ࡱ> '` bjbj 8%ZZZn)))8 **ln U0+,"@,@,h,G-"i- u-TTTTTTT$PVhXTZDC-G-DDTjL@,(h,TLMLMLMDfZh,Zh,TLMDTLMLMWPZZGQh,+ 7)2INQTT0 U3QVYJ~VY(GQGQ VYZgS8}-h4JLM/:<k>a}-}-}-TTKN}-}-}- UDDDDnnnd#)nnn)nnnZZZ Session No. 16 Course: The Political and Policy Basis of Emergency Management Session: Geosciences Policy: Earthquakes, Other Seismic Disasters Time: 2 Hours ______________________________________________________________________________ Objectives: At the conclusion of this session, students should be able to: 16.1 Explain the basis of earthquake law and policy in the United States. 16.2 Recount some of the political issues surrounding earthquakes, such as those emerging in the Loma Prieta earthquake of 1989 and in the Northridge earthquake of 1994. 16.3 Describe cases involving political interchange in the process of earthquake disaster recovery. 16.4 Understand the barriers faced in implementing earthquake mitigation and preparedness policies, and know the stakeholders involved. 16.5 Offer observations on the immense costs of earthquake recovery and the political issues surrounding the coverage and assumption of these costs. ______________________________________________________________________________ Scope The readings and discussion in this session should give students an understanding of some of the political elements of Federal and State earthquake policy and geosciences policy. The political interchanges faced in earthquake disaster mitigation, preparedness, and recovery will be reviewed and examples will be offered. This session also covers changes in earthquake-related Federal law and policy since the Loma Prieta temblor of 1989 and the Northridge quake of 1994. References Assigned student readings: Haddow, George D. and Bullock, Jane A. Introduction to Emergency Management. 3rd Edition. New York: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2008. See pgs 30-32, 77, 86-87, 91-93, 213-214, and 247-248. Miskel, James F. Disaster Response and Homeland Security. Westport, CT: Praeger Security International, 2006. See pages 11, 23-25, 28-30, 33-34, 26, 40, 48-49; Loma Prieta 19, 29, 34, 77-78, 89; Northridge, 30, 34, 89. Sylves, Richard. Disaster Policy and Politics: Emergency Management and Homeland Security. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2008. See pages 57, 117, 121-125, 212; Loma Prieta, 61, 92, 167; Northridge, 65, 92, 129, 131, 157, 167. Supplemental student background reading (may need to place one or more of these books on library reserve for the course): Alesch, Daniel and William Petak Rebuilding After the Long Beach Earthquake, Crisis Management: A Casebook, Michael T. Charles and John Choon K. Kim, eds. (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas Publishers, 1988), pp. 231-248. Klebs, Robert and Richard T. Sylves The Northridge Earthquake: Memoirs of a FEMA Building Inspector, Disaster Management in the U.S. and Canada, Richard T. Sylves and William L. Waugh, Jr., eds. (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas Publishers, 1996): Ch. VI, pp. 126-160. Settle, Allen K., The Coalinga Earthquake, Crisis Management: A Casebook, Michael T. Charles and John Choon K. Kim, eds. (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas Publishers, 1988), pp. 249-264. Requirements News video of the television coverage of the Northridge earthquake disaster would be an outstanding audio visual aid in this session. Consider asking groups of two or three students to summarize the findings of the Alesch & Petak, Klebs & Sylves, and Settle articles. Be sure they emphasize the political features of each case study. Remarks Invite a geoscientist working with your college, university, government, or the U.S. Geological Service (formerly the U.S. Geological Survey) to briefly address the class on seismology fundamentals. Remember that geosciences are a very broad field. Vulcanologists, geologists, seismologists, earth scientists, and civil engineers work in the field, and these are only a few examples of geosciences specializations. Identify earth science or geology majors you may have in your class and invite them to lead discussion or make short presentations on major seismic events they are prepared to address, particularly if you have no guest speaker expert. Though this session should stress the political and policy aspects of seismic geosciences, it is important to explain the major features of the Modified Mercalli and Richter scales used to measure earthquake intensity. The Modified Mercalli Scale is covered in Haddow and Bullock on pages 31-32. Objective 16.1 Explain the basis of earthquake law and policy in the United States. Earthquakes, like other disasters, sometimes overwhelm the emergency response and recovery capacity of individuals, businesses, and State and local governments. The human and economic loss inflicted by an earthquake and its consequences may be so great that tremendous help must be provided by people, businesses and governments outside the damage zone. This being the case, the problem of the threats and destruction of earthquakes has been manifested in National policy and Federal law. The Federal Government is expected to step in to provide basic humanitarian aid to the devastated areas. Haddow and Bullock explain that an earthquake is a sudden, rapid shaking of the earth caused by the breaking and shifting of rock beneath the earths surface. Seismic technology can track seismic