdoer and deter others. Optional, upon finding of outrage. Intent running to R2 required. Ellis v. DAngelo (CA) NOTE: In many statues, public policy prohibits insurance coverage of punitive damages Requires: (a) Formerly: malice or vindictiveness (b) Today: OUTRAGE!!! (i.e., the character of outrage usu. associated with crime)  Wanton, willful, or reckless disregard of the  s rights Question to the jury:  Is it such a deviation from the ordinary standard of conduct, in the community, that you feel it is outrageous? Note that this is a normative question. However, it also requires a moral judgment. Common conduct may sometimes be outrageous. Factors in Calculation: (a) Wealth of defendants (b) Character and extent of acts (i.e., reprehensibility) (c) Probable motivation (d) Punishment and deterrence (e) Amount of compensatory damages Rationale: Deterrence: marshal powers of private attorneys general. Internalization of full cost of injury. Jones v. Fisher (WI) (Dentures Case): " s attacked Jones after she quit working for them. Seized her and removed her dental plate, as security for loan they had given her. Entire incident lasted less than 15 minutes minimal physical injury, some mental distress. Appellate court reduces damages, on grounds of excessiveness, but allows finding of outrage to stand (i.e., allows reduced punitive damages to stand). A vigorous dissent argues that outrage is lacking, so punitive damages should be eliminated. B. ASSAULT ELEMENTS: (1) Defendants conduct: Intent to cause: (a) Harmful or offensive contact, or (b) Imminent apprehension of such contact (2) Plaintiffs experience: (a) Reasonable apprehension of (b) Imminent harmful or offensive contact. REASONABLENESS: Determined according to an objective standard. Unloaded Pistol: While there was no danger, it was reasonable for plaintiff to feel apprehension. Leering Defendant: Not an assault. Plaintiffs fear of imminent bodily harm was not reasonable. IMMINENCE: Threats made from a distance are insufficient to constitute assault. Threat By Phone: Not assault. Threat was to be carried out in the near future, but not the imminent future. Threat In Person: Assault, if there is: (a) Threat of violence, and (b) Ability to carry the threat into execution. C. INTENTIONAL INFLICTION OF EMOTIONAL DISTRESS Rationale: Why withhold liability for emotional distress, in the absence of physical harm, when in many cases involving small physical harms emotional distress constitutes the bulk of the damages? REQUIRES: (a) State of mind Either: Purpose, Knowledge (to a substantial certainty), or Recklessness (knowledge to a high certainty) As to: The infliction of severe emotional harm. (b) Outrageousness Attribution Rule: Required to divide experiences that are part of the normal experience of life from those that are wrongly inflicted. Factors: Abuse of a position of authority Knowledge of the plaintiffs particular susceptibility Examples: Threats: Even if not imminent, may constitute IIED. Litigation No liability for insisting upon rights. But, liable if pursuing a spurious claim against a defendant who cannot afford to pay. Divorce: Generally, not grounds for IIED. But, in some circumstances: Proposing while already married to another woman. Telling wife you have AIDS. Philandering Priest: No liability. Consensual sexual relationship between two adults is not outrageous. (c) Severe emotional distress (d) Proximate Cause PRIVILEGE Religious Conduct is privileged under the First Amendment. Paul v. Watchtower: Jehovahs Witnesses practice of shunning disassociated persons is Constitutionally protected. II. NEGLIGENCE Negligence: Conduct which falls below the standard established by law for the protection of others against the unreasonable risk of harm (RS 282) Always entails a balancing test To establish a claim of negligence,  must prove: (1) Injury (2) Duty (3) Breach (4) Actual Cause (5) Proximate Cause Steps in negligence analysis: Look to ": Negligent? Look to : Negligent? Look to causation PRE-CLASSICAL: Strict:  For though a man doth a lawful thing, yet if any damage do thereby befall another, he shall answer for it. (The Case of the Thorns) Fault:  No man shall be excused of a trespass& except it may be judged utterly without his fault; as if a man by force take my hand and strike. (Weaver v. Ward) CLASSICAL (fault): Losee v. Buchanan: " s steam boiler explodes, injuring . " not liable because no showing of fault (negligence).  the rule is, at least in this country, a universal one& that no one can be made liable for injuries& without some fault. Brown v. Kendall: " used a stick to separate two fighting dogs, during which he hit  in the eye. Held, no liability without fault. A. STANDARD OF CARE  That which a person of ordinary prudence and caution would use if his own interests were to be affected, and the whole risk were his own. The Nitro-Glycerine Case. RS 283: Unless the actor is a child, the standard of conduct to which he must conform to avoid being negligent is that of a reasonable man under like circumstances In Nitro-Glycerine Case, no liability because " had no reason to know of or to inquire as to the package s contents 1. Utility i. Standard HAND FORMULA: Action is negligent if B < PL. B! burden to the " of a possible safety precaution P! probability of accident absent the precaution L! degree of loss/gravity of harm threatened absent the precaution PL is defined by the precaution to be taken (B). Posner (Davis): PL includes not only to the costs of the accident in question, but also the costs of any other, similar risks the particular B would have avoided Factors are supposed to include social values of competing interests, too ii. Application INSOLVENCY: Going out of business is not a factor in the burden. Unless, perhaps, an entire business would be forced to shut down. FORESEEABILITY: Only foreseeable harms give rise to a finding of negligence. Probability, in the Hand formula, is related to the idea of foreseeability. If the probability is very low, the risk also may not be reasonably foreseeable. 100 year flood is not unforeseeable, but it may be reasonable not to prepare for it. CARE FOR NEGLIGENT ACTORS: Contributory Negligence: Negligent  s cannot recover. Posner: Due care is  the care that is optimal given that the other party is exercising due care. Comparative Negligence Regime: Negligent  can recover. Posner says there is no general duty to anticipate another person s negligence. (Davis) Posner also says duty does arise when the probability of another s negligence is high and the cost of prevention is low. (Davis) EXAMPLES: Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad v. Krayenbuhl (NE): , a child, is injured by a turntable alongside railroad tracks. The piece of equipment could be locked without substantially interfering with its operation. Held, company negligent for not installing locks. Van Skike v. Zussman (IL): Child wins toy lighter, buys fluid at nearby store and burns himself Held, not liable because not foreseeable that child who won toy lighter would buy fluid at nearby store and start fire. Davis v. Consolidated Rail Corp (7th Cir.): Inspector of cars was under a rail car when it began to move. He had failed to hang up a flag to warn the railroad. The railroad failed to either check the length of the train or blow its whistle. Inspector gravely injured. Held, negligent. While the railroad was not obligated to check the length of the train it was obligated to blow its whistle because costless. Snyder v. American Association of Blood Banks (NJ): Despite evidence to the contrary, AABB did not believe AIDS was blood-transmissible. It failed to recommend precautions that could have shielded blood supply. Held, failure to take precautions was negligence because PL very high Contra, N.N.V. v. AABB: Recommends deference to professional associationso long as it acts in good faith. 2. Culpability i. Standard STANDARD: Reasonable care is the care exercised by a reasonable person under like circumstances. (RS 283) The reasonable person keeps interest of self and others on a par (neither an egoist nor an altruist), is reasonably considerate of others safety This is an objective standard, although it is personalized in many respects. (see Vaughan v. Menlove). LEVELS OF CULPABILITY: Negligence may be divided into three mental states, of decreasing culpability, all of which give rise to liability: (above these three are recklessness and then intent) (1) Disregard Involves knowledge of unreasonable risk and active disregard. This would usually merit punitive damages. (2) Inadvertence Involves hasty action or a blank mind The party, afterwards, would be able to recognize his fault. This would be ordinary negligence. (3) Error The party is trying to do the right thing but slips up. The lowest level of culpability. May still be negligent, as we judge from an objective standard. Recklessness: Intentionally Does an act or fails to do an act which is his duty to the other to do Knows or has reason to know of facts which would lead a reasonable man to realize conduct creates an unreasonable risk of bodily harm to the other Knows or has reason to know high degree of probability that substantial harm will result to him ii. Factors Taken Into Account (usually apply both to " s and to  s) (1) KNOWLEDGE Everyone is assumed to posses commonplace knowledge. Those with special or expert knowledge are bound to use it in preventing accidents. (2) SOME CAPACITY FACTORS (a) Physical Disability Standard is that of a reasonably careful person with the same disability. May either lower standard of care or impose additional requirements. E.g., Smith (PA): Blind mans decision not to use cane was c.neg (b) Youth Two Part Test: (1) Subjective: What is the childs age, degree of development, and experience in related matters? (2) Objective: What could we reasonably expect that a child of this age, experience, and development would do? A child may be found negligent only if his actions fall short of what may reasonably be expected of children of similar capacity Mastland (IA) (3) EMERGENCY Those confronted with a sudden emergency cannot be held to the same standard of care as those with time to plan. Myhaver v. Knutson (car in wrong lane) However, states differ on whether they will instruct juries on this point: Individuals must anticipate emergencies, though the instruction may downplay that fact. (4) SUDDEN INCAPACITATION Substandard conduct because of sudden incapacitation or loss of consciousness is negligence only if the sudden incapacitation was reasonably foreseeable. NOTE: C.Neg and Comp.Neg.: In deciding the existence of c.neg, the standard is the same as for deciding existence of negligence (i.e., doesn't take incapacity into account), BUT incapacity can be used for determining/measuring effect of c.neg when determining comp.neg iii. Factors Not Taken Into Account (usu. apply both to " s and to  s) (1) LOW INTELLECT: A particular actor s low intellect is not taken into account when determining reasonable care. Vaughan v. Menlove (NC): " of less than average intelligence maintained a hay stack in a negligent manor, such that it caught fire and destroyed some of his neighbor s property. Held, " liable for negligence. " claims that the standard  ought to have been whether the " had acted honestly& to the best of his own judgment. Court responds:  That, however, would leave so vague a line as to afford no rule at all. (2) RETARDATION: Retardation is also not taken into account when determining reasonable care. Wright v. Tate (VA): Retarded individual gets into a car with a drunk driver, after making some signs that he is aware it isnt a good idea. He dies in the crash. Held, contributory negligence. (3) INSANITY: Insanity is not taken into account when determining reasonable care. Reasoning: Adults, in the position of caretakers for the insane individual, should be motivated to exercise care. Jolley (FL): Not unusual in tort to hold persons to standard they cannot meet BUT, A sudden mental incapacity equivalent in its effect to such physical causes as a sudden heart attack, epileptic seizure, stroke, or fainting should be treated alike and not under the general rule of insanity Breunig (WI) (4) OLD AGE (5) MENTAL AND EMOTIONAL DISABILITY CTW (TX): Pedophile negligent in not avoiding situations in which he would be around young children BUT, Berberian (NJ): Allows flexible capacity standard for Alzheimers patients Exceptions: (1) A childs mental and emotional disabilities are taken into account (2) Adults mental and emotional capacities relevant when comparing fault 3. Custom Oliver Wendell Holmes: What usually is done may be evidence of what ought to be done, but what ought to be done is fixed by a standard of reasonable prudence, whether it usually is complied with or not. (a) CUSTOMARY STANDARDS: have weight The T.J. Hooper (2nd Cir.): Tugs lack radios, sink in storm. Customary practice is not to have radios on tugs. Held, tug owners negligent for not having radios. There are precautions so imperative that even their universal disregard will not excuse their omission. In most cases reasonable prudence is in fact common prudence; but strictly it is never its measure; a whole calling may have unduly lagged in the adaptation of new and available devices. May give rise to a presumption. (Low v. Park Price) Classical Cases: Some classical cases say that custom is conclusive. E.g., Titus (PA): Broad-gauge boxcars on narrow-gauge trains Reasons to defer to custom: Fairness: People know what standards theyll be held to Makes deciding cases easier for the courts Expertise: Industry has greater expertise on the issue than courts (b) PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS: usually conclusive. Malpracticenegligence of a professionaldetermined according to adherence to professional standards of care In malpractice case, must show what professional standard of care is Professional standard of care: Standard of care and skill practiced by a qualified member of the relevant profession) EXCEPTIONS: (i) Situations where the BPL is obvious, even to non-professionals Some opinions speak in terms of a rebuttable presumption of non-negligence. (e.g., United Blood Services (CO))  must show that professional standard is  unreasonably deficient. It s difficult for an attack on a professional standard as unreasonably deficient to succeed, but still possible Helling v. Carey: Doctor does not give a test for glaucoma to a patient under the recommended ageaccording to professional standard. Held, negligence. The test is so cheap and its benefits are so obvious that failure to give the test is negligent as a matter of law. Reasonable prudence may require a standard of practice which is higher than that exercised by the relevant professional community (ii) Situations that do not call for professional judgment, where professionals may still be liable for failure to exercise ordinary care. Powell v. Catholic Medical Center (NH): Nurse is attacked by patient, after doctor failed to warn her of violent propensities. Held, doctor negligent. Specialized training and experience do not excuse a physician from exercising the reasonable care of an ordinary person. PROFESSIONAL Factors: (a) Relationship with client (b) Insulation from the market (c) Fiduciary duty Not appropriate in situations involving market pressures. Rossell v. Volkswagen of America (AZ): Car designers are not entitled to be judged according to a professional standard