ࡱ>  qbjbjVV .<<iJFF8<"bddddddg d###dy')')')#b')#b')')Nzށy$'|FN0}}(jށށp.') dp dd(@####F O: THE FALL OF ROME AND THE RISE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE The Fall of Rome in the West Visigoths sack Rome in 410 CE Vandals sack Rome in 455 CE Rome falls in 476 CE But the Eastern Roman Empire still stood. Constantines city (Constantinople) still continues as the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. Periods: Early Byzantine = Justinian to Iconoclasm (Leo III -726 CE) Iconoclastic Middle Byzantine: 843 CE renunciation of iconoclasm to Crusaders occupation of Constantinople, 1204 CE Late Byzantine: Byzantines recapture Constantinople: 1261 CE to Constantinople falling to Turks: 1453 CE. (Turks converted churches to mosques.) Brought Orthodox (Christian) religion to Slavs along with alphabet, art, and architecture. Christian buffer between Islam and Western Europe for 800 years. The Byzantine Emperors spoke Greek but called themselves Romans and thought of their empire as Rome. They thought they were the legitimate successors to the Roman Empire. When Byzantine empire collapsed scholars fled west and introduced classical studies to Italy and helped inspire new consciousness that reinforced early Renaissance art and philosophy. Justinian, 527 565 CE The man Official biography by Procopius conscientious, hard working, devout Unofficial biography by Procopius deceitful, devious, false, hypocritical, two-faced, cruel, skilled in dissembling his thought, never moved to tears by either joy or pain a liar always. The Empire strikes back! Re-established Roman hegemony in western half of empire after it disintegrated. Justinians Code of Laws Corpus julis civilis: Code of Civil Law: Foundation for law of many modern European nations. Massive building program THE WONDERS OF CONSTANTINOPLE Geographic setting: The Crossroads of Trade The Triple Walls A moat 60 feet wide and 22 feet deep Low wall to shield a line of archers Second wall 27 feet high which sheltered more troops Third wall a formidable bulwark 70 feet high housed more archers and missile throwers The City Known as the City 300,000 population Greek-speaking citizens but had goods and people from all over the world spices from India ivory and gold from Africa honey, timber, and fur from Russia cork from Spain Wine from France Tin and iron from England Silk from China The Royal Palace Gardens with peacocks strutting about with fountains. One fountain had a giant golden pineapple sculpture in the center. Out of the fountain flowed wine which collected in the basin. A long gold walkway to the throne room Mechanical animals decorated the walkway Golden throne big enough for two the emperor and God Sacred Relics and Churches Helenas Pilgrimage to Jerusalem (325 CE) In about 325, Constantine sent his mother, Helena, on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem Helena erected two basilicas, one on the Mount of Olives and the other over the grotto at Bethlehem where Christ was born. Both were destined to become places of Christian pilgrimage. Legend relates that she also carried out excavations on the site of Calvary (where Christ was crucified), and discovered with divine aid the True Cross, the lance that pierced Christs side, the Crown of Thorns, and numerous other relics Helenas remarkable finds were sent home, and Constantinople soon gained a reputation unprecedented in the history of Christendom as a guardian city of sacred relics. Sacred Relics The linen worn by the infant Jesus The blood-covered mantle worn by Christ when he went to the cross Stones from Christs Tomb The head of John the Baptist Relics of the Apostles, Saint Luke, and Saint Andrew A robe, VEIL, and belt worn by the Virgin Mary The alabaster box of ointment from which Mary Magdalene anointed Christs feet The adze with which Noah built the ark A piece of the rock that Moses struck with his staff to produce water Hagia Sophia the Church of Holy Wisdom Construction Architects were Anthemius and Isidorus Two teams of 5,000 workers Completed in just 5 years, 10 months, and 4 days One of the supreme artistic expressions of the Christian world. A spiritual lighthouse to guide the faithful to the worlds first Christian city Glory be to God, who has thought me worthy to finish this work. Solomon, I have outdone thee! (Justinian) Hagia Sophia is huge 270 feet long and 240 feet wide The dome rises 180 feet above the ground The dome is 108 feet in diameter What about the 4 towering minarets? Artistic and architectural wonders A dome resting on a halo of light A soaring canopy like dome that dominates the inside as well as the outside of the church seems to rest on a halo of light from the 40 windows in the domes base. Visitors to Hagia Sophia from Justinians time to today have been struck by the light within the church and its effect on the human spirit. How was the illusion of a floating dome created? In Roman buildings, domes were placed on drums. But in Byzantine buildings, domes rest on PENDENTIVES. These are four triangular segments with concave sides that transfer the weight of the dome into four corner piers. Their appearance of suspension or hanging gives them their name (from the Latin pendere, meaning to hang.) Thus interior structures like columnar arches of nave and 2nd story gallery are decorative, not structural. Fusing of vertically oriented central plan with longitudinal plan of basilica The use of PENDENTIVES that connect to the corner piers creates a vast interior space. This space is important to convey spirituality in the Byzantine church. Need for external buttresses to handle thrust load of pendentives. Four acres of mosaics The Byzantine mosaics were not destroyed, but were plastered over in the 16th century at the behest of Suleyman the Magnificent, in accordance with the Islamic proscription against the portrayal of the human figure in a place of worship