activity but seismic research has not as yet been able to accurately predict within short time intervals (hours, days, weeks) when a major earthquake will occur. Over the last half century geoscientists have identified the presence of great tectonic plates which support the land and the oceans. Many tectonic plates are in gradual motion and the effects of plate-to-plate interaction often produce seismic effects, some of them catastrophic, as was the case for the December 26, 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and subsequent tsunami. However, geologic faults exist not only along the edges of earths great tectonic plates but in many other locations as well. The point is that not all quakes are a result of tectonic movement. Volcanic activity often produces earthquakes. Subsidence of the earths surface in various locations may cause quakes and surface deformities which damage human structures. Landslides and mudslides are also destructive, though they may stem from a variety of causes, not just from earthquakes. Haddow and Bullock are wise to remind us that millions, if not billions, of people live in seismic zones vulnerable to earthquake. Earthquakes produce both surface and sub-surface effects. Many can relate to the surface damage seismic disasters produce in terms of structural damage to buildings, bridges, dams, highways, ports, and houses. However, earthquakes also are capable of producing massive damage to underground utilities (water, sewer, electrical lines, gas and other pipelines, telephone and cable) and underground structures (tunnels, subway systems, and subterranean flood works & irrigation systems). While some buildings may show little quake damage above the surface, they may be uninhabitable owing to seismic damage to their foundations. The politics of earthquake policy is therefore closely intertwined with the politics of construction and public works. Many existing Federal programs, that are in place to serve purposes unrelated to disasters, have emergency provisions and disaster response capabilities that can be marshaled and coordinated to address the aftermath of an earthquake. Also, the President can independently issue a Major Disaster Declaration or can grant a declaration once a Governor petitions for one. Clearly, earthquakes are a legitimate public policy problem in the United States, but there remains tremendous variability in the levels of earthquake mitigation and preparedness across the Nation. Few American states are more prone to earthquake activity than is California (with Hawaii and Alaska as notable exceptions). Californias earthquake politics and policies have been carried forward in National earthquake policy. The State has a U.S. House of Representatives delegation numbering fifty-threemore than twelve percent of the chamber. Californias congressional delegation possesses enough political clout to influence National policy. As the Nations most populous State, it is often a trendsetter for the Nation as a whole. The United States seismic safety constituency is not strong politically or economically. There are vocal and active political and administrative officials who are worried about seismic safety. However, these leaders are scattered thinly in areas that have already experienced earthquake destruction. The Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act of 1977 provides the framework of the National earthquake policy, and FEMA was the lead agency charged with coordinating that program until 2003. Through the NEHRP, FEMA worked with other Federal agencies, including the U.S. Geological Service (USGS), the National Science Foundation (NSF), and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), and the States, academia, and the private sector to minimize the risk to life and property from future earthquakes. The primary goals were to make structures safer, to better inform the public, and to press for better seismic mitigation. This entailed: Better understanding, characterizing, and predicting seismic hazards. Improving model building codes and land-use practices. Learning risk reduction through post-earthquake investigation and analysis. Developing improved design and construction techniques. Promoting the dissemination and application of research results. NEHRP calls for research, planning, and response activities conducted within each of four specified agencies and project grant programs that are funded through FEMA, USGS, NSF and NIST. When FEMA was lead agency, the program made available to the States project grants each year. FEMA continues to provide grant help to the States through this program today. Though modest, these funds helped encourage States to devise earthquake mitigation and preparedness work plans under FEMA tutelage. The Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act of 1977 was last reauthorized on October 25, 2004, by the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program Reauthorization Act of 2004, Public Law 108-360. The National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program Reauthorization Act of 2004 has as its purposes, The Congress finds and declares the following: (1) All 50 States are vulnerable to the hazards of earthquakes, and at least 39 of them are subject to major or moderate seismic risk, including Alaska, California, Hawaii, Illinois, Massachusetts, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, New