of care. Idea is that professional standards of care hold professionals to a higher standard of care than that of an ordinary, prudent person (c) BETWEEN NON-STRANGERS Posner and others would argue that, between non-strangers (with a contract), the bargained-for level of care should be required. Low v. Park Price: Maybe price included risk of theft due to lack of night watchman Unless otherwise specified in the contract, that will be assumed to be ordinary care, as dictated by custom. For strangers, however, BPL balancing works well Idea is to reserve tort stranger situations, and govern non-stranger situations by contract 4. Negligence Per Se COMPLIANCE: Evidence of non-negligence. May still be negligent, as legislature could merely be setting a minimum level of care. NON-COMPLIANCE: Violation of a statute is negligence if: (a) violation of statute proximately caused  s injuries (b) statute has a safety purpose Statute must be specific about level of care required Violation of traffic laws may only be evidence of negligence (c)  is in class protected by the statute (d) harm is within type of risk sought to be prevented Negligence per se does not arise when the statute itself establishes a right to sue for damages. Contra, maybe can have two counts, negligence and negligence per se EXCEPTIONS: (a) Good Cause/Justification: Compliance would lead to greater danger than noncompliance. Assume that legislature did not intend for the statute to apply where the safety purpose does not operate. Strict BPL, however, is not sufficient to show justification Tedla (NY): Pedestrians are walking with traffic, as there is much more traffic on the opposite side of the road. Statute commands them to walk against traffic. Held, pedestrians not negligent because had good cause to violate statute (b) Excuse: Defendant neither knew nor should have known of the occasion for compliance (violation of statute either not voluntary or not deliberate) Gore (CT): Landlord didnt know there was lead paint in apartment, and statute did not impose strict liability MINORS: Not applicable to children. A minors violation of a statute is merely evidence of negligence. (Bauman (WA)) STRICT LIABILITY: Sometimes imposed eliminating the excuse defense. If the statute provides for strict liability. Spalding v. Waxler (OH): " had brakes regularly serviced, but they gave out anyway. Held, negligence per se. Brake-equipment statute imposes strict liability However, there is a presumption against interpreting statutes as providing for strict liability. Examples: Gore v. Peoples Savings Bank (CT): Landlord did not know of lead paint in apartment. Lessee sues, claiming negligence per se. Held, lack of knowledge is a valid excuse. Contra, Antwaun v. Heritage Mutual Insurance: Landlord knew about peeling paint in apartment. Held, negligent because presence of lead was foreseeable. Note on Statutes: DISTINGUISH PER SE NEGLIGENCE FROM: Implied Rights of Action: If a statute is silent on the issue of civil remedies, courts may imply a civil remedy if the purpose seems to demand it. Express Right of Action: Statutes such as the Consumer Product Safety Act expressly provide for private enforcement. B. PROOF OF NEGLIGENCE 1. Circumstantial Evidence STANDARD: Could the jury draw an inference of negligence? Issue would be whether there are potential explanations for what happened, other than negligence. Connecting the dots based on credible evidence, not mere speculation. An inference requires a smaller leap from facts to conclusion than does speculation EXAMPLE: Thompson (MA): While going down poorly maintained steps at night, in the dark, woman trips. Cannot say why. Held, jury could infer that she fell as a result of " s negligence. 2. Res ipsa loquitur TRADITIONAL ELEMENTS: (1) Accident is of the kind that ordinarily does not happen in the absence of negligence. Probabilities in gross, not with respect to this particular case  can prove this element by pointing to common knowledge, expert testimony, and the circumstances of the case (2) Caused by an agency or instrumentality within the " s exclusive control. Rationale: Person in exclusive control of instrumentality which caused the accident has best opportunity of ascertaining the cause of the accident (i.e., imbalance of information on " s side) Modern cases tend to downplay this element (e.g., Ybarra) (3) Not due to  s voluntary action or contribution. MODERN DOCTRINE: Accident is a  class of accident that  ordinarily happens because of the negligence of the class of actors of which  is a member. EFFECT: Presumption: Majority of courts (e.g., CA) hold that res ipsa gives rise to a rebuttable presumption of negligence. Allows for directed verdicts, on summary judgment. Inference: Minority of courts (e.g., NY) hold that res ipsa only allows the jury to draw an inference of negligence. Directed verdict appropriate only if the inference to be drawn is unusually strong. GROUPS: First, applied in situations involving institutions such as hospitals, nursing homes, and childcare centers. Here, the staff is treated as an instrumentality in the control of the institution. Next, applied to multiple " s, when they all together had exclusive control over the  and the  has no ability to identify which specific " injured him Ybarra v. Spangard (CA): Several doctors treated plaintiff while he was unconscious, during a surgery. One of them must have injured him. None would say which one it was. Held, all " s held liable under res ipsa doctrine.  Res ipsa you all.  [I]t is manifestly unreasonable for them to insist that [the ] identify any one of them as the person who did the alleged negligent act. This doctrine deemphasizes the  exclusive control element C. DEFENSES Second stage of the lawsuit turns from  s conduct to the ". 1. Contributory Negligence Two-part inquiry: Was the  s conduct negligent? Did  s negligence contribute to his injury? Contributory negligence is negligence without which  s injuries would not have occurred i. Traditionally (1) TRADITIONAL RULE: Contributory negligence is a complete bar to recovery. Policy: Administrability Moral culpability: Might say  should not be rewarded for being at fault Posner argues this is a  rough and ready way to identify the cheapest cost avoider whom he argues will usually be a negligent . BUT, " may be the structural CCA, even if  is the situational CCA. (2) INTERMEDIARY DOCTRINES Last Clear Chance (WMATA: DC Metro suicide case): Contributory negligence does not bar recovery, if: (a) , through  s negligence, is in a situation of danger (b)  was (i) oblivious to or (ii) could not extricate herself from danger (c) " was (i) aware or (ii) should have been aware of  s danger and  s oblivion to or inability to extricate herself from her danger (d) " could have avoided injuring  after becoming aware of  s danger but failed to do so Reasoning: Causation: " was last person in position to avert harm A pre-modern approach to causation Incentives: Last one with chance to avert harm should have incentive to do so Fault: " s later negligence involves higher degree of fault Don t like harshness of c.neg (under traditional rule) Not a defense to AR, only a defense to c.neg Doctrine of Avoidable Consequences Obligation to mitigate before accidents, if at all possible. Seatbelt use, while not contributory negligence because it does not cause an accident, is relevant to damages calculation. ii. Comparative Fault TWO REGIMES: (a) Pure Contributory Fault (e.g., NY, CA) Simply compare and apportion fault. (b) Fifty Percent Bar Rule (e.g., OH, TX, NE) If plaintiffs negligence is above (or at, depending on statute) 50%, bar recovery. Otherwise, compare and apportion. FACTORS in comparing fault: (a) Utility: Compare BPL. Situational CCA! the lowest B Structural CCA! the highest PL (b) Culpability: (i) Knowledge (ii) Capacity This differs from determination of causative negligence and simple presence of c.neg, where capacity is not relevant (iii) Awareness (disregard, inadvertence, error) (iv) Noncompliance Custom/professional standards Statutes (negligence per se) (v) Proximity of causation (vi) Imposition (compare  s and " s B s) Also, less blameworthy to impose risk on yourself than on others (vii) Magnitude of risk created (compare  s and " s PL s) Intentional Actors: Most courts do not compare when one of the actors was an intentional tortfeasor. Intentional tortfeasor is a superseding cause in a way that a negligent  is not. Negligence and intention different  in kind. Other courts do compare. Want to avoid  all or nothing lottery associated with complete bar. Negligence and intention different  in degree not  in kind. Insurance: When both actors are insured, no set-off for damages. Otherwise, insurers would have a fortuitous windfall at the expense of their insured parties. 2. Assumption of Risk These cases occur at the intersection between private freedom and social responsibility. MODERN RULE: (1) Express Assumption of Risk Assumption of risk in a contract is binding, unless contrary to public policy. (2) Primary Implied Assumption of Risk (no duty) Risks inherently associated with activities are assumed by participants. Relates to activities whose flourishing depends on suspension of duties of ordinary care with respect to those activities E.g., sports and other recreational activities Defendants have no obligation to reduce such risks. Defendant has no duty of ordinary care However, defendants may not enhance these risks. Defendants may not act negligently to enhance risks. Example: Scott (WA): Skier injured going down a hill. Liability is appropriate only if the course was negligently designed, i.e., if course design enhanced risk of injury beyond that  inherent in the sport of skiing (3) Secondary Implied Assumption of Risk I.e., agreement to accept risk flowing from " s breach of duty of care (a) Unreasonable Assimilated today into Comparative Negligence. Where an employee of a company was negligent, that is a factor in comparison of fault. Unrelated, today, to the contract between the parties. (b) Reasonable Not a defense, in the modern scheme Siragusa (WA): Nurse injured by door hook. Held, employer has duty to furnish employees with reasonably safe workplace. No defense that employer was aware of risk negligently created. Fire-Fighters Rule Extremely dangerous activities do not give rise to an obligation on the part of the employer to reduce the risk. Test pilots, firefighters, etc. We say that these employees reasonably assume the risk. NOTE: Assumption of risk is not voluntary if " has left  no reasonable alternative choice to avert harm or exercise right " has not right to deprive  of (Clayards) CLASSICAL DOCTRINE: (1) Fellow Servant Rule: Employers not liable for injuries to employees, resulting from the negligence of a fellow employee. Farwell (MA)  is a railroad engineer injured by fellow employees negligent conduct (2) Employees: Employers are not liable for injuries to employees, if the employee was aware of the risk. Even if the employee was reasonable. Exception: Actual negligence by employer Lawson (MA): Hatchet factory set up negligently. Employee injured. Held, no liability because employee knew of risk of falling hatchets. (3) No Assumption of Risk Between Strangers In absence of a contract, there is no assumption of risk. Clayards (QB): Horse-owner takes animal over ditch in front of stable, horse injured in ditch. Held, ditch diggers liable. (AR also not voluntary) REASONING: Pro AR: Utility: Employee is in the best place to see the risk and prevent it (CCA). Choice: Employee has contracted for the risk. If the employee is willing to assume the risk, it is because the risk is worth the premium he is paid in wages. Con: Constrained Bargaining: Assumption of risk is a fiction. Knowledge and bargaining power necessary for argument to work simply are not present. 3. No Duty to Act i. Stranger in Peril RULE: No duty to aid a person in peril if not legally responsible for their peril E.g., Cappier (KS): Held, RR not liable for failing to aid person who was run over by RR due to his own fault. EXCEPTIONS: (a) Assumption of care (via contract or creation of reasonable expectation on ) E.g., when you undertake to rescue another The only classical exception. (b) Relationship between parties A broadened classical exception. Employer/employee, innkeeper/guest, carrier/passenger, consumer/retailer, warden/prisoner, etc. Also applies when victim was in rescuers custody without access to alternative rescuers (c) Injury caused by defendant or defendants instrumentality, even if non-negligently A purely modern exception. (not applicable in Cappier) If you hit someone with your car, etc. L.S. Ayers (IN): Storeowner had duty to aid boy injured by stores escalator EMERGING RULE: Appears that the number of exceptions is proliferating, eroding the rule (e.g., VT statute). Duty to act is imposed whenever: (a) it is reasonable (b) the duty can be met in a reasonable way Reasoning: We want to divide law and morality. But, can that division stand up? Isnt policy morality? Law asks us to control our actions, but it does not force us to act. Illustrates the degree to which the law proceeds according to a morality of respect, rather than a morality of love (Kant) ii. Landowners MODERN RULE (1/3 of states): Landowner has a duty of reasonable care under the circumstances Status of the entrant is relevant, but it is no longer dispositive. Foreseeability is relevant, as it always is, with respect to negligence and reasonable care. Basso (CA): Foreseeability of the possibility of injury shall be the measure of liability. The actions of trespassers are not foreseeable, whereas the actions of invitees are. Other states have retained classical scheme, but eliminated distinction between licensee and invitiee CLASSICAL DOCTRINE: Duty to entrant varies depending on entrants status (a) Trespasser (i.e., burglar) Forbids only a willful or wanton or aggressive act (traps) (b) Licensee Someone whos presence is accepted. Social guests (typically, upgraded at end of classical period). Duty to warn of dangerous conditions not likely to be discovered. (c) Invitee Someone who is on the property for the business of the defendant. Duty to keep premises in a reasonably safe condition. D. CAUSATION After looking at " s negligence and  s c.neg and AR, look at connection " s conduct and  s injuries 1. Actual Cause ( factual cause ) Actual cause is a factual inquiry. STANDARD: The evidence must show that more probably than not the injury would not have occurred in the absence of the negligence. We are asking if the jury can make an inference. The exact mechanism does not have to be known. QUESTION: But for the negligence, would the injury have occurred? Note that this is inherently counter-factual. Barnes (IA): Doctor negligent in failing to discover steel in  s eye. Held, not liable because delay did not cause loss of eye. Ford (MA): Man falls overboard, drowns. Rescue boat improperly stowed. Held, ship owner not liable because man still would have drowned had rescue boat properly been stowed LOST CHANCE DOCTRINE: Relevant in situations where " s negligence is not but-for cause but rather merely made  s injury from preexisting condition more likely to occur  is compensated for the lost chance of not suffering the injury. But for the negligence of the doctor, what was the chance that the  would not have suffered the harm? Damages limited to value of lost chance of not suffering the injury attributable to  s negligence, as determined by percentage by which " s negligence increased  s risk of harm E.g., if  would have been 30% less likely to be injured but for " s negligence, " liable for 30% of  s damages E.g., if  would have had 40% chance of no injury absent " s negligence, " liable for 40% of  s damages Applies only in cases when there s a special relationship of trust and reliance between the parties (e.g., doctor/patient (Scafidi)) MULTIPLE CAUSE: Joint-and-several liability: An injury is the result of two defendants actions. Each " s negligent conduct is necessary but not sufficient cause of  s injury, but taken together were sufficient to cause  s injury. Each defendant becomes liable for the whole amount. Examples: Two men shoot guns at the same time, both striking a vital organ. The victim dies. But, no joint-and-several liability if both strike non-vital organs and the man is only injured. Johnson v. Chapman (WV): A wall is supported by two buildings. Neither " repairs the wall, so both buildings collapse. Held, jointly and severally liable Rationale: More  friendly, because  always compensated 100% even when "2 cannot be found or are judgment-proof Let wrongdoer (") bear burden of chasing down other wrongdoer Contribution: One " can recover from another if first " paid more than his equal share to  (unless first " intentionally contributed to  s injury) Classic system: Each party required to pay a pro rata (i.e. equal) share. Makes sense only under c.neg scheme, not under comp. scheme Modern, Proportionate Responsibility: Each party s contribution is assessed according to his fault. Each " s proportionate liability determined up front Causal proximity is  inextricably mixed with fault. Exceptions: Non-economic damages: Under CA statute, liability for non-economic damages is not joint-and-several. 