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From cradle to grave -- major issues, methods, prenatal development, theories
I. Development involves the processes and stages of growth from conception across the life span. It encompasses changes in physical, cognitive, and social behaviors.
II. Major issues
Nature versus nurture-are we more affected by heredity or environment?
Continuity versus discontinuity-is developmental change gradual, or do we progress through distinct stages?
III. Methods
Cross-sectional research involves studying a variety of ages at a given point in time.
Longitudinal research follows the same group of subjects for many years.
In cohort-sequential research, several age groups are studied periodically.
Historical research revolves around the particular historical circumstances of an era
IV. Prenatal development A. Physical development
Cephalocaudal (head to tail) development
Proximodistal (from the center outward) development
Genetics
Genotype refers to the total genetic composition of a person.
Phenotype refers to the observable features of the person.
Teratogens are disease agents, drugs, and other environmental agents that can cause birth defects during the prenatal period.
V. Infancy
Physical development
Growth rate declines throughout infancy but is faster than during any other postnatal period.
Maturation and learning combine to determine skill development and replace reflexes.
Social development
Harry Harlow's surrogate mother research with monkeys demonstrated the importance of contact comfort.
Attachment style
Secure attachment means the infant seeks proximity, contact, and interaction with the caregiver after separation.
Insecure attachment means the infant cannot be calmed or ignores the caregiver after separation.
Stranger anxiety peaks at about 6 months; separation anxiety peaks at about 18 months.
Cognitive development
Infants show a preference for face-like patterns
Visual cliff experiments suggest that infants perceive depth by the time they are able to crawl.
Childhood and Adolescence
Childhood
Physical development
more extensive neural networks continue to develop in the brain
Growth rate continues to decline
Social development
Interaction with the environment provides a sense of gender identity.
A greater sense of independence develops as peer relationships begin to become more important.
Cognitive development continues at a rapid rate. There are advances in the areas of
Leaming
Language
Thinking skills
II. Adolescence
Physical/ sexual development-puberty
Social development
Peer groups take on an increasingly important role.
Opposite-sex relationships gradually become less recreational and more intimate
Cognitive development
Capability for logical, hypothetical, and introspective thinking develops
Growing awarenesss of one's own mental processes develops-metacognition
Adolescent development relates to many important societal problems, such as suicide, teen pregnancy, and eating disorders.
III. Adult and later years I. Adulthood
A. Physical changes
1. Abilities peak and begin a gradual (1% a year) decline. 2. Women undergo menopause, with its hormonal and reproductive changes.
B. Social changes center around such issues as:
1. Mate selection 2. Parenting
3. Career selection
C. Cognitive changes vary significantly with some people showing declines and others not.
Reaction time appears to decline.
Some adults show a decline in memory.
II. Later years
Physical changes
1. There is a general decline in muscle tone and sensory abilities
2.Senile dementia and Alzheimer's disease are two disorders that may develop.
Social issues include:
1. Retirement
2. Social isolation, which may be caused by loss of spouse and others, lack of mobility and declining health
Cognitive declines are likely to continue.
Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor stage, birth to 18 months
Characteristics
Cognitive structures or schema are the means by which humans acquire and apply knowledge about their world.
Assimilation is the use of available cognitive structures to gain new information.
Accommodation is the process of modifying cognitive structures in the face of newly realized complexities in the environment.
Developmental achievements
Circular reactions are repetitive motions babies engage in as they gradually learn to explore their environment nonreflexively.
object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when --hidden from view.
Preoperational stage, 18 months to 6 years
Characteristics
Egocentrism is a limited ability to comprehend a situation from a perspective one has not experienced.
Animism is the tendency to attribute life to inanimate things.
Artificialism is the tendency to believe everything is the product of human action.
Developmental achievements
a. Symbolic representation and language b. Readiness for operational thought
Concrete-operational stage, 6 years to early adolescence
Characteristics
Use of simple logic
Use of simple mental manipulations
2. Developmental achievements
Conservation is the principle that matter does not increase or decrease because of a change in form.