York, South Carolina, Utah, and Washington. A large portion of the population of the United States lives in areas vulnerable to earthquake hazards. (2) Earthquakes have caused, and can cause in the future, enormous loss of life, injury, destruction of property, and economic and social disruption. With respect to future earthquakes, such loss, destruction, and disruption can be substantially reduced through the development and implementation of earthquake hazards reduction measures, including (A) improved design and construction methods and practices, (B) land-use controls and redevelopment, (C) prediction techniques and early-warning systems, (D) coordinated emergency preparedness plans, and (E) public education and involvement programs. (3) An expertly staffed and adequately financed earthquake hazards reduction programs, based on Federal, State, local, and private research, planning, decisionmaking, and contributions would reduce the risk of such loss, destruction, and disruption in seismic areas by an amount far greater than the cost of such program. (4) A well-funded seismological research program in earthquake prediction could provide data adequate for the design of an operational system that could predict accurately the time, place, magnitude, and physical effects of earthquakes in selected areas of the United States. (5) The geological study of active faults and features can reveal how recently and how frequently major earthquakes have occurred on those faults and how much risk they pose. Such long-term seismic risk assessments are needed in virtually every aspect of earthquake hazards management, whether emergency planning, public regulation, detailed building design, insurance rating, or investment decision. (6) The vulnerability of buildings, lifelines, public works, and industrial and emergency facilities can be reduced through proper earthquake-resistant design and construction practices. The economy and efficacy of such procedures can be substantially increased through research and development. (7) Programs and practices of departments and agencies of the United States are important to the communities they serve; some functions, such as emergency communications and national defense, and lifelines, such as dams, bridges, and public works, must remain in service during and after an earthquake. Federally owned, operated, and influenced structures and lifelines should serve as models for how to replace and minimize hazards to the community. (8) The implementation of earthquake hazards reduction measures would, as an added benefit, also reduce the risk of loss, destruction, and disruption from other natural hazards and manmade hazards, including hurricane, tornadoes, accidents, explosions, landslides, building and structural cave-ins, and fires. (9) Reduction of loss, destruction, and disruption from earthquakes will depend on the actions of individuals and organizations in the private sector and governmental units at Federal, State, and local levels. The current capability to transfer knowledge and information to these sectors is insufficient. Improved mechanisms are needed to translate existing information and research findings into reasonable and usable specifications, criteria, and practices so that individuals, organizations, and governmental units may make informed decisions and take appropriate actions. (10) Severe earthquakes are a worldwide problem. Since damaging earthquakes occur infrequently in any one nation, international cooperation is desirable for mutual learning from limited experiences. (11) An effective Federal program in earthquake hazards reduction will require input from and review by persons outside the Federal Government expert in the sciences of earthquake hazards reduction and in the practical application of earthquake hazards reduction measures. FEMA had a National Earthquake Mitigation Program Office within its Mitigation Directorate. National policymakers that supported earthquake mitigation and preparedness through laws and programs aimed at advancing seismic research, disseminating research results to others (including to emergency managers), enhancing state and local capacity to identify seismic risks and to respond to the consequences of a major quake. The National Institute of Standards and Technology was accorded the lead NEHRP role in 2004 under the law reviewed above. However, FEMAs role in NEHRP remains very significant and emergency managers stand as integral players in implementation of the NEHRP to this day. USGS produces earth science data, promotes warnings about imminent earthquakes, and supports land-use planning and engineering designs, as well as emergency preparedness. NSF promotes fundamental geotechnical engineering designs, and structural analysis (in part through the Multi-disciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research and other centers). NIST and FEMA together work with State and local officials, model-building code groups, architects, engineers, and others to be sure that scientific and engineering research flows into building codes, standards, and practices. Objective 16.2 Recount some of the political issues surrounding earthquakes, such as those emerging in the Loma Prieta earthquake of 1989 and in the Northridge earthquake of 1994. Sylves maintains that the earthquake research and engineering community in the U.S. is both mature and politically influential. Seismic