50% rule: Under TX statute, no joint-and-several liability if fault is <50% (with 15% exception for toxic torts). 2. Proximate Cause (legal cause) Unlike actual cause, which is a factual inquiry, proximate cause is a policy or normative inquiry. i. Foresight Approach STANDARD: Were the particular damages foreseeable, at the time the defendant acted? Does not require mechanical foresight. Only need to be able to foresee the general type of harm that occurred. Fazzolari Looking for a package of risks, rather than a specific chain of events. Consider all risks within the risk package, large and small. Dont disaggregate the risks. Kinsman METHOD: (1) Identify defendants negligence (2) Ask why defendant was negligent Define the PL. (3) Ask if the injury suffered was within the risk, or PL, foreseen from " s negligence. If  s injury was within the package of risks that lead us to call " s conduct negligent, then  s injury was foreseeable ARGUMENTATION:  will try to expand the PL, arguing for a more general package of risks. Emphasize the general contours of the risk. I.e., why do we call " negligent? ( Because of all the risks " s conduct has created " will try to limit the PL, arguing for a more specific risk. Emphasize the more specific type of harm envisioned. RATIONALE: If injury not foreseeable, not deterrent effect Examples: Rat poison in the kitchen catches on fire. Larrimore (OK) Held, no proximate cause because possibility of fire is not what makes leaving rat poison in kitchen negligent.  s injury not within the package of risks that makes " s conduct  bad Palsgraf (NY): RR employees negligently assist passenger onto train. As a result of assistance, passengers drops a package, which turns out to be fireworks and explodes, causing scales to fall on other side of platform, injuring . Held, no proximate cause because risk of scales falling and injuring  was not within the range of apprehension of risks stemming from pushing passenger onto train. Wagon Mound Case (UK): Oil released in harbor. Damages ships, as could be foreseen. Also catches fire, in a manner that could not be foreseen. Held, no proximate cause as to damage from fire. It is not the hindsight of a fool, but it is the foresight of a reasonable man which alone can determine responsibility. ii. Hindsight Approach STANDARD: Was the " s negligent conduct a  direct cause of  s injury? METHOD: A question of intuition (rather than analysis). Jury presented with all the evidence and asked to make a moral, normative judgment. Metaphors are appropriate: ripples on a pond, etc. Direct enough connection? Natural and unbroken sequence of events? Dellwo (MN): Boy driving boat passes too close to another boat, entangling fishing line from other boat and causing reel to explode, injuring eye of person on other boat holding the reel Held, proximate cause because  s was a  natural and probable consequence of the boy s negligent conduct. Not the same as  but for causation. Example of an explosion that goes off, creating a loud noise. A woman on the street below drops a baby. We have but for causation. We do not have proximate cause, even under the hindsight approach. iii. Thin Skulled Victims Defendant must take the victim as he finds him. This is true under either the foresight or hindsight approach. In thin skull cases, foreseeability analysis applies only to the type of injury, not the extent of damage I.e., it matters only whether the injury was foreseeable, not the extent of injury For instance: Suppose you hit a hemophiliac with a golf cart. Ask: is it foreseeable that you would hit him? Or, was your negligence a direct cause of hitting him? Do not ask: was it foreseeable that he would be a hemophiliac? iv. Intervening Actor MODERN RULE: Proportionate Fault! apportion liability based on the comparative fault of the multiple defendants. An actor remote in the causal chain may be found to be the most at fault. Godesky (UT): Power company was the most negligent actor when it runs a high voltage power line near to a roof. TRADITIONAL RULE: Superseding Actor! later negligent actor  cuts off the fault of the earlier actor  entitled either to full compensation or nothing. QUESTION: Is this a superseding actor, or merely an  intervening actor (coming between, but not cutting off fault)? Foresight Approach: Is the intervening actor s negligent action something that could be foreseen? Godesky:  The proper test is whether the subsequent negligence was foreseeable by the earlier actor. McLaughlin (see below) suggests that " s  cannot be expected to foresee subsequent negligence. Hindsight Approach: Despite the intervening actor, was the negligence of " directly related to the injury? Related to culpability. How bad was the intervening actor? Example: McLaughlin (CA): Jury finds that manufacturer of burn treatment blocks was negligent in not warning users (on blocks themselves) of proper method of use. But, negligence was superseded by the negligence of a fireman who gave the blocks to a nurse (unwrapped) without telling her how to use them. DRAMSHOP CASES: Can a seller of liquor be liable for injuries caused to a third party by the buyer? Early cases held that the actions of the drinker cut off liability. Later cases hold that sellers can be liable, when risk was foreseeable or the relationship is direct. For instance: Liability when the drinker was passing out at the bar. Schooley (WA): Liability when the buyer was a minor, and the victim was the buyers friend (and also a minor). E. COMPENSATION NOTE: Lost chance doctrine & multiple cause doctrine (joint-and-several liability) are discussed under Actual Cause. 1. Calculation Calculation of damages is an act of translation. L ! L CATEGORIES OF DAMAGES: (a) Medical Costs (b) Wage losses Does not account for lost chance of promotion (c) Pain and suffering No specific theory. Court asks what is  just and reasonable. Factors: (1) Nature, extent, and duration of injury (2) Aggravation of existing condition (3) Humiliation (4) Anxiety (5) Loss of enjoyment of life (minority states consider as entirely separate element) Problem of variability: Posner recommends keeping track of average jury amounts & informing juries of that precedent. Others say variability is inherent to a democratic jury system. Moreover, every case is unique. UNCERTAINTY: Policy is to throw the risk of uncertainty onto the tortfeasor. Future medical costs, etc. are often highly unknowable. What complications will occur, etc.? All uncertainties should be resolved in favor of the . INFLATION: Damages are calculated and then reduced to present value, taking the possibility of inflation into account. Most states (e.g., IL) do not discount pain and suffering damages to present cash value) However, this doesnt account for sector-specific inflation. For instance, what about the rapid rise in medical costs? Subjective Injuries Subjective injuries include headaches, muscle aches, etc. There is no requirement that plaintiffs introduce expert testimony. Juries are entitled to take  s at their word. TWO PERSPECTIVES: (1) -Oriented Place plaintiff in the position he would have been in had no wrong occurred. Compensate the individual for loss of well-being suffered. (2) Actor (")-Oriented Posner s utilitarian approach. Transfer L (real world loss) into L (tort judgment) in order to force actor to internalize the loss. Idea is to get full measure of deterrence from compensatory award 2. Relational Damages i. Wrongful Death Survival Statutes: Rights and liabilities of the deceased are transferred to heirs. If a person dies before suit is brought, allows heirs to bring suit. Usu. excludes rights to actions for peculiarly personal harms, such as defamation or malicious prosecution. (limited to wages and out-of-pocket expenses) Wrongful Death Statutes: Relatives of deceased are entitled to damages. CATEGORIES OF DAMAGES: (1) Economic Damages Net loss to the surviving family member. Takes into account decedents costs as well as income. Housewifes services are sometimes compensable. (2) Associational Damages Loss of consortium! loss of the company of decedent. (3) Emotional Loss Only available in one-third of states. Solatium (grief) ! an emotional, rather than relational, loss. No punitive damages:  It s cheaper to kill your victim than to leave him maimed PARTIES ENTITLED TO SUE: (1) Spouses For all three types of damages, when available under statute. Live-in girlfriends may not be included (e.g., NJ)as legislature decides whom to include. (2) Parents of infant children For associational damages and emotional loss (not economic loss) But, some states (e.g., SD) only allow associational damages (3) Parents of adult children Generally only for emotional loss. Not a relation, as child has left the home. NOTE: Loss of life is not compensated, for parties who have lost it. Can recover pain and suffering, up to moment of death, but no damages for death. ii. Loss of Consortium (non-fatal accidents) Spouse: May sue for relational damages in the context of non-fatal accidents. Includes associational and emotional loss. Does not include economic damages, as the injured party is still around to claim those. Children: Some states allow children to sue for loss of consortium of a parent (e.g., AK); others do not (e.g., CA). Argument against extending: Need to draw a line: Every injury has ramifying consequences, like the ripplings of the waters, without end. Does not properly compensate children, who are given the money in the future but suffer the loss now. It is a windfall. Risk of double compensation. Argument for extending: Burden to society offset by benefit to child. Need to compensate the child. Parents: Some courts allow only for parents of young children, others go as far as allowing for parents of adult children (e.g., AZ). iii. Unwanted Children What damages are appropriate if a child is born through a doctors negligence? (a) Damages associated with birth Usually granted. Includes: Cost of the procedure. Wifes lost earnings. Cost of second sterilization procedure. Sometimes damages for emotional distress. (b) Economic Expense of Child Courts are divided. Burke v. Rivo (MA): Damages for the cost of raising the child, if the couple sought sterilization for economic reasons. Offset by the benefit of having a child. OConnors Dissent: If you dont offset by benefit of a child, it would be unfair. But, courts should not be required to determine the value of a child. Is the child worth less than the cost of raising her? How much less? 3. Enhanced Risk (lost chance doctrine) Depriving the plaintiff of a chance for recovery can be an actionable tort. DAMAGES: [Total loss] x [% chance of avoiding loss, in absence of negligence] 4. Economic Loss Damages RULE: If a loss was solely economic, there is no recovery in tort. EXCEPTIONS: (1) Accompanying physical harm (2) Intentionally caused harm (3) Loss of Consortium (4) Wrongful Death (5) Various others Defamation Medical costs paid by a different family member Negligent misstatements about financial matters Master-and-servant Telegraph-addressee Commercial fishermen in case of oil spill (Union Oil Co.) Public nuisance (In Re One Meridian Plaza) Reasoning: Administrability: we want to avoid a plethora of lawsuits Disproportionate: insurance and contract allow people to mitigate their losses. To hold the tortfeasor liable is disproportionate to the actual degree of harm. Principle behind exceptions: Court often willing to adopt exceptions so long as rule/reason has a limit Some suggest that these exceptions may be forming a counter-rule. One case suggests liability for particularly foreseeable injuries to a particularly foreseeable class of plaintiffs. People Express Airlines: Tank accident shuts down nearby airway facilities Sarge notes that wrongful death actions and suits by commercial fishermen are motivated by the desire to create a cause of action when standard  s cannot sue. For reasons of deterrence. III. STRICT LIABILITY A. VICARIOUS LIABILITY 1. Vertical i. Servants BLACK LETTER LAW: Liability is imposed if the servant was acting  within the scope of his employment. Scope of employment generally entails anything done in furtherance of the masters business Master liable for any injuries servant causes with the permissible zone of deviation (Kohlman v. Hyland) When liability imposed outside scope of employment The master intended the conduct or the consequences, or The master was negligent or reckless, or The conduct violated a non-delegable duty of the master, or The servant purported to act or to speak on behalf of the principal and there was reliance upon apparent authority ATTRIBUTION RULES (i.e., defining scope of employment): RS 229: ten factors to consider Is act one commonly done by such servants Time, place, and purpose of the act Previous relations between master and servant Extent to which business of master is apportioned between different servants Is act outside the enterprise of the master or, if within the enterprise, has not been entrusted to any servant Has master reason to expect such an act will be done Similarity in quality of the act done to the act authorized Has instrumentality by which harm is done been furnished by the master to the servant Extent of departure from the normal method of accomplishing the authorized result Is act seriously criminal Posner construes the rule in light of its utilitarian purpose: to encourage employer to consider activity changes. Konradi: So, a rural postal service liable for employees accident driving to work when it could have changed its activities to reduce risk by: Not requiring employees to use their own cars (allowing