Reversibility is the understanding that mathematical operations can be undone.
Class inclusion is the ability to understand the hierarchical nature of classification groups.
Formal-operations stage, adolescence and adulthood
Characteristics.
Hypothetical and deductive reasoning.
Propositional logic
Developmental achievement indicates a readiness for adult intellectual tasks.
Not all adolescents or adults achieve formal operational reasoning ability.
E. Critique of Piaget
Development may be more gradual than Piaget's stages imply.
The nature of Piaget's tasks may have underestimated cognitive skills of children.
Kohlberg's theory of moral development
A. Preconventional level
Stage 1: characterized by avoidance of punishment
Stage 2: characterized by a desire to further one's own interests
B. Conventional level
Stage 3: characterized by living up to the expectations of others
Stage 4: characterized by a sense of conscience and "doing one's duty"
C. Postconventional level
Stage 5: characterized by an understanding that values and rules are relative but generally need to be upheld
S Psychology tage 6: characterized by universal ethical principles
D. Critique of Kohlberg
Development may be more gradual and less sequential than Kohlberg's stages imply.
Gilligan and others have criticized the theory for undervaluing traditional female traits, which focus on interpersonal issues.
Erikson's psychosocial theory of development
I. Background
A. Erikson was trained in the Freudian tradition, and the first four stages borrow from Freud's psychosexual stages.
B. The developmental task of each stage involves resolving the tension between two opposite outcomes.
II. The stages
A. Trust versus mistrust -infants
B. Autonomy versus shame and doubt -toddlers
C. Iniative versus guilt -young children
Industry versus inferiority -older children
Identity versus role confusion -adolescents
Intimacy versus isolation -young adults
Generativity versus stagnation -adults
Ego integrity versus despair -elderly
III. Critique of Erikson
There is no agreed-upon set of measures for the various stages.
The stages imply a rigidity of development that may not exist.
The theory may not reflect differences in personality development between men and women.
DEVELOPMENT
Developmental Psychology- Study of the changes that occur in people from birth through old age. Cross sectional study- Method of studying developmental changes by examining groups of subjects who are of different ages. Cohort- Group of people born during the same period in historical time Longitudinal study- Method of studying developmental changes by examining the same group of subjects two or more times, as they grow older. Biographical or retrospective study- Method of studying developmental changes by reconstructing subjects past through interviews and investigating the effects of events that occurred in the past on current behaviors. Prenatal- Development from conception to birth Embryo-Developing human between 2 weeks and 3 months after conception Fetus- Developing human between 3 months after conception and birth Placenta- Organ by which an embryo or fetus is attached to its mothers uterus and that nourishes it during prenatal development. Critical period- Time when certain internal and external influences have a major effect on development; at other periods, the same influences will have little or no effect Neonate - Newborn baby Rooting reflex- Reflex that causes a newborn to turn its head toward something touching its cheek and to grope around with its mouth Swallowing reflex- Reflex that enables the newborn baby to swallow liquids without choking Grasping reflex- Reflex that causes newborn babies to close their fists around anything that is put in their hands Stepping reflex- Reflex that causes newborn babies to make little stepping motions if they are held upright with their feet just touching a surface temperament- Term used by psychologists to describe the physical/emotional characteristics of the newborn child and young infant; also referred to as personality Maturation- Automatic biological unfolding of development in an organism as a function of the passage of time Developmental norms-Ages by which an average child achieves various developmental milestones Sensorimotor stage- In Piagets theory, the stage of cognitive development between birth and 2 years of age, in which the individual develops object permanence and acquires the ability to form mental representations Object permanence -The concept that things continue to exist even when they are out of sight Mental representation- Mental image or symbol used to think about or remember an object, a person, or an event Preoperational stage- In Piagets theory the stage of cognitive development.between 2 and 7, in which the individual becomes able to use mental representations and language to describe remember and reason Egocentric- Unable to see things from anothers point of view Formal operations- In Piagets theory, the state between 11 and 15, in which the indiv.becomes capable of abstract thought Holophrase- One-word sentences, commonly used by children