and geologic research has advanced dramatically over the past half-century. Seismic research has led to seismic mapping, something which has helped builders and developers design and construct seismic-resistant structures. Seismic mapped has dramatically aided in building code and zoning ordinance development that is informed by local seismic risk. The Loma Prieta Quake of 1989 The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake killed an estimated 63 people and injuring 3757, triggered fires in San Franciscos Marina district (among other places), collapsed the Admiral Nimitz Freeway (Cypress Street Viaduct) double stacked highway structure (killing 41 there), dropped a section of the Oakland Bay Bridge on to a lower section of highway (effectively closing the bridge to traffic), and devastated several communities south of the Bay area near Santa Cruz. The earthquake caused severe damage throughout the San Francisco Bay Area, most notably in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco,_California" \o "San Francisco, California" San Francisco and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakland,_California" \o "Oakland, California" Oakland, but also in many other communities throughout the region, including many in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alameda_County" \o "Alameda County" Alameda,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Mateo_County,_California" \o "San Mateo County, California" San Mateo,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Clara,_California" \o "Santa Clara, California" Santa Clara,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Benito_County" \o "San Benito County" San Benito County,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Cruz_County,_California" \o "Santa Cruz County, California" Santa Cruz, and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monterey_County,_California" \o "Monterey County, California" Monterey counties. Registering at 6.9 on the Richter magnitude scale, the Loma Prieta quake posed a challenge for the George H.W. Bush administrations first year in office. In his examination of the Loma Prieta quake, Miskel notes that the quake occurred 24 days after Hurricane Hugo. The GHW Bush administration faced strong criticism for the Federal response to Hugo but much less so for its response to Loma Prieta. Miskel argues that the public has different standards of acceptance for hurricane response than earthquake response. Specifically, the public is more tolerant and patient in the matter of quake response than it is hurricane response. Miskel offers two reasons for this assertion. One, hurricanes have a slower speed of onset and follow paths that allow some degree of prediction of landfall location; thus, the government is expected to be more prepared before the hurricane strikes. Earthquakes, owing to their unpredictability, have a high or instantaneous speed of onset. The inference is that the news media and public were less critical of the emergency management of the Loma Prieta event than the Hugo event because there was greater forewarning of Hurricane Hugo than the Loma Prieta earthquake. Second, in the case of Loma Prieta, local fire departments in the Bay area and in other counties impacted by the quake had well developed and practiced emergency response plans and had achieved a high state of preparedness before the quake struck. The chief demands imposed by Loma Prieta involved firefighting, rescue, and emergency medical services. This work was judged to have been done capably despite various communications and organization problems identified in after-action reports. Conversely, the range of problems and reactions produced by Hugo evidenced poor disaster preparedness and response. The Northridge quake of 1994 The Northridge quake struck areas of the City and County of Los Angeles, most particularly in the San Fernando Valley, on January 17, 1994. Registering 6.7 Richter magnitude, the temblor killed 72 people and injured an estimated 9000 others. The quake caused an astounding $20 billion in damage and resulted in many billions more for reconstruction. Only Hurricane Katrina of 2005 eclipsed the total cost of the Northridge quake. Most casualties and injuries occurred in wood-framed multi-storey structures. Structures built with base isolation technology did well in riding out the 20 seconds of severe ground shock. The political and policy implications of the Northridge quake were immense. Thousands of people were displaced by the event. Hundreds decided to abandon their homes and live in hastily constructed tent cities rather than risk death from an aftershock inside their damaged residences. Los Angelinos had to contend with collapsed freeway overpasses or cracked and impassible highway surfaces in various areas. Building inspection became a gargantuan undertaking as tens of thousands of people applied to FEMA and other Federal agencies for aid and as they awaited judgments of red, yellow, or green tagging of their homes (red signified uninhabitable and unsafe to enter; yellow denoted significantly damaged but repairable and temporarily accessible; and green, indicating light damage and habitable). The Clinton administration and FEMA, led by James Lee Witt at the time, won high marks for cooperating with a California Governor (of the opposing political party), fielding a capable Federal response, managing the media