them to take the bus or carpool). Opening a branch office, thus requiring less commuting. Posner wants to construe scope of employment in functional terms, with reference to the likelihood that liability would induce beneficial changes Friendly construes the rule in light of its fairness rationale: imposition of liability upon actors throwing risk out into the world. Bushey: When the Coast Guard has a ship berthed at a dock, and a crew member opens the valve, the best way to avoid the risk would be for the dock owner to install locks on the valves. However, we impose liability on the Coast Guard because it is throwing the risk out on the world, so fair to make Coast Guard bear the loss. Make actor benefiting from the activity pay for it THEORY: Posners test illustrates the background negligence justification for strict liability. We want to encourage beneficial activity changes, whether or not there is negligence. A jury would be unlikely to find the postal service negligent for not opening branch offices, even if it were, because hard to prove Bs and PLs in this case (counterfactual analysis too difficult) Better to motivate actors to engage in self-criticism to ferret out preventive measures further back in the wedge, than to use negligence to ascribe liability in court Friendly suggests that Posners justification could argue both ways, for strict liability for either party (because either party could undertake preventive measures). Justifies a moral approach to strict liability, rejecting the utilitarian approach as unworkable. ii. Independent Contractors RULE: No liability. EXCEPTIONS: (1) Non-delegable duty Examples: Maintaining brakes on car. Maloney (CA) Exercising reasonable care in making repairs. Misulis (MI) " failed to keeping objects fastened to back of truck Rationale: Fairness: the actor is creating the risk, in the world, and should not be able to farm out liability. (2) Inherently dangerous activity Activities that are abnormally dangerous unless a particular precaution is taken, if the accident results because the precaution is not taken. Hiring a contractor to do work directly above the heads of people below. Injury results because no safety scaffolds were installed. The test for inherently dangerous is whether an activity can be performed reasonably safely given the particular circumstance sin which they are undertaken. (3) Abnormally dangerous activity Activities that are abnormally dangerous (even if done with due skill and caution) give rise to liability for the employer, even if farmed out to contractors. Falls within strict liability category (discussed in Section V) Rationale: We want to encourage employers to consider curtailing the abnormally dangerous activity in the first place. FISCAL IRRESPONSIBILITY Controversial. Some courts impose liability if the employer knew, or should have known, that the contractor was financially irresponsible. Court finds the financially irresponsible contractor is incompetent. Becker (3rd Cir.): Subcontractor does not have the customary liability insurance, injures . Court finds the contractor liable, as the contractor is in the best position to examine the finances of subcontractors (i.e., in the best position to control the factors leading to the accident) Also, victim here is a terrible spreader Also, costs of accident should be borne by those who benefit therefrom (fairness rational; secondary criticism) Contra: Hinders employment of the less wealthy. Imposes excessive duties onto employers. ADDITIONAL NOTES: If employer retains control, the contractor is a servantwhatever the contracts terms. (see below) I.e., test for determining whether servant or independent contractor is whether principal has right to control agents conduct If the contractor is incompetent, the employer is negligent. Therefore, courts can impose liability under a theory of negligence. iv. Control An employee is a servant if the master has the right to control the servants actions. STANDARD: Not determined by contractual definitions. Determined by the right to control, not the actual control exercised. Parker (FL): Dominoes does not exercise control over franchises on a regular basis, but it has the right to exercise control through franchise agreements (through manual provided). Court finds a question of fact, remands. RS 220 (Definition of servant): In determining whether one acting for another is a servant or an independent contractor, the following matters of fact, among others, are considered: Extent of control over the details of the work Whether employed is engaged in a distinct occupation or business Kind of occupationwhether the work is usually done under the direction of the employer or by a specialist without supervision Skill required Who supplies the instrumentalities/tool Length of time for which the person is employed Method of payment: By time or by the job Whether work is part of the regular business of the employer Belief of parties as to relation Whether principal is or is not in business 2. Horizontal RULE: Partners are liable if the partner was acting: (a) within the scope of the partnership and (b) either: (i) with intent to aid the partnership or (ii) with apparent authority of the partnership to do the act (as given by the partnership) Rationale: Partners are not responsible to each other in the same way as employees. But, we think it is fairer for partnership to bear cost than the victim, because partnership was throwing the risk out on the world. So, we add the intent requirement. Example: Kansallis: Law partner used firm letterhead for letter that defrauded  Held, partners not liable because partner did not act with intent to aid the partnership and lacked apparent authority to send the letter. NOTE: Vicariously liable party always has indemnity right to collect from the injuring party B. ANBORMALLY DANGEROUS ACTIVITY 1. Rule of Rylands i. Historical Development Rylands v. Fletcher (Eng.): Offers a counterpoint to Brown v. Kendall (stick in eye case) While ignored and relegated to near-obscurity during the classical era, Rylands eventually came to stand at the fountainhead of a large area of jurisprudence. FACTS: " has contractors build a reservoir. Through no negligence of any party, it is placed near a coal mine. The mine floods, damaging  s property. Held, " liable. Blackburn:  We think that the true rule of law is that the person who for his own purposes brings on his lands and collects and keeps there anything likely to do mischief if it escapes must keep it in at his peril. Cranworth: The question in general is not whether the defendant has acted with due care and caution, but whether his acts have occasioned the damage. Shipley v. Fifty Associates (MA): Establishes strict liability when a building with a sloped roof is constructed close to a sidewalk, so that snow slides off and hurts passersby. ii. Animals First Restatement: Wild Animals: Possessor of a wild animal is strictly liable For harm resulting from a dangerous propensity which is characteristic of wild animals Abnormally Dangerous Domestic Animals: Possessor of a domestic animal which he has reason to know has dangerous propensities abnormal to its class. Subject to liability for harm caused thereby Except to trespassers Marshall (TX): " s hog injured . Evidence showed " knew hog was dangerous. Held, " strictly liable for  s injury. Some cases create liability for even well behaved animals, when they damage a neighbor s property or person while trespassing. iii. The Rule of Rylands (dangerous substances brought onto land) Has been applied to dynamiting and other activities. Exner v. Sherman Power Construction Co. Dynamite in " s shed explodes, injuring  and damaging  s house. No negligence was found, and the dynamite was stored legally. Holding: " strictly liable, even though no negligence, because  dynamite is of the class of elements which one who stores or uses in such a locality, or under such circumstances as to cause likelihood of risk to others, stores or uses at his own peril.  liability is not founded on illegal storage or on negligence& but upon the ground that the use of dynamite is so dangerous that it ought to be at the owners risk. Some have extended to risks " s bring on to others property. Ekstrom v. Deagon (Canadian) Given Rylands, much more so would a person who takes a dangerous article on another persons property and causes damage to the latter be liable. In some recent cases, the Rule of Rylands has been applied to toxic wastes. Department of Environmental Protection v. Ventron (NJ): a landowner is strictly liable for harms caused by toxic wastes that are stored on his property and flow onto the property of others. 2. Modern Rule i. Second Restatement LIABILITY 519: One who carries out an abnormally dangerous activity is liable for harm to another resulting from the activity, although he has exercised the utmost care to prevent the harm. 520: Determining Whether an Activity is Abnormally Dangerous, factors to consider: (a) risk of harm (b) likelihood of sizeable harm (c) inability to eliminate the risk by exercise of reasonable care (d) activity not a matter of common usage Does not look to motives. Asks if it is common relative to the populace as a whole. (e) inappropriateness of the activity to the place where carried on (f) value to the community, weighed against dangerous attributes If entire community depends on dangerous activity to survive, less likely to be abnormally dangerous ATTRIBUTION RULE: Limited to the kind of harm, the possibility of which makes the activity abnormally dangerous. (semi-analogous to foresight approach in negligence) The type of harm, not the chain of events, is the focus of the inquiry. Exact harm need not be foreseeable, though most courts require that " at least know his activity is dangerous T&E Industries: Radium tailings manufacturer liable even though did not know at time of manufacture that it s activity was abnormally dangerous BUT, manufacturer at least knew radium was hazardous, even if didnt know tailings are Some cases do say knowledge required Strict liability attaches to activities, not substances ii. Attribution IMPACT OF THEORY: The various justifications for strict liability can, in some circumstances, lead to differences in outcome. And sometimes blend together. Compare three cases involving burst water mains: Lubin v. Iowa City Defendant Liable. On grounds of proportionality.  should not have to bear entire loss when the entire city benefits  Natural justice would seem to demand that the enterprise, or what really is the same thing, the whole community benefited by the enterprise, should stand the loss Contra, Jennings Buick v. Cincinnati Defendant not liable. Water mains are not inherently dangerous. They are proper, necessary, and legal in modern cities. Reciprocity: Plaintiff benefited from the risky activity by having water in the building. Utility: Given the lack of anything the defendant could do to decrease the risk, and given the need for water mains, there is no reason to find the defendant liable. Let " s insurance spread the risk. But See, Bierman v. City of New York Defendant liable. On grounds of both utility and proportionality. Utility: Background safety and cost spreading Proportionality: Beneficiaries should spread costs among themselves iii. Notes EXAMPLES: Siegler (WA): Oil tanker tips over on highway. Girl is killed when her car bursts into flame while crossing a pool of spilled oil. Held, tanker company strictly liable because hauling gasoline in great quantities is abnormally dangerous activity.. Based on the categories of the Second Restatement. A response to problems of proof. (1st res ipsa requirement questionable) Radiation from a nuclear plant. Crop dusting that damages organic crops. THEORY: Why do we weigh the value to the community against the danger? If the value to the community is great, doesnt that simply implicate the loss spreading rationale more? 3. Defenses CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE: Contributory negligence never a complete defense About one-half the states allow for comparative fault in actions involving strict liability for abnormally dangerous activities. E.g., Andrade (LA): Angry cow case ( Sarge says its more comparative responsibility than comparative fault Factors to bear in mind: Cheapest Cost Avoider: The negligent actor may be the situational cost avoider. Can avoid the risk at the lowest cost (B). The strictly liable actor is probably the structural cost avoider. Can restructure activities to avoid the largest PL. Culpability: One actor is at fault, whereas the other is not BUT, the negligent actor was self-harming, whereas the strictly liable party was other-harming ASSUMPTION OF RISK: Some states have abolished the defense entirely. Others retain it: Express Assumption of Risk If a risk was expressly and voluntarily assumed, we may say the defendant is not liable. BUT, where the " has left the  no alternative to exercise a right or privilege, the  s choice is not  voluntary. Primary Assumption of Risk May apply (?) Reasonable assumption of risk by a stranger is not a defense. Where the defendant has left the plaintiff no alternative to exercise a right or privilege, the plaintiff s choice is not  voluntary. IV. INTENTIONAL TORTS: PROPERTY A. TRESPASS Act ! R1, R2, R3 R1 = Entry into the space R2 = Wrongful quality R3 = Specific injuries 1. Cause of Action Protects the right to exclude, or the interest in exclusive possession. ELEMENTS: (a) Wrongful entry into space By " or " s instrument Entry is wrongful when  has legally protected interest in exclusive posession Even if entry is to  s benefit, trespass still lies Longnecker (KS): " liable for trimming trees in  s yard that he thought belonged to him (b) Intent Only an intent to stand where you are standing Requires: Purpose Knowledge to a substantial certainty Scribner v. Summers (2nd Cir.): " liable because had reason to know that factory s chemical waste would migrate onto  s land As to: The entry I.e., intent required only for R1 (entry into the space) Cleveland Park Club (DC): Child places tennis ball in swimming pool drain. Liable for damage because possessed intent to place ball in drain, even if lacked capacity to know placing ball in drain would cause damage. Randall v. Shelton (KY):  hit by stone thrown from truck as it drove by. " not liable because throwing of rock was unintentional. LIABILITY WITHOUT INTENT: In some cases, involving activities where strict liability is imposed, courts have imposed liability despite the absence of intent. Margosian v. United States Airlines: Plane crashes in plaintiffs yard. While an action does not lie in trespass, liability is appropriatedespite the fact that the nature of the action is essentially one for trespass to land. DEFENSES: (1) Consent (2) Privilege 2. Privilege i. Public PUBLIC TAKINGS: Government must pay just compensation. Monongahela Navigation Co. (US SC): [W]hen he surrenders to the public something more and different from that which is exacted from other members of the public, a full and just equivalent shall be returned to him. San Diego G&E (US SC): Court has found takings in cases where government action benefiting public destroyed use and enjoyment of private property PUBLIC NECESSITY (emergency exception): No compensation required. Because the governments action was justified, or was without fault. Requires: (a) Imminent and absolute necessity to destroy private property to protect