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Encoding Storage Retrieval 3) Describe the importance of the relationship between the encoding and retrieval phases. 4) Outline factors related to remembering general world knowledge. 5) Tie up some loose ends: Unintentional retrieval Neuropsychological dissociations Episodic vs. Semantic Memory ________________________________________ Episodic Memory the rememberer is asked to remember an experience that occurred Semantic Memory Easily distinguished descriptively, but EX: Fudge Factors that influence episodic memory: Encoding ________________________________________ Amount of Practice Power Law of Rehearsal/Forgetting (Ebbinghaus) equal temporal ratios produce equal Asymptote Comparing Linear and Log scales ______________________________________  Factors that affect Encoding: Kind of practice ______________________________________ Semantic rehearsal vs. perceptual rehearsal Classic paradigm Problem: Solution: Complexity Generation Effect Levels of processing (Craik and Lockhart) Challenges the multi-modal model Very influential, but a lot like disco EX: Sung vs. spoken text Preamble to the Constitution More Factors that affect Encoding ________________________________________ Distribution of Practice Lag effect (Ebbinghaus) Multiple presentations are better than single presentations. Important empirical question: What is the ideal lag? ( lag ( lag Karpicke & Roediger (2008) Longer lags Cepedea, et al. (2007) RIOptimal GapOpt Gap RI734335823701217350278 Reminindings without rehearsal Practice Continued ___________________________________________ Important theoretical question: Why is spacing effective? Encoding variability Attentional Effects Re-activation Important practical question: What are the practical implications of spaced practice research? ___________________________________________ Interference Divided attention has a profound effect on learning. Implications for study habits Factors that influence Episodic Memory: Storage ________________________________________ Consolidation: learning is not complete when practice/rehearsal ends. The act of putting something in memory continues through the process of Why consolidation? More Better integrated Key Predictions Inactivity will improve consolidation. cockroach study, sleep studies If consolidation is interrupted/prevented, memory will suffer/fail completely. ECT I: Escapable shock ECT II: Platform ECT III: Delayed testing Interpretation: Amnesia Shrinking RA for concussions Factors that influence Episodic Memory: Retrieval cues and practice ________________________________________ Retrieval Cues Type of cues (Tulving & Psotka, 1978) Provision of category labels Number of cues More cues is , however Uniqueness of cues Cue Overload Hypothesis (Watkins) Self-generated cues (Christianson) Practice Retrieval practice better than rehearsal, however Retrieval inhibition Practice impairs recall of non-practiced items. What is inhibition? Why inhibition and not interference? Anderson et al., (1994) Camp, et al. (2007) Non-practice followed by Practice Storm, et al. (2008) Evolutionary argument. Retrieval Interference vs. Retrieval Inhibition ___________________________________________ Retrieval Interference  Retrieval Inhibition  Retrieval in the Real World: Linton The Ebbinghaus of AM ________________________________________ 6-year study wrote down 2 daily events tried to remember and date them. Why? Catalogue memory ability Examine factors that influenced forgetting Questions: How did the results differ from what she expected? What were the two different kinds of forgetting that Linton identified? Which of the following were good predictors of memory: Emotion? Uniqueness? Repetition? How did semantic and episodic knowledge relate to one another? Did event re-interpretation occur? How did this influence forgetting? Why is forgetting adaptive? Repetition effects on Semantic vs. Episodic Memory ___________________________________________  More Retrieval in the Real World: Winograd and Soloway (1986) ________________________________________ Question: Why do people forget where they hide valuables? Hypothesis: Trouble arises when the hiding place has high perceived low perceived Method: Read lists of items: The _____ is in the _____. Task: memorability, imagery task, likeliness, Cued recall Results: 1) Imagery task no better than memorability ratings 2) Likeliness judgments better than memorability Interpretation? 3) Separating the effects of memorability/likelihood 4) What about their original hypothesis? Data from Winograd and Soloway (1986) ___________________________________________  Relationship b/t encoding and retrieval conditions ________________________________________ Encoding specificity Memory is best when the conditions at test match Physical context EX: Mountain climbers and divers Chemical states EX: cuties phone number Mood EX: depression and memory Transfer Appropriate Processing EX: semantic processing for free recall vs. rhyme-cued recall Semantic Memory ________________________________________ Cues are helpful, but its not in all cases Part-set cuing Why? Strengthening of practice items Strategy disruption Retrieval-induced inhibition? Problems: paradigm to distinguish Practice is important, but not in all cases Nickerson & Adams (1979) Why? Sanford (1917) Why? Retrieval practice helps, but not in all cases Revelation effect vs. Partial-exposure interference Why? Reproduction vs. Reconstruction: Bahrick, et al., 1996 ________________________________________ Reproduction: Stimulus Memory Reconstruction: Stimulus Knowledge Memory Theoretical Question: Is forgetting due to loss of content? What is the distinction between quantity and fidelity? What makes grades a good subject for study? Results:  More on Bahrick, et al., 1996 ________________________________________ Questions about results: What was the relationship between accuracy Course grade? Year in school? Emotion? Over- or underestimation was more common? Was this pattern consistent across ability? What was the relationship between confidence accuracy error asymmetry Interpretations/Conclusions: Do students recall A grades more accurately? Do better students remember their grades better than worse students? How might schemata be used to explain the data? How did the data demonstrate loss of quantity and/or fidelity? Accuracy Distortion Would you characterize memory as reproductive or reconstructive? Unintentional retrieval: Salaman (1970) ________________________________________ Interesting points: Psychologists dont know much about memory, especially those that burst into the head unbidden (echoes Neisser) Why does she keep referring to Proust? Jumbling of details Mixing up interiors of houses Big assumption? What is the interesting question to ask? Precipitating factors? Head on the Door A Sort of Homecoming Comparison with voluntary memories What is an experimental paradigm that would yield interesting results? Diary studies: Single subject vs. many subjects Verification, generalize, same experiences (?), demand characteristics. What do you measure? Unintentional AM: Berntsen ________________________________________ Question: What is the relationship between involuntary autobiographical memories and memories produced in response to a cue? Method: SS kept a diary and produced AM in the lab Effort to match word cues with stimuli that produced involuntary memories (music, bacon) Results: Voluntary memories were Involuntary memories were elicited When attention by environmental cues ________________________________________ How do these data align with Salamans arguments? How do these data align with your own experience? Episodic vs. Semantic Memory: Neuropsychological Evidence ________________________________________ H.M. intractable epileptic seizures localized bilaterally to his hippocampi. The hippocampus and surrounding cortex were removed. Lives totally in the present. Cannot remember past events, or new events. General world knowledge is intact, but cannot learn new semantic info. Can learn new skills, but does not remember learning episodes Gene (amnesic) Complete loss of personal events No problem identifying common objects P.P.(semantic dementia) Knows friends, families, details of life, but lacks the vocabulary to describe them. Questions to ask: Organic or psychological causes? If organic, what parts control what behavior? 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