deftly, and expeditiously processing claims and applications for aid from individuals and local governments. Though building inspections were often controversial, few criticized government emergency managers for their work in either the response or the recovery. President Clinton authorized that collapsed California Freeway overpasses be rebuilt at great public expense to meet more powerful seismic shocks than the ones that brought them down in the Northridge temblor. This discontinued the practice of rebuilding to the standard that existed for the original structure. The decision advanced public works disaster mitigation as public policy and encouraged policymakers to henceforth insist on rebuilding to tougher than original standards. The Klebs and Sylves case study about the Northridge earthquake is a grassroots view of one FEMA Disaster Assistance Employee inspectors experiences. The articles anecdotes illustrate the process by which FEMA conducts large scale recovery operations. The case also portrays the human side of this demanding and stressful disaster work. Klebs work was to ascertain applicant eligibility for help under programs like EMERGENCY MINIMAL REPAIRS and INDIVIDUAL ASSISTANCE. Among the articles recurring themes are the controversies surrounding homeowner earthquake insurance coverage, ascertaining fraud by applicants, the need to be fair and yet compassionate in rendering help, the use of automated palm-top computing technology to conduct paperless inspections, the use of geographical information systems to map damage zones and to measure field inspection progress, and the indomitable spirit of most earthquake survivors. Before leaving the topic of the Northridge quake, one relatively intractable issue needs mention. The Northridge event revealed major deficiencies in residential earthquake insurance coverage. While commercial earthquake insurance is available, purchased by businesses, and generally adequately serviced, schemes to promote sale and purchase of residential earthquake insurance have proven to be a major political and policy challenge. In states widely recognized to be seismically active, particularly California, homeowners have found it difficult to find affordable residential earthquake insurance. Many have feared that insurers routinely make it difficult for them to collect on claims they file after earthquakes. State regulated or sponsored earthquake insurance measures have often failed. Property owners recoil from high premiums, high deductibles, and incomplete coverage. Private earthquake insurance firms are dwindling as earthquake insurance is high-risk, actuarially unsound, subject to high reinsurance cost, and vulnerable to a Niagara Falls of claims after a catastrophic quake. A more cynical interpretation is that many homeowners are taking advantage of government via moral hazard; that is, they are intentionally electing not to purchase residential earthquake insurance because they expect the Federal government to provide them significant financial relief under the presidential declaration of major disaster or catastrophe they expect will come in the aftermath of the next heavily destructive quake. Objective 16.3 Describe cases involving political interchange in the process of earthquake disaster recovery. If events are defined as natural acts perceived to have social consequences and if those social consequences create human needs for which relief is sought, a problem is said to exist. However, not all problems deserve to become public problems, that is, problems that governments are obligated to address. When the human needs produced by the social consequences of an earthquake cannot be met by private sources, a public problem results. The way in which Federal, State, and local governments address the earthquake policy before a seismic event, can make a difference in the magnitude of the need after an event. Moreover, when one level of government does not mitigate earthquake hazards, this has consequences for other levels of government. California, among other States, has the ability to push for strong Federal disaster relief policies. Though somewhat dated, Prof. Settles article about Coalinga, Californias post-quake experience remains enlightening. His work demonstrates that, City administrators and public officials in California often face legal and political quandaries in the aftermath of an earthquake. Californias local governments do not enjoy SOVEREIGN IMMUNITY and may be sued for mistakes that they are proven to have made which caused harm, injury, private loss, or commercial loss. For example, after the Coalinga earthquake, the (CA) State Seismic Safety Commission determined that Coalinga had weak, poorly-enforced, building codes and lax building inspection. Insurance companies used the finding in a lawsuit against Coalinga and other quake damaged communities. Known as SUBROGATION SUITS, these are filed by insurance firms against city governments, when those governments are demonstrated to have been negligent in fire and building code enforcement. The insurance firms sought cost recovery for claims paid out to private property owners whose structures did not meet fire and building codes and which experienced damage during the earthquake. NEGLIGENCE and PUBLIC DUTY DOCTRINAL issues may also be a factor. In Coalinga, property owners filed class action suits against the city. Some property owners