the common good, or (b) Reasonable belief that such necessity exists Modern Cases: Some courts have discarded: In these cases, the government s actions are treated as a public taking. The government is thus required to pay compensation. E.g., Wegner (MN): Police use tear gas to flush suspect out of " s house. Damage to house inflicted for public use, so city required to pay compensation. Fairness Rationale: The issue is whether it is fair to allocate the entire risk of loss to an innocent homeowner for the good of the pubic. ii. Private Necessity STANDARD: Prevent damage to personal property or loss of life. NO PRIMARY CRITICISM: Owner may not interfere. Ploof v. Putnam (VT): Boater with family ties up at dock during a storm, but owner of the dock unties the boat. Boat destroyed, occupants injured. Held, boaters use was privileged. Damages granted. Doctrine of necessity applies with special force to preservation of human life Polebitzke (WI): Owner had right to go onto  s land to recover logs that had been moved there by a flood. SECONDARY CRITICISM: Privileged actor is liable for any damage that occurs. Vincent v. Lake Erie Transportation (MN): Steamship remains tied up at a dock during a storm, beyond its contracted-for period of stay. During the storm, the boat damages the dock. Held, while use of the dock was privileged, compensation for damage to property must be paid. BUT, Commercial Union Assurance (CA): " not liable for impeding efforts to extinguish warehouse fire by removing goods he had there Reasoning: Choice! use of the plaintiff s property was deliberate Activity Liability! the defendant benefited from use of plaintiff s property, and in fairness benefits should run with burdens 3. Fallout Cases Trespass doctrine sometimes applies to fallout cases in the core area of nuisance. In cases where seem to blend together, enjoyment tied into excl. possession Core area of trespass is takeover. CHEMICALS: Essentially turns on the question: what is an entry? (a) Material Approach: Some early decisions find that light on a drive-in movie screen is not a trespass. Essentially limit trespass to visible particles. (b) Functional Approach Essentially asks how did it feel? Did it feel like an intrusion of the sort that normally sounds in trespass? Two-part test: (i) was the intrusion substantial enough to be regarded as a trespassory intrustion? Actual damage not required Key seems to be whether physical harm was caused (Martin) (ii) did  have a legally protected interest in the possessory use with which " interfered? Under this standard, the light on the drive-in movie screen would come out differently. Martin v. Reynolds Metal (OR): Aluminum reduction plant emits gases that make  s land unfit for raising livestock. Held, trespass because substantially interfered with  s possession of his land Nevertheless, tangible/intangible harm divide still matters: Magnetic field not a trespass. But, might be a trespass if there were tangible harm. Essentially comes down to asking who caused the problem? The attribution rule of strict liability. Blends into products liability: New York v. Fermenata (NY): Company knowingly manufactured a herbicide that disintegrated into a dangerous acid and entered water supply. Held, liable in trespass. AIRPORTS (Restatement): A trespass is privileged if: (a) conducted in a reasonable manner and (b) at such a height as not to interfere unreasonably with enjoyment of land. NOTES: Here, we see the limits of how far trespass doctrine can be stretched. Trespass has been found in cases involving: Smoke and lingering odor Shotgun pellets Soot and particles Molecules Soil vibration The damage, here, is like that in nuisance. Tort law gets going when an injury occurs. Accordingly, nuisance essentially applies. 4. Remedies DAMAGES: Nominal damages are always available. Compensatory damages are available when the plaintiff is harmed. ENTITLEMENT APPROACH: Either injunctive relief or punitive damages will generally be available when a defendant commits a trespass even if the plaintiff is not harmed. Jacque v. Steenberg Homes (WI): Despite an express lack of permission, " drove a mobile home over  s property, as it was the quickest route. No compensable damages found. $100,000 in punitive damages granted. Held, damage award upheld. The right to exclude has no practical meaning unless upheld by the state. I.e., punitive damages necessary to deter similar future misconduct. Rule Utilitarianism: The best rule, to promote efficiency, is to protect property entitlementsparticularly the right to exclude. Accordingly, we do not usually balance the benefits of the intrusion against the burdens. UTILITARIAN APPROACH: Not accepted at all today. One interesting case does employ a utilitarian, balancing approach: Crescent Mining v. Silver King Mining (UT): Large mine builds a water pipe through smaller mines barren property. If pipe were not built, the larger mine would be forced to shut down. No compensable damages to smaller mine because damages only nominal. Held, no injunction granted. Benefit of use outweighs burden to plaintiff. Courts treats case more like nuisance than like trespass case. Criticism: You only have markets if you have entitlements to bargain, and you only have entitlements if you have injunctions B. NUISANCE 1. Cause of Action NOTE: Can have: (a) intentional nuisance (this , requiring knowledge of harm to a substantial certainty) (b) negligent nuisance (governed by negligence doctrine), and (c) strict liability nuisance for abnormally dangerous activities PRIVATE NUISANCE: (a) Interference Interference with interest in use and enjoyment of land. (b) Intent Requires: Purpose Knowledge to a substantial certainty " or reasonable person in " s position As to: Invasion of interest in use and enjoyment of land I.e., intent has to run to R2 (harm) (c) Substantial interference  Tangible  Discomfort perceptible to the senses of ordinary people I.e., must be something reasonable person would take offense at People must tolerate some inconvenience and annoyance from neighbors (d) Unreasonableness of injury Unreasonableness relates to injury/harm, not conduct Recovery for unreasonable conduct is really same thing as negligent nuisance OBJECTIVE STANDARD: Unreasonableness determined relative to the average person. Jenkins v. CSX (TN): No liability to woman with allergy, who sues railroad for stopping train filled with allergen near her home. ENTITLEMENT APPROACH: Unreasonableness not required. Injunction granted if interference is substantial. (Whalen) MODERN APPROACH (RS 826): (a) Primary Criticism: Injunctive relief. Unreasonable if the harm to the  outweighs the utility of the " s conduct. Wheat v. Freeman Coal. Sarge: This is a negligence-like claim. Negligence claim involves risk that is on balance bad, whereas this involves conduct that is on balance bad (b) Secondary Criticism: Damages. Unreasonable if: (1) the harm is serious and (2) compensation is feasible I.e., compensating for harm would not render continued activity infeasible If it would not be feasible for all persons harmed to recover, recovery may be limited to those most gravely affected Sarge: This boils down to; If you create serious harm, pay up. Balancing of utility against harm irrelevant in most states. (c) Severe Harm (RS 829A) Damages. A subset of secondary criticism. Unreasonable if: (1) Harm resulting from invasion if severe and Physical damage often is considered severe, even when the extent of harm is small (2) Greater than the  should be expected to bear without compensation. Liability is imposed regardless of feasibility. PUBLIC NUISANCE: Standard (quoting Justice Cooke) Conduct or omissions which offend, interfere with, or cause damage to the public in the exercise of rights common to all. In a manner such as to: (a) offend public morals, (b) interfere with the use of a public place, or (c) injure the property, health, safety, or comfort of a considerable number of persons. Private individuals may bring suit only if they are able to plead special damages. Pecuniary injury resulting from inability to access ones business may be sufficient. BUT, native Alaskans damage to fishing and use of water from Exxon Valdez spill was not sufficient because not different in kind from damage to public in general 2. Attribution Rule As with any form of strict liability, we will not impose liability on an enterprise for every consequence of its actions. There must be some level of adherence to the maxim live and let live. Bamford (Eng.): Those acts necessary for the common and ordinary use and occupation of land and houses may be done, if conveniently done, without subjecting those who do them to an action. DOCTRINALLY: These factors are relevant to whether the nuisance is unreasonable. STANDARD: Is it fair for plaintiff to complain about this harm? Or, did the plaintiff somehow assume the risk? Factors: (a) Character of the Locality Some areas may be suitable for particular uses, others may not. Interference with use well-suited to character of locality is more serious than interference with use not well-suited Coming to the nuisance is a factor, but it is not dispositive. (b) Burden on Plaintiff of Avoiding Mentioned in Restatement. Sargentich might disagree. If it is substantially easier for the  to avoid the harm, the " may escape liability. (see Copart) Asks who is the cheapest cost avoider. (c) Reciprocity When a defendant throws a small risk out on the plaintiff, and the plaintiff also benefits from defendants activities, we may say that the risk is reciprocal. For instance: Copart (NY): An auto body shop moves into town, close to a power plant. The auto body shop was inappropriate to the area. Held, no liability, because harm was not unreasonable (because body shop was inappropriate to area) Alevizos (MN): An airport creates noise in the vicinity. As to neighbors who have seen a diminution in fair market value of land, liability is appropriate. As to other neighbors, no liability. Those neighbors benefit from the presence of an airport. The risk is reciprocal. Adkins (MI): Diminution of value caused by negative publicity, absent interference with use and enjoyment of land, not compensable. Property depreciation alone is not sufficient to constitute a nuisance DEFENSES (RS 840): C.neg not a defense when harm is intentional Assumption of risk is an available defense, but  not required to forego use of his land to avoid assuming the risk  Coming to the nuisance is not sufficient to bar an action, but is a factor to consider when deciding whether nuisance is actionable 3. Remedies EVOLUTION: Under prior entitlement approach, injunctive relief was always available. Similar to trespass. Today, we distinguish between primary and secondary criticism in nuisance. Primary Criticism INJUNCTIVE RELIEF: Implies fault on the part of defendant. Only granted if the harm to the plaintiff outweighs the benefit to the defendant. (BL) Measured by: (a) Discomfort and deprivation of the use of land suffered by the plaintiffs. (b) Sometimes, diminishment in market value. Some courts reject this approach, others embrace it. Boomer v. Atlantic Cement Co. Cement company, of great economic value to city, is ordered to pay damages rather than go out of business. Shutting down plant would be bad for society (B>PL). No primary criticism. Unreasonable to demand plaintiffs to bear the burden uncompensated. Secondary criticism. Criticism: Should have considered all the risks associated with the plant (e.g., damage to public health) as part of the PL, not just the damage to  s homes If court undervalues L, doesn t create enough incentives for plant to act properly Court is basically giving pollution easement to the cement plant (like inverse condemnation) Rationale: Background safety: Gets at structural CCA, so more likely to cause long-term change Market allocation: Damages forces nuisance creator to internalize costs. If there are competitors, market forces therefore will phase out nuisance. Also, fairness rationale 4. Entitlement Approach Still a minority position. Under this approach, the holding in Boomer is troubling. Essentially licensing a continuing wrong. Even jurisdictions that follow Boomer recognize this truth when they apply zoning law (where you cannot purchase your way out). Relies on the market to allocate entitlements. Theory would be that the plaintiffs in Boomer, if granted an injunction, would be willing to sell it to the plant. Collective Action Problems: Holdouts. Undermine the approach. Ways out: Forced settlements. Simply force plant-owners to purchase enough land to safely pollute. Bottom line: Both the approach in Boomer and the entitlement approach are unsatisfactory. V. PRODUCTS LIABILITY A. NOTES  CORE SITUATION: Manufacturer ! Distributor ! Consumer  ? Third Party Failure to WarnDesign Defect Negligence Negligent failure to warn Negligent designNegligent failure to warn, with burden shifted re: knowabilityNegligent design, with burden shifted re: reasonableness Strict Liability Hindsight Warning* Hindsight BalancingAffirmative MisrepresentationExpectations Test * Extremely Controversial CLASSICAL REGIME: (1) Privity In classic law, there was no liability for product defect outside contract privity. This even meant that third parties could not sue. Winterbottom: Stagecoach driver cannot sue manufacturer Rationale: Tort should recede when contract can govern. MODERN DEVELOPMENTS: (2) Negligence Under Classical regime, courts made an exception for inherently dangerous products.(Thomas v. Winchester: mislabeled poison) Limited, at first. Expanded, in MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co. (NY): (a) to include any foreseeable risk (b) to eliminate the privity requirement Liable to any foreseeable injured parties. (3) Warranty Introduced by the U.C.C. Manufacturer liable for breach of implied warranty of safety running to the consumer Relies on contract. Waivable. (4) Strictness A regime of strict liability grows out of warranties. Henningsen v. Bloomfield Motors (NJ) Vehicle veers out of control while being driven by wife of purchaser. Company has disclaimed a warranty. Held, no privity required. Held, disclaimer of warranty unconscionable. Sarge: An unwaivable warranty is really a strict tort liability Most courts subsequently do away with the language of contract, calling this strict liability. Escola v. Coca Cola (CA) Judge Traynor advocates this result, in a concurrence, citing standard arguments for liability (as well as consumer expectations). Case involves exploding coke bottle.  prevails on theory of res ipsa loquitor. Traynor says res ipsa, here, is basically strict liability. THEORY: Important to remember the dual coverage of contract and tort. CONTRACT: (a) Economic Loss Doctrine (privity may still apply here) (b) Warranties (c) Free Choice Get what you pay for This idea is always in the background. Criticism of strict liability: Ignores consumers choice B. MANUFACTURERS LIABILITY 1. Negligence RULE: Manufacturer is liable for negligence, when foreseeable injury results to foreseeable individuals. NOTES: Component Parts: Some courts restrict to manufacturer, holding that the manufacturer is an insurer and is liable for the negligence of a component maker. Even if the manufacturer could not have discovered the defect. Presumably, component maker would be insulated from liability. 