under 2 Language acquisition device- An internal mechanism for processing speech that is wired In to all humans Imprinting- Form of primitive bonding seen in some species of animals the newborn animal has a tendency to follow the first moving thing it sees after it is born or hatched Attachment- Emotional bond that develops in the first year of life that makes human babies cling to their caregivers for safety and comfort Autonomy- Sense of independence; desire not to be controlled by others Socialization- Process by which children learn the behaviors and attitudes appropriate to their family and their culture solitary play- A child engaged in some activity alone; the earliest form of play Parallel play- Two children playing side by side at the same activities, paying little or no Attention to each other; the earliest kind of social interaction between toddlers Cooperative play- Two or more children engaged in play that requires interaction Sex role awareness- A little girls knowledge that she is a girl and a little boys knowledge that he is a boy Gender constancy- The realization by a child that gender cannot be changed Sex role awareness- Knowledge of what behavior is appropriate for each gender Sex-typed behavior- Socially prescribed ways of behaving that differ for boys and girls Puberty- Onset of sexual maturation, with accompanying physical development Menarche- First menstrual period Imaginary audience- Elkinds term for adolescents; delusion that they are constantly being observed by others Personal fable- Elkinds term for adolescents; delusion that they are unique, very important and invulnerable Identity formation- Eriksons term for the development of a stable sense of self necessity to make the transition from dependence on others to dependence on oneself Identity crisis- Period of intense self-examination and decision making part of the process of identity formation Peer group- A network of same-aged friends and acquaintances who give one another emotional and social support Clique- Group of adolescents with similar interests and strong mutual attachment Anorexia nervosa- A serious eating disorder that is associated with an intense fear of weight gain and a distorted body image Bulimia- An eating disorder characterized by binges of eating followed by self induced vomiting midlife crisis- A time when adults discover they no longer feel fulfilled in their jobs or personal lives and attempt to make a decisive shift in career or lifestyle Midlife transition- According to Levinson, a process whereby adults assess the past and formulate new goals for the future Menopause- Time in a womans life when menstruation ceases Alzheimers disease- A disorder common in late adulthood that is characterized by progressive losses in memory and changes in personality. It is believed to be caused by a deterioration of the brains structure and function.
DEVELOPMENT QUIZ
1. Some researchers consider developmental psychology an applied research topic because
it is more easily applied to peoples lives than research such as behaviorism.
Researchers apply findings and theories from other areas of psychology to the specific topic of human development
It is more commonly studied by a graduate student rather than an undergraduate because of the applications for other research.
Doing original research in this area is difficult, so most of the research is about application.
Pure research is difficult to gain support for, especially when a researcher needs to recruit children as participants.
2. You read in your philosophy class textbook that humans are born Tabula Rasa or blank slates. As a student of psychology, which of the following responses would you have?
The statement is incorrect. Humans may be bon without reflexes and instincts, but we are born with the ability to learn them.
The statement is correct. Humans are born without instincts or other mechanisms in place to help us survive.
The statement is correct. Humans are born with a certain number of neurons, but most develop later as we learn.
The statement is incorrect. Humans are born with a set of reflexes that help us survive.
The statement is impossible to prove since we cannot infer what babies know or do not know due to their lack of language.
3. Which of the following statements is most true about how a newborns senses function?
A newborns senses function the same as an adults since the sensory apparatus develops in the womb.
All of our senses function normally when we are newborns except taste due to lack of stimulation in the womb.
All of our senses function normally when we are newborns except touch due to lack of stimulation in the womb.
A newborns senses function at a very low level but develop very quickly with experience.
Most senses function normally, but sight develops slowly with experience.
4. Most prenatal influences on humans are genetic or hormonal in origin except for
teratogens.
Stress on the mother.
Parents level of education about fetal development.
Family history of mental illness.
Operant conditioning occurring before birth.
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