argued that their right to due process was violated when municipal authorities demolished their structures in the aftermath of the quake. In other words, had they been allowed a hearing before the demolition, they may have been able to prove to municipal officials that their structure was repairable. Some claims involved INVERSE CONDEMNATION (taking property from the rightful owner without just compensation). Courts have ruled that State and local governments must sometimes pay landowners damages for zoning and other land use restrictions that reduce property value. However, State and local governments are sometimes liable if they do not stop certain development which may take place in hazardous zones. They are liable on the grounds that public authorities should have recognized the consequences of condoning such development (i.e., public duty doctrine). So, in the first instance, public officials are reluctant to promote disaster mitigation zoning because it leaves them open to claims alleging reduced property value. Yet, in the second instance, public officials are subject to lawsuits alleging that they should have curtailed development given their knowledge of a hazardous risk. Objective 16.4 Understand the barriers faced in implementing earthquake mitigation and preparedness policies, and know the stakeholders involved. Since people tend to discount the risk and probability of earthquakes; earthquake mitigation has LOW POLITICAL SALIENCE in normal times. The structural alternatives in mitigation are often either demolition or reconstruction of existing structures, both of which are expensive and controversial. Alesch and Petak provide an overview of the political history of earthquake mitigation in Long Beach and southern California in general. Their study depicts the political ebb and flow of quake mitigation and, explains the affect of counter forces like historic preservation, landlord resistance, and the opposition of retirees who are living on fixed incomes. The article recounts the effects of the Long Beach earthquake on March 10, 1933. The disaster was responsible for 120 deaths and extensive building damage. Since half of the damaged buildings were of unreinforced masonry construction, a political movement for tougher building codes was launched in the aftermath of the earthquake. Since Long Beachs building codes could not be enforced retroactively, it was difficult to compel owners of existing structures to reinforce or rebuild their buildings. The Long Beach City Council was able to require building fronts to be reinforced in 1950 on the pretense of protecting the public from their collapse. The next step came in 1959, when the council defined earthquakes as nuisances. This empowered local building officials to condemn earthquake-hazardous buildings and force property owners to strengthen or demolish their structures. In 1966 a State Court ruling for Bakersfield, California, invoking similar statutes, determined that California cities were authorized to use public nuisance laws to condemn unsafe buildings vulnerable to earthquakes. In a backlash response in 1969, local property owners launched an organized opposition to nuisance laws based on the PUBLIC TAKINGS clause. In response to that, the Long Beach City Councils legal counsel recommended the adoption of a uniform building code. The council resisted until after the San Fernando Valley earthquake, in February 1971, which killed 60 people and caused the collapse of an immense number of unreinforced structures. Fixed income and lower income retirees also protested and tended generally to be against mandatory building codes. Other citizen backlashes came from proponents of historic preservation. In particular, preservationists in Many Los Angelinos were vehemently against the demolition of old movie theaters which were vulnerable to seismic forces. It is important to know who the stakeholders are in political controversies that involve seismic mitigation. For example, developers, preservationists, low income retirees, and existing property owners have proven to be formidable opponents of seismic mitigation in Long Beach, while advocates of mitigation in Government and the insurance industry have possessed relatively limited powerexcept after major earthquakes. The use of building codes to require reinforced structures in earthquake prone areas represents a public good since they reduce the extent of structural damage and help to save lives. Objective 16.5 Offer observations on the immense costs of earthquake recovery and the political issues surrounding the coverage and assumption of these costs. Earthquake response and recovery may be excessively difficult for a locality to manage. In the wake of the immense costs and lack of necessary support systems, mayors may petition a State Governor for a State Disaster Declaration. The Governor in turn can petition the President for a Presidential Disaster Declaration to alleviate the financial burden of earthquake recovery. Earthquakes of even moderate magnitude have triggered Presidential Disaster Declarations. As mentioned above, in 1983, Coalinga, California, experienced a moderate earthquake which caused extensive property damage, but no loss of life. Owing to National media attention, the mayor of Coalinga was successful in convincing Governor Deukmejian and, in turn, President Reagan to grant Coalinga a State and Presidential Disaster