2. Warranty STATUTE: U.C.C. 2-313: Express Warranties Descriptions of goods or sample models are binding. U.C.C. 2-314(2)(c): Implied Warranty of Merchantability: Implied warranty that goods are merchantable implied in contract for sale if seller is a merchant with respect to goods of that kind. Merchantable means: (a) pass without objection in the trade (b) are of fair or average quality (c) are fit for the ordinary purposes for which such goods are used. (safety) U.C.C. 2-316: Modification May contract out of a warranty, if sufficiently clear. Limitation on consequential damages for personal injuries unconscionable U.C.C. 318: Privity Eliminates privity requirement, for any person who may be reasonably expected to use, consume or be affected by the goods. 3. Strict Liability (Defect) i. In General Second Restatement, 402A: One who sells a product in a defective condition is strictly liable for physical harm thereby caused if: (a) the seller is engaged in the business of selling the product, and (b) the product is expected to, and does, reach the consumer without substantial change in the condition in which it is sold. Liability regardless of: (a) negligence or not (b) privity or not Applies only to products, not services LIABILITY: To Third Parties: Restatement expresses doubt as to whether third parties can sue. It is now well established that they can sue. RATIONALES: (a) Contract (i) Special Relationship (ii) Publics Expectations (b) Tort (i) Fairness: Benefits should run with burdens (ii) Utility: Background negligence/CCA Manufacturer in best position to guard against dangers Loss Spreading Distributes risk of injury among public with increased prices Market Allocation Costs of defective products shifted back to manufacturers; absent internalization, prices do not reflect true costs ii. Between Manufacturers NOTE: The following concerns the attribution of liability between manufacturers. GENERAL RULES: (a) Under Restatement: Sellers, manufacturers, & anyone else who sells the good Rationale for full chain of supply liability: Gives the consumer multiple avenues of recovery. As between the consumer and the seller, the seller should bear the risk. (b) Service Vendors Some cases find that those who primarily render a service are not liable. For instance, a hospital that implants a prosthetic knee. (Royer) Or, an airline that uses a defective plane. Attribution: Approach in light of rationales for strict liability. Generally (c) Component Manufacturers Most courts find that component manufacturers are not liable. Manufacturer is liable and may recover from component manufacturer through contract. Goldberg v. Kollsman (NY): Airplane crashes because of defective altimeter. Held, airplane manufacturer liable. Court refuses to extend liability to altimeter manufacturer.. Some disagree. Where the component part is not altered in any way, same rationales may be said to apply. (Badger Ford) When component manufacturer knows the parts are unsuitable for use. (d) Alternative Approach (for Merchant Sellers): Kansas Statute limits liability for merchant sellers who show: (a) no knowledge (b) no negligence (c) that manufacturer is subject to service of process (d) that manufacturer can satisfy the judgment NOTE: Retailer and not maker liable if unclear when defect arose. Hobart NOTE: Retailer may have right of indemnification against wholesaler, and wholesaler may have right of indemnification against manufacturer ATTRIBUTION RULE: Approach the question of who should be liable in terms of the rationale for strict liability. (a) Who is the CCA? (b) Who is the best loss spreader? Also note that members of the chain of supply may contract for a different result. iii. Defect NOTE: The concept of defect is an attribution rule used to divide liability between consumers and manufacturers. MANUFACTURING DEFECT A product that deviates from the norm of products being produced by the manufacturer. A lemon. DESIGN DEFECT A flaw that inheres in the design of the product itself, and thus afflicts all units products (1) Consumer Expectations Test STANDARD: Does the performance of the product offend the safety expectations of the users? I.e., is the product dangerous to an extent beyond that which would be contemplated by a reasonable consumer? User is ordinary consumer who has ordinary knowledge of products characteristics For medicines, does it meet the expectations of doctors (Crocker) (except, perhaps, with birth control)? NOTES: This test is strict, inasmuch as the consumers expectations regarding the product bear no relationship to the negligence or due care of the manufacturer. No foreseeability required. For Example: Manufacturer of latex gloves is unaware that high latex levels cause allergies. Its gloves are particularly bad. (Green) Held, liable under expectations test because ordinary consumer would not have expected gloves to cause allergies. CRITICISM: Consumers do not always have expectations, particularly regarding highly complex products. BUT, they may have expectations as to performance, even if they do not have expectations as to the exact mechanism. (2) Balancing Test STANDARD: Balance the utility of the design against the risks. A version of BPL. Do the risks of the design outweigh the designs utility? Excessive preventable danger. (Barker) Do not focus on culpability. Focus on product, not conduct (negligence) FACTORS: (a) Gravity of the danger (b) Risk (c) Feasibility of alternative design (d) Financial cost of alternative design (e) Adverse consequence to product and consumer resulting from an alternative design. OTHER FACTORS: Some might also consider the availability of alternative products. FORESIGHT: Adopts a hindsight perspective. While negligence requires foreseeability, the court here imposes liability even for unforeseeable risks. Would the defendant be negligent, if he sold the product knowing of the defect? (knowledge of defect imputed to ") BURDEN SHIFTING: If  shows that the injury arises from a risk associated with the design, burden shifts to the " to show that the design is reasonable. (Barker) I.e., shifts the burden of proof re: the balancing In negligence, by contrast,  has to show unreasonableness. THEORY: In hindsight cases, where the defendant could not have prevented the risk and is no longer creating it, what is the rationale for strict liability? NOT market allocation or background negligence. Instead: (a) Spreading (b) Fairness (costs borne by those benefited) iv. Application OBVIOUS DANGERS: For example, a bullet proof vest with armpit holes. (a) Expectations: When the danger is obvious, the defendant cannot be liable. Seeing the danger, the plaintiff must not have expected anything more. (b) Balancing: Defendant could still be liable. Question is whether the dangerous design has a counterbalancing utility. Low expectations do not defeat liability, when there is an obvious safeguard that could be installed. ALTERNATIVE DESIGNS: (a) Expectations: Alternatives are not relevant. Instead, the question is whether the product is unsafe beyond the extent contemplated by an average user. (b) Balancing: Alternatives are relevant to the determination. NOTE: also have to consider unrelated risks associated with the alternative. Nevertheless, a  may be liable if the design s dangers outweigh its benefits. Even if there is no alternative design. According to some courts, at least. Perhaps, for instance, the product shouldn t be on the market at all. Particularly if there are other products that could get the same job done. v. Unavoidably Unsafe Products SECOND RESTATEMENT: Second Restatement 402A cmt. k notes that some products are incapable of being made safe. Where the benefit to society is large, these products may nevertheless not be unreasonably unsafe (a term used in the Second Restatement). Expectations: A warning is required, to make sure that expectations are met. ALTERNATIVE APPROACH: Some courts decline to adopt the Second Restatements approach. Shanks v. Upjohn Argue, instead, that these products can be protected through application of the balancing test: Balancing Test: Benefit to society outweighs the harm. 4. Strict Liability (Misrepresentation) Second Restatement, 402B: A manufacturer (one engaged in the business of selling chattels) is liable for physical harms to consumers if: (a) The manufacturer: (i) makes to the public a misrepresentation (ii) of a material fact concerning the character or quality of the good (c) And the consumer justifiably relies on the misrepresentation Even Though: (a) No fraud or negligence (b) No privity Must be explicit misprepresentation CAVEAT: Not clear whether this section applies to: Misrepresentations to an individual, not the public Harm caused to one not a consumer of the chattel EXAMPLE (Crocker): Drug company represents to consumer that its drug will not cause dependence. It had no way to know of the consumers unusual susceptibility. Held, misrepresentation. C. WARNINGS 1. Duty to Warn Restatment, Second: Torts Manufacturer has a duty to warn when a product is dangerous to an extent that which would be contemplated by ordinary consumers A product bearing a warning, which is safe for use if followed, is not in a defective condition, nor is it unreasonably dangerous. A product incapable of being made safe for its intended use, when properly prepared and accompanied by proper warning, is not defective, nor is it unreasonably dangerous Restatement, Third: Products Liability A product is defective because of inadequate instructions or warnings when the foreseeable risks of harm posed by the product could have been reduced or avoided by the provision of reasonable instructions or warnings and the omission of the instructions or warnings renders the product not reasonably safe. i. When Arises ARISES: (a) Open and Obvious Risks Some courts find there is no duty to warn of open and obvious risks. A knife is not defective because it cuts a persons finger. After all, knifes are designed to cut. BUT, many courts require a warning, at least where the risk could be reduced. For instance, when 100 people/year are being injured diving into shallow pools. (b) Unexpected Risks All courts find a duty to warn of unexpected or concealed risks. For instance, if food contains an ingredient that people would not normally expect, and if substantial numbers are allergic to that ingredient, the manufacturer may have a duty to warn. LEARNED INTERMEDIARY: Duty to warn doctors, when they are the ones prescribing drugs. Exception for drugs that consumers have a large degree of autonomy in deciding to take, such as birth control, for which consumers must be warned directly (MacDonald) ii. Doctrines KNOWN RISKS: (a) Negligence: Failure to warn may be negligent. Warning is a possible precaution (or, B) available to the company. Somewhat unique: The idea is to induce the consumer to weigh the PL, so that the consumer can then reach the BPL level. The B is assessed by the company, but the PL (and correct response) is calculated by the consumer. NOTE: L is loss of informed choice, not necessarily injury Negligent if a reasonable manufacturer would have warned. Requires foreseeability. So, the risk must be known to the manufacturer. (b) Strict Liability: Some Courts Establish Strict Liability: Must prove only that the defendant did not adequately warn of a risk that was known or knowable. Knowable in light of scientific knowledge. Reasonableness of the defendants actions is irrelevant. Enough that the risk was knowable and was the proximate cause of the injury. Reasoning: Must warn of risks, in order to give individuals an opportunity to choose. UNKNOWN RISKS: (a) Negligence Might argue that the risk should have been discovered, given the correct amount of money spent on research. Alleging negligence deep in the wedge. (b) Burden shifting If  shows that the injury arises from " s failure to warn, burden shifts to the " to show that it was not possible to know of the danger (Shanks) I.e., shifts the burden re: the knowability In negligence, by contrast,  has to show was possible to know. (c) Hindsight Failure to Warn: If, knowing of risk, reasonable manufacturer would have warned, liability I.e., if knowledge of risk imputed to manufacturer, reasonable/ negligent or not for manufacturer not to warn? If not, liability. Very Controversial. 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Beshada (NJ): Strikes  state of the art defense Reasoning: Spreading. Background negligence. Fairness. Could also argue expectations: Expectation is that if some danger present, manufacturer would warn iii. Inadequate Warnings A warning may be unreasonable, or inadequate, due to: (a) factual content (b) expression of the facts (c) method or form in which it is conveyed. EXAMPLE (MacDonald v. Ortho Pharmaceutical) : Warning of  blood clots, which mentioned a risk of death, was not sufficient to convey the notion of  stroke. The  might not have used birth control if she knew stroke was a risk (she claimed as much). Held, manufacturer negligent. Reasonable warning conveys both fair indication of nature of dangers involved and degree of intensity demanded by the nature of the risk D. USER CONDUCT 1. Contributory Negligence SECOND RESTATEMENT: (a) Contributory Negligence is not a defense when consists merely of failure to discover defect or guard against its possibility (b) Misuse is a complete defense. Cannot expect the manufacturer to plan for this at all. E.g. using a lawnmower to trim a hedge. (c) Unreasonable AR is a defense THIRD RESTATEMENT: Compare the negligence of the  with the responsibility of the " 2. Safeguards Suppose there is a product whose risk can be avoided through user skill and caution, but whose risk can also be avoided through installation of a safeguard. ATTRIBUTION RULE: Micallef (NY): Manufacturer obligated to protect against unintended yet reasonably foreseeable use, though if safeguard would price product out of market, that s a relevant defense Ask: who is the cheapest cost avoider? Company is the structural CCA. Plaintiff is the situational CCA. B is larger for the company. PL may be larger for the company, as well (avoiding all the potential injuries). E. DAMAGES ECONOMIC LOSS DOCTRINE: No liability for purely economic damages. A holdout of contract doctrine. Casa Clara: Defective construction of condominium. The only damage that results is economic, to value of condos. If there had been physical damage to  s property or persons, there would be liability in tort. Tort recovery barred when product only damages itself Otherwise, the court lets contract govern.  