Declaration respectively. Allen Settles case study of The Coalinga Earthquake documents how the earthquake devastated downtown businesses and how the mayor of Coalinga skillfully used the media and his political influence to secure very substantial disaster relief aid from the Federal and State Government, which was then used to refashion and rebuild the downtown into a shopping plaza. Another example of post-quake disaster rebuilding expense, which also spawned political controversy, stemmed from the costs of rebuilding Los Angeles area hospitals during the Northridge temblor recovery period. FEMA contributes to disaster recovery costs, especially for improving health and safety facilities. In March 1996, FEMA announced that it would provide nearly $1 billion in Federal funds in a new mitigation approach to strengthen the structural integrity of four local hospitals that were damaged by the Northridge earthquake. This decision was made after a heated dispute between FEMA officials and California officials. Initially FEMA complained that Californias post-earthquake building code changes, applied to public structures, but waived for private structures, forced the rebuilding of many hospitals under the 90/10 Federal-State share in effect for damage caused by the earthquake. FEMA originally argued that most of the hospitals did not need as much rebuilding as the new codes required. However, facing strong political opposition from top State officials and the embarrassment of opposing a major, though massively expensive, mitigation effort, FEMA reversed itself and agreed to the costly hospital rebuilding effort. Below is FEMAs announcement on the matter. Through its seismic hazard mitigation for hospitals effort, FEMA offered more than $831 million to Cedars Sinai Hospital, St. Johns Medical Center, the Los Angeles County-USC Medical Center, and the UCLA Center for Health Sciences. These hospitals received more than $947 million for the repair or replacement of damaged facilities through a cost-share agreement between FEMA, the State of California, and other local contributors. FEMA Director James Lee Witt remarked that, through comprehensive consultation with the State and the hospitals, FEMA provided the most cost-effective funding package that would ensure that these buildings will be able to operate after another major earthquake. This new mitigation effort is providing the means to repair or replace damaged buildings. More importantly, these funds will enable hospitals to build their facilities to stronger structural standards to withstand future earthquakes. By improving the performance of area hospitals, the need to evacuate patients could be avoided and post-disaster operations would be improved since these facilities would serve victims when they need assistance most. Supplemental Considerations This session draws from a variety of readings and is likely to attract considerable class discussion. Help students see through the drama and horror of earthquakes to the political matters embedded in rebuilding and recovery operations. This session provides a great chance for the instructor to review with the students, the politics of disaster mitigation, the intergovernmental relations of public facility and infrastructure repair or replacement, the budgeting of disaster costs, and the political value of capable disaster responsiveness for political leaders. American response to seismic disasters - whether produced by plate tectonic movement, slippage along other fault lines, volcanic activity, landslides and mudslides, or seismically triggered tsunamis - involves almost all of the standard demands of emergency management and so is addressed appropriately through all-hazards emergency management. Seismic disasters have the ability to destroy human-made structures and utilities both above ground and under ground. Earthquake politics is closely associated with public works politics, in which a broad national taxpayer base is asked to direct funding for repair and reconstruction into much more geographically narrow areas. In classic distributive politics terms, many sacrifice lightly to direct and concentrate recovery benefits on the few most affected by the disaster. This session also had the aim of demonstrating that earthquake politics and policy is a realm of research and engineering lobbying for government resources. Aided by a very big and politically powerful California congressional delegation, earthquake researchers have been able to best other disaster research communities in drawing Federal research funding toward their policy domain. A CATASTROPHIC EARTHQUAKE is a seismic event or series of events which results in great numbers of deaths and injuries, extensive damage, or an over-whelming demand on State and local response resources and mechanisms. It has a severe impact on National security facilities and the infrastructures that sustain them. It also has a severe long-term effect on general economic activity. It also inhibits State, local, and private sector initiatives of beginning and sustaining initial response activities. Helpful Links For general information about earthquake disasters and earthquake preparedness, and for leads to more detailed sources see U.S. FEMAs  HYPERLINK "http://www.fema.gov/hazard/earthquake/" http://www.fema.gov/hazard/earthquake/ Last accessed 24 July 2009. For leads on information regarding earthquake geoscience