If we held otherwise, contract law would drown in a sea of tort. MARKET SHARE LIABILITY: Some courts will award damages based on market share, where it is impossible to determine which manufacturer of a generic drug was responsible for the injury (e.g., Sindell (CA)) Burden shifts to " s to show that it did not make the drug. Fair for the defendant to bear the risk. Question: what is the correct  market ? Rationale: Essentially treats the industry as an insurance pool. (industry-wide fund) Given liability insurance, companies pay by market share anyway. Manufacturers are structural CCA s (in best position to prevent injury) VI. BEYOND TORT A. WORKERS COMPENSATION 1. In General ATTRIBUTION RULE: Compensation for accidents  arising out of and in the course of employment. Employer liable despite complete absence of fault C.Neg on part of employee not a defense (absent serious misconduct) Coverage limited to employees; no coverage for independent contractors Positional Risk Doctrine: Injury is presumed to arise out of employment it would not have occurred but for the fact that the conditions and obligations of the employment placed claimant in the position where he was injured. Whetro v. Awkerman (MI):  killed by tornado while on business trip If the employment is the occasion of the injury, even though not the proximate cause, compensation should be paid Theory: Conflict between need and activity principles of compensation. Need: Whetro v. Awkerman (MI): pays out compensation to worker killed by tornado because economic impact on family is the same. Activity: Brennan writes a strong dissent saying the purpose of workers comp is fairness (benefits with burdens). REMEDIES: (a) Full medical compensation. (b) Partial wage compensation. Temporary, Total Disability: Either get a scaled down wage or a maximum, whichever is less. Scale Down! a percentage of earnings, usually 60% Maximum! usually determined relative to average wage New York sets a very low amount, $400 Michigan sets at 90% of statewide average wage Minimum! included in some states NOTE: Minimum and maximums show how we are compensating according to need. With high earners, notion is they have choice to negotiate insurance (reason for maximum) With low earners, notion is they need a certain amount of money to live on (reason for minimum) A combination of fairness and need, as competing rationales. Also, want to incentivize workers to return to work (c) Scheduled disability benefits Permanent Partial Impairment: List of injuries, each with a given compensation amount. Alternative: Percentage impairment of the whole person. Implemented in AK NOTE: Essentially an attempt to reduce tertiary costs. A rough-and-ready approach to giving pain and suffering damages. (d) No individuated pain and suffering (as such) OTHER ASPECTS: Abolition of Tort: Bars suits against employers for accidents arising out of and in the course of employment. Quid pro quo: Employers gives us absence of fault and c.neg as defenses, employee gives up right to full damages Does not bar suits against manufacturers of products used in the workplace. But, proceeds usually first reimburse employer for compensation outlay, with balance then going to employee BUT, suits not barred: Suits against manufacturers of products used in the workplace. But, proceeds usually first reimburse employer for compensation outlay, with balance then going to employee Suits against employers for intentional torts (where employer intended injury or intended act and knew with substantial certainty that injury was likely to occur) Consortium suits by family members Suits against insurers, if engaged in loss prevention activities (Beauchamp) Broad Coverage (attribution rule): Employer pays for all accidental injuries  arising out of and in the course of employment Reduces secondary costs (economic dislocation) Simplified Process: Administrative hearings and a simple attribution rule designed to take lawyers out of the process. Not entirely successful, at least at the  edges of the circle. Eliminates tertiary costs. Compensation Limits: See  REMEDIES above Insurance Planning: All employers are required to pay into a state, or private, insurance fund (unless large enough to be self-insured) Compensation, which is an afterthought in tort, is at the center of the plan. Insures spreading. THEORY: Enterprise Liability: The risks of employment should be placed on the employer, as part of the cost of production, as the employer can then spread the costs to consumers. (a) Internalize (b) Insure (c) Spread Effect of Insurance on Deterrence (background safety): The larger the actor, the greater their credibility (i.e., percentage of workers comp premiums determined by experience rating). Therefore, workers comp insurance produces greater deterrence for larger actors. Empirically: Smaller employers are safer than mid-sized employers. More investment in each worker. Human relationships lead to safety. Largest employers are the safest most incentive to avoid accidents Market allocation effects work well on macro size for both large and small firms (because workers comp increases price for products from unsafe industries industry-wide) Works less well on micro level for small firms with lower credibility BUT, background safety effects work well only for large firms (because small firms premiums not affected by individual safety record) 2. Constitutionality Ives v. South Buffalo Railway Co. (NY): Constitutionalizes the common law (i.e., fault liability):  [Workers comp] authorizes the taking of the employer s property without his consent and without his fault.  violates due process New York Central Railroad Co. v. White (US SC) Treats workers compensation as the product of a bargain, with tort being replaced by a  reasonably just substitute. De-constitutionalizes the common law B. AUTO NO-FAULT How auto no-fault differs from workers comp: Preserves tort to some extent above  threshold (hybrid character) Benefits paid by insurance company rather than employee Covers third parties (e.g., pedestrians) Argued on basis of efficiency ( cool rhetoric), not fairness ( hot rhetoric) No widely accepted, unlike workers comp BASICS (in practice): Abolishes tort for claims below threshold, but preserves tort for claims above Below threshold, no damages for pain and suffering Injury threshold between lesser injuries (no-fault) and greater injuries (tort claim) very important VARIETIES: (1) Add-On Plans Add to, but do not abolish, tort recovery Increased benefits for medical and other expenses, as well as wages (2) Modified Plans Eliminates right to sue below a certain threshold. (3) Pure No-Fault Would eliminate negligence altogether and substitute comprehensive insurance scheme. Not adopted in any state. NOTES: No Fault / Tort Threshold: Question is where to set the threshold. Some say $1000, others say $10,000. Does this make sense? Some try to justify under a  need principle. But, what about middle class victims who are permanently disabled. Maybe this makes sense, however, if you maintain the right to sue in tort. From a legal engineering perspective. Pain and Suffering Damages: Many no-fault plans do not include damages for pain and suffering. Blum and Kalven argue this is because the key to the system is maintaining the size of the current insurance pool (to make it politically attractive). THEORY: Tertiary Costs: Tort system imposes tertiary costs in the form of lawyers fees, delays in judgments, etc. ANF speeds up compensation Under and Overcompensation: Tort system undercompensates those with serious injuries and overcompensates those with less serious injuries. Small claims! settlement is cheaper Large claims! court costs used to obtain cheaper settlements Also, no-fault system takes into account probable size of loss CRITICISMS: Choice: Some say that while no-fault plans should be compulsory for compensation of victims, they should not be compulsory for self-insurance. Argue that the choice to insure oneself should be wholly voluntary. Others say that this is putting form over substance (which is that this is good for people). Responses: Not fair to give benefits of system to non-participants (potential for 3rd party costs) If everybody says in no-fault system merit rating works better and background safety therefore increased Market allocation doesn t work if people can opt out, because no longer keeps all the costs of driving on driving Fault: Insufficient deterrence. No-fault removes deterrent pressure from bad drivers because injured party recovers from own insurer, not at-fault driver s insurer Under this system, theoretically, even a drunk driver could be compensated. But, deterrence is reflected potentially in insurance premiums. Perhaps, or perhaps not because drivers lack credibility. Other response: Negligence system also doesn t penalize dangerous driver enough because forces him only to pay slightly higher premium rather than full cost No-fault (first-party rating) transfers pressure from bad driver to those likely to have larger claims Utilitarian: No-fault impedes market allocation, because bad drivers don t internalize the costs (rather, insurance companies do) OTHER NO-FAULT PLANTS (at federal level): Nuclear accidents Vaccines given on mass basis to children Black lung disease EPA Superfund C. REGULATION APPROACHES: Command And Control Model (direct regulation): Congress promulgates standards. Agency translates into rules. Market Alternatives (indirect regulation): For instance, a pollution tax. The virtue is that we are delegating authority to a lower level. BUT: (a) We may underestimate the amount of flexibility within the command and control level, where we set a level and allow industry to figure out how to reach it. (b) Setting the tax at the correct level is still difficult. (c) Enforcement of a tax is more difficult. INTERACTION WITH REPARATION SYSTEMS: Tort and plans cannot possibly be reaching the correct BPL level: Difficulty of enforcement: Causation Signature illnesses Etc. REGULATORY METHODS: (1) Risk Assessment Predicts positive effects of regulation (reduction of risky activity) PL-type analysis Requires agency to identify specific unsafe condition (i.e., significant risk) before can regulate Example: The Benzene Case: FACTS: OSHA says it cannot know what a  safe level of exposure is. So, says it will fall back on a presumption that there is no  safe level. HOLDING: Statute requires OSHA to find a significant risk, and falling back on a presumption does not do this. Case essentially comes down to who we want to bear the risk of uncertainty. (2) Cost Assessment Considers costs of regulation B-type analysis See  REGULATORY STANDARDS below VII. THEORY A. FAULT / STRICT LIABILITY 1. Primary and Secondary Criticism PRIMARY CRITICISM:  You shouldn t have done it ( change conduct This implies fault. The idea of fault is that actors should pay for harm for which they are responsible. SECONDARY CRITICISM:  You should pay for what you have done ( pay damages Strict Liability involves secondary criticism without primary criticism. A competing idea, running through the law, that benefits and burdens should run together.  As between two innocents, let the one who cause the harm pay. 2. Arguments for Fault UTILITARIAN: Posner Fault liability is the best means of achieving maximum deterrence. Society ought to prevent accidents whenever the cost of preventing those accidents is less than the potential loss. The rule of fault, or BPL, is designed to achieve this maximum level of deterrence. Beneficial risks are not penalized, while risks that are not justified by their utility are discouraged. MORAL: Kant: Should treat others as ends, not means. Two forces in moral universe: Love (pulls us together) and respect (pulls us apart) Duty of love: Making others ends our own Duty of respect: Not abasing any other person to a mere means to our ends Man cannot be a means, only an end Charles Fried: We should not impose risks that are not justified by their benefits. Moral obligation not to subject others to undue harm. In other words, we should not impose risks on others that we would not impose on ourselves. (i.e.  negligent risks.) Reciprocity: A certain degree of risk is inevitable in human activities. Society therefore has what Fried terms a  risk pool. All persons may impose risks of death upon each other for the ends and to the extent that all other persons may do so Risk must be shared equally and be reciprocal throughout society, across situations (and not in any one single situation). Negligent risks are not reciprocated. 3. Arguments for Strict Liability  Let every risky activity pay for the harm that it causes, regardless of whether that activity is conducted negligently or not. Impact of Insurance: (a) Lessens fear of  swamping valuable activities in tort liability (b) Means that tort puts pressure on classes of actors, not individuals. UTILITARIAN: Calabresi suggests that activity-based liability best serves the utilitarian goals of accident law, namely accident prevention at the BPL level. Reduces Primary Costs (accident costs proper, B s and L s): (1) Background Safety/CCA Strict liability provides incentives to eliminate negligence far back in the wedge, which might not be ferreted out in court. I.e., strict liability forces actors to engage in self-criticism to find those places further back in the wedge where B<PL Calabresi wants to find the structural CCA, because it is the CCA over the long run Strict liability preferable to fault liability because places liability on the party in the best position to make the cost-benefit analysis between accident costs and accident avoidance and then act on that analysis (i.e., the CCA) (2) Market Allocation (internalization of costs) Forces actors to fully internalize costs of risky activities. Then, reduces those costs by allocating resources within the market, to less risky (and hence cheaper) activities. I.e., if risky activities have to pay their own way, the market itself gives deterrent pressure Shifts resources to less risky activities For instance, shifting resources from trucking to coastal barges. From this perspective, loss insurance is problematic shoves accident costs onto insurers Achieves BPL efficiency on the macro level. Reduces Secondary Costs (economic dislocations of accidents): (3) Loss Spreading Spread secondary costs to all the consumers of the risky activity. Spreading minimizes the amount of pain and suffering in the world. If you lose $1, that is substantially less painful than loosing $100. So, better for 100 people to bear the cost. Secondary Costs: include the cost of pain and suffering incurred by not spreading the loss (costs of concentration). MORAL: (1) Reciprocity THEORY: Are the risks thrown out and risks received equal? Fletcher speaks of a  community of risk and argues that liability should be imposed for non-reciprocal risks. I.e., liability should ensue when " generates a disproportionate risk of harm relative to the victim s risk-creating activities When are risks reciprocal? When the victim generates risks proportionate to the " s Look beyond the tip of the wedge. But, don t ask whether risks are reciprocal over a very long span of time, either. NOTES: Works with vicarious liability, unusually dangerous activity liability, and nuisance. Fletcher rejects modern forms of strict liability. On the grounds that they impose strict liability for reciprocal risks. A theory of corrective justice. He is not interested in spreading. CRITICISM: Risk may be reciprocal, but harm is not. Does not apply well to non-stranger situations (products liability, workers comp, auto no-fault). (2) Proportionality of benefits and harms THEORY (Bohlen): Is the harm borne by those who benefit from the risky activity? (a) Unfair to thrust (externalize) the burden of one s profitable activity on another, while reaping the benefit oneself. Between strangers. (b) Unfair to concentrate the burden on one of the beneficiaries of the risky activity, while letting other beneficiaries go free. Between non-strangers. (c) When it will improve the distribution of burdens relative to benefits, there ought to be liability. NOTES: Fairness is a situation in which losses are borne proportionate to benefits Sargentich prefers this theory. Goes back to Aristotle s theory of distributive justice: just apportionment of benefits and burdens. Aristotle:  To do injustice is to have more than one ought, to suffer it is to have less than one ought Bohlen proposes this theory, and he applies it to Rylands. Deals with harms, rather than risks. See  water main cases for examples B. INSURANCE TWO TYPES: (1) Liability Insurance  Actor insurance /  Third Party Insurance Insures against specified liabilities to others (fear of being sued) (2) Loss Insurance  Victim insurance /  First Party Insurance Compensates the insured directly for specified losses (fear of crushing loss) Collateral source rule: Generally, the fact that a  has insurance doesn t reduce the amount " must pay  (jury not even told  has insurance)  doesn t get double recovery, though. Usually,  s insurance company is paid back any money it gave  RATIONALE: Risk is always smaller than loss. (PL<L) There will therefore always be a  fortunate many, as well as a few who will suffer devastating loss. Motivated by fear of crushing loss Insurance allows the fortunate many to aid the unfortunate few. Insurance takes a tax-harm legal system and translates it into a tax-risk system PROBLEM: Lessens deterrent effect of tort. Larger actors, with greater credibility (i.e., percentage of premium determined by experience rating) are affected by accidents in their plant.  