research see, U.S. Geological Survey, Earthquake Hazard Research home page at  HYPERLINK "http://earthquake.usgs.gov/" http://earthquake.usgs.gov/ Last accessed 24 July 2009. To learn more about the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technologys Earthquake Hazard Research Program see the home page at  HYPERLINK "http://www.nehrp.gov/" http://www.nehrp.gov/ Last accessed 24 July 2009. To investigate the U.S. National Science Foundations earthquake relevant programs see the PowerPoint slide presentation Update on the National Science Foundations Role in the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program, Presentation to the NEHRP Advisory Committee on Earthquake Hazard Reduction December 17, 2008 by Dennis Wenger, Ph.D., Program Director, Division of Civil, Mechanical and Manufacturing Innovation, Directorate for Engineering National Science Foundation at  HYPERLINK "http://www.nehrp.gov/pdf/ACEHRDec2008_NSF.pdf" http://www.nehrp.gov/pdf/ACEHRDec2008_NSF.pdf Last accessed 24 July 2009. Endnotes Alesch, Daniel and Petak, William. Rebuilding After the Long Beach Earthquake, Crisis Management: A Casebook, Michael T. Charles and John Choon K. Kim (eds.) (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publishers, 1988). Haddow, George D. and Bullock, Jane A. Introduction to Emergency Management. 3nd Edition. New York: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2008. Klebs, Robert and Sylves, Richard T. The Northridge Earthquake: Memoirs of a FEMA Building Inspector, Disaster Management in the U.S. and Canada, Richard T. Sylves and William L. Waugh, Jr. (eds.) (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publishers, 1996): Ch. VI, pp. 126-160. Miskel, James F. Disaster Response and Homeland Security. Westport, CT: Praeger Security International, 2006. Opfer, George J. Inspector General, H-7-97: Audit of FEMAs Seismic Hazard Mitigation Program for Hospitals Damaged by the Northridge Earthquake, (Washington, DC: Federal Emergency Management Agency, Office of Inspector General, September 30, 1997 and updated November 19, 1997). Settle, Allen K., The Coalinga Earthquake, Crisis Management: A Casebook, Michael T. Charles and John Choon K. Kim (eds.) (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publishers, 1988). Sylves, Richard. Disaster Policy and Politics: Emergency Management and Homeland Security. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2008. U.S. Congress, the Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act of 1977 (Pub. L. 95-124) as amended by Public Laws 101-614, 105-47, 106-503, and 108-360. P.L. 108-360 is the Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program Reauthorization Act of 2004. U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency, Emergency Information and Public Affairs, FEMA to Provide nearly $1 Billion for Earthquake-Damaged Hospitals, March 12, 1996, Internet news release, Washington, D.C. U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency, National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program Public Laws, at  HYPERLINK "http://www.fema.gov/plan/prevent/earthquake/laws.shtm" http://www.fema.gov/plan/prevent/earthquake/laws.shtm Last accessed 24 July 2009. U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency, Resource Record Details Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act of 1977 (Amended 2004), at  HYPERLINK "http://www.fema.gov/library/viewRecord.do?id=3080" http://www.fema.gov/library/viewRecord.do?id=3080 Last accessed 24 July 2009.     PAGE  PAGE 1  George D. Haddow and Jane A.Bullock, Introduction to Emergency Management. 3nd Edition. (New York: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2008), 30.  U.S. Congress, 42 U.S.C., 1990.  U.S. FEMA, National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program Public Laws, at  HYPERLINK "http://www.fema.gov/plan/prevent/earthquake/laws.shtm" http://www.fema.gov/plan/prevent/earthquake/laws.shtm Last accessed 24 July 2009.  U.S. FEMA, Resource Record Details Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act of 1977 (Amended 2004), at  HYPERLINK "http://www.fema.gov/library/viewRecord.do?id=3080" http://www.fema.gov/library/viewRecord.do?id=3080 Last accessed 24 July 2009.  James F. Miskel, Disaster Response and Homeland Security (Westport, CT: Praeger Security International, 2006), 77.  Ibid., p. 78.  Ibid.  Richard T. Sylves, Disaster Policy and Politics: Emergency Management and Homeland Security (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2008), p. 167.  Miskel, 2006, p. 89.  Sylves, 2008, pp. 129-130.  Ibid., p. 227.  Allen K. Settle, The Coalinga Earthquake, Crisis Management: A Casebook, Michael T. Charles and John Choon K. Kim (eds.) (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas Publishers, 1988), 257.  Daniel Alesch and William Petak, Rebuilding After the Long Beach Earthquake, Crisis Management: A Casebook, Michael T. Charles and John Choon K. Kim (eds.) (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas Publishers, 1988).  George J.Opfer, Inspector General, H-7-97: Audit of FEMAs Seismic Hazard Mitigation Program for Hospitals Damaged by the Northridge Earthquake, (Washington, DC: Federal Emergency Management Agency, Office of Inspector General, September 30, 1997 and updated November 19, 1997)  Sylves, 2008, p. 167.  Opfer, 1997.  Ibid. 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