law of large numbers As firm increases in size, experience becomes more predictive of future (so large actor has greater incentive to self-insure) BUT, for other, smaller actors, a moral hazard is created by insurance. Insurer, not injurer, is that party actually that pays, so injurer has incentive to be negligent, knowing insurer will pick up the bill, thus dissipating tort pressure I.e., egoist worries about premium, not L Puts pressures on activities, rather than individuals. For small actors. Pressure will be on  motoring, rather than on risky drivers. C. MARKET MECHANISMS 1. Market vs. Regulatory Utilitarianism MARKET UTILITARIANISM: Posner argues that the market will work out the optimal amount of risk. In defense of reasonable assumption of risk: employees contract for risk, when dealing with employer, and are paid a premium for it. Buchanan makes a defense of the principle of  caveat emptor Basic idea is that the market constitute a subjective BPL valuation Prices reflect people s preferences for B s and PL s HYPO: A type of coal that can be either safe or dangerous, and which is more expensive when dangerous. If you impose strict liability, the price of the dangerous coal will go up. The result will be that the poor will no longer be able to obtain the dangerous coal. And, they are precisely the ones who presumably would be interested in the product. Argues against internalizing costs, because buyers of more dangerous products are those who have determined the risk is worth the price saving So, internalization doesn t really make things safer, just attached an insurance policy to the product Would restrict strict liability to cases where product imposes third-party risks/costs or where inadequate information on danger (because in these two cases there are externalities) REGULATORY UTILITARIANISM: (a) Externalities: Does not consider impact on society as a whole. (b) Information: The market will not function in the absence of adequate information, which is often lacking. (i) Complexity: The market aims to introduce a great deal of choice in people s lives. But, with that choice comes a great deal of information (needed to choose wisely). Introduces a tension. (ii) Small Risks: When the risk is small, information availability is particularly problematic. Individuals will not have access to information on their own, so manufacturers will have to make it available. (c) Expectations: People often expect that products are safe, in modern industrial society. 2. Subjective BPL i. Market Principles SUBJECTIVE BPL: Want individual parties to set BPL at the level that seems appropriate, on the theory that the market will work out an efficient answer. THREE ARGUMENTS: (1) Efficiency: market promotes efficiency (2) Moral: people should have the opportunity to choose (3) Distributional: impact is mostly on the poor. ii. As a  sword Grimshaw v. Ford (CA) Ford Pinto designed with a gas cap that will easily explode. Did so according to a cost/benefit analysis. Court upholds the jury s award. Seems to fault Ford for seeking out the BPL level. Cites the amount extra cost per car and essentially says  I would be willing to pay more than that. Idea is that if you engage in BPL analysis but costs falls catastrophically on one person, you re exploiting that person Avoidable grave risk should be avoided ( challenges BPL thinking Essentially turns market-based approach on its head, holding that the fact that many people would be willing to pay the extra amount to avoid the risk makes the conduct wrongful. Repudiates Objective BPL in favor of Subjective BPL. D. PRINCIPLES OF COMPENSATION 1. Institutions (1) Reparation Systems Combine aims of compensation and regulation. Put costs pressure on actors or activities giving rise to accident Examples: Tort (i) Fault liability (ii) Activity liability (vicarious, nuisance, abnorm. dang., products) Activity Plans (non-tort) (iii) Actor-financed (e.g., workers comp) (iv) Victim-financed (e.g., auto no-fault) Tort vs. Plans: Liability rules vs. attribution rules Adjudicatory processes vs. administrative processes Tort damages vs. compensation limits Financing left to " s vs. financing specified (2) Background Institutions Divorce aims of compensation and regulation (a) Compensation Arrangements (compensation not tied to particular risky activities) (v) Private loss insurance (vi) Government benefit programs (e.g. Social Security Disability Ins.) No regulatory pressures because costs paid out of societal pool (b) Regulatory Schemes (regulation of risk apart from compensation to victims) (vii) Government regulation (EPA, NHTSA, OSHA, etc.) 2. Principles i. Four Principles PRINCIPLES: (1) Fault (i) The faulty actor should pay for the loss. Negligence. (2) Activity (ii-iv) The risky activity should pay, whether faulty or not. Strict liability. (3) Choice(v) You get what you pay for, under contractual arrangements. Private loss insurance. (4) Need (vi) The basic needs of all should be met as a matter of social obligation Welfare. ii. Fault and Activity Liability APPLICATION: Keeton argues that these principles have only positive applications. Suggests that each draws a circle of liability but should not be used to limit liability (i.e., that the different principles do not limit each other) Leaves out principle of choice/contract Sarge: In truth, there is a real debate/fight between fault and activity liability. E.g., fault would limit liability when harm caused by socially beneficial activity, whereas activity liability would not. Answer: Our system is a mixed system (of both fault and activity liability) CONTRADICTION: Smith points out the enormous contradiction between negligence (fault) and workers compensation (activity liability). Gives examples of numerous situations where victims would go uncompensated or be compensated based solely on their status as employees (passengers of train, conductor of train). iii. Choice and Need Choice and need fight against each other: Choice says people should be free to insure themselves or not and accept what they get (entitlement to compensation a matter of contract) Need says society has obligation to ensure all have sufficient support (entitlement to compensation a matter of social justice) BACKGROUND INSTITUTIONS: Insurance: Many see as based on the idea of choice. A system of  personal protection. Accordingly, no obligation to let the needy into the compensation system rate differentiation okay Stone argues, however, that insurance is a system of  mutual aid. A means for society to pay for the needs of those who are injured. Accordingly, wrong to exclude those who are already needy (those with AIDS, for instance) rate differentiation not okay Disability Programs: Basic idea is that support is a collective social obligation. Principle of need. REPARATION SYSTEMS: Workers Compensation: See the principle of need in the minimum and maximum compensation granted under states scaled-down wage compensation schemes. E. LEVELS OF SAFETY 1. Regulatory Standards (1) Cost / Benefit Balancing Essentially Posner s BPL approach, transferred to regulation. Usually couched in terms of  reasonable risk, not explicit C/B balancing Two Approaches: (a) Focused: look at direct compliance costs and direct benefits of reduced risk (b) Plenary: look at effects on competition, inflation, etc Cost Effectiveness: Asks which use of limited resources would save the most lives. May be used even under feasibility or safety approach. (2) Feasibility Reduce significant risks to the lowest level possible, without making the continuance of the activity unfeasible (i.e., unprofitable). Practicality is the limit, not maximum utility Two Components: (a) Technological Feasibility May be technology-forcing (is it a real technological possibility?) (b) Financial Feasibility Will regulation drive the industry out of business or threaten  massive dislocation ? Regulation feasible even if threatens survival of some firms, so long as doesn t threaten survival or structure of entire industry Practiced by OSHA (3) Safety Reduce risks to the lowest level that is  safe, regardless of cost Applicable in some cases of toxic substances (Clean Water Act, pesticides) 2. Notes SAFETY:  Acceptable Risk It seems clear that there must be some level of risk that is acceptable, as  background risk. Wilson suggests: Calculating this by looking at the background risks we accept on a daily basis. Comes up with a 1 in 10,000 figure. Others counter: Acceptable level of risk is not constant, but varies according to our wealth and education (and self vs. other-imposed risks). COST/BENEFIT: Value of Life (a) Societal Cost Approach (NHTSA) Lost productivity at work, as well as lost contributions to home and family and cost of repair of damage (valued according to opportunity cost). I.e., consumption losses caused by losses in production and ability to produce Criticism: Is lost productivity the right metric? If someone dies who doesn t work, does that mean nothing has been lost? What about the hours outside our  productive hours? A rough guide to the loss to society, but not an attempt to put a value on life itself. (b) Implicit Valuation Approach ( willingness to pay ) Asks how much people value their life, when they are asked to accept a premium in wages for taking on risks. Or, how much willing to pay to avoid some risk (smoke detector) Most commonly used method for valuing life Criticism: What about situations where someone says  your money or your life ? They ignore these, saying people become irrational. Sarge: People, in this situation, are doing feasibility analysis. Constrained bargaining People don t know how great the risk to be avoided is Doesn t account for non-monetary inducements to take jobs. Patriotism, family, etc. Different groups value their lives differently Rich value their lives more than poor, generally Objective value for risk, versus subjective value for wage premium. Doesn t make sense. FEASIBILITY: Reasons For OSHA Cancer Policy Says there is no good way to calculate the value of life. Declines to do so and adopts feasibility, instead. (Cotton Dust Case) Ashford suggests that cost/benefit analysis is a good tool, but that it is not a good rule. Distributional dimension of the problem complicates cost/benefit analysis when the cost is not being borne by the same person who gets the benefit. Comes down to fairness. Unfair to subject some people to grave, avoidable risk for sake of incremental benefits to larger group As long as we have risk above feasible level, we re trading off serious harms for some against marginal benefits for many others Cost-benefit balancing not neutral when it asks one group of people to bear a cost for others. E.g., workers bear costs for employers and consumers Sarge: Situations in which we use feasibility rather than C-B analysis: When lives are immediately in peril ( your money or your life ) I.e., significant, salient, non-redistributable harm When the B is extremely low (tooting RR horn, glaucoma test) When there s a mortal danger that is  eminently avoidable (Pinto case) Notion is that we shouldn t be balancing C s and B s at all F. DISTRIBUTIONAL PRINCIPLE 1. Rawls BASIC PRINCIPLE: Distribution of resources should be both: (a) to everyone s advantage and (b) attached to positions and offices open to all. I.e., inequalities must be to everyone s advantage APPLICATION: No person should be asked to sacrifice for the good of all. Rejects the utilitarian thesis that we should seek the greater good of all of society. Utilitarian thesis will to impose lower prospects of life on some for sake of higher expectations of others A Kantian insight. When we ask one person to sacrifice, we are essentially treating that person as an end rather than a means. INEQUALITY OF HARM: Sargentich points to the difference between those who die and those who do not as the most radical form of inequality in society. There is no way to eliminate this inequality, as long as some risk exists. Accordingly, our society will always be imperfect. Feasibility level reduces this inequality. A  modern interpretation of the common law idea of inevitable accident. Unfair to set the level of risk above the level necessary for the flourishing of human life. 2. In Tort Law The reasonable person does not have to be utilitarian and may be influenced by this insight as to fairness. NEGLIGENCE: Life in peril! might be assessed according to feasibility. Extremely low B! we have treated as involving cost-benefit analysis, but may also reflect the clear feasibility of avoiding harm. PRODUCT DEFECT: Beshada: two tests for determining if a product is safe: (a) does utility outweigh risks and (b) has risk been eliminated to the greatest extent possible consistent with not eliminating utility of the product. Grimshaw Punitive damages assessed against Ford for performing a cost-benefit analysis. Probably based on the feasibility of prevention: $11. VIII. ADDENDUM A. NOTES ON FAULT CULPABILITY: Culpability, as a component of fault, may be glimpsed in the definition of gross negligence:  the absence of slight diligence, or the want of even scant care. Altman v. Aronson. When we are assessing the higher order of culpability required for punitive damages, the knowledge of a risk may often be relevant. CAUSATION: Why do we tax harm instead of risk? Administrative difficulties. (too expensive/impossible to tax risk) Private attorneys general would not be motivated to bring suit. B. NOTES ON STRICT LIABILITY Attribution: The problem, with strict liability, is to determine which actor created the risk. Victims also throw risk out on the world. So, who should internalize the impact of the risk? Calabresi advocates assigning liability to the cheapest cost avoider. Defined as the party  in the best position to make the cost-benefit analysis between accident costs and accident avoidance costs and to act on that decision once it is made. BUT, strict liability doesn t work very well if the person doesn t know about the risk Administration: Michelman suggests that we also want to avoid wasteful tertiary costs. So, we should impose liability according to large categories and general rules.  Cars are liable for the costs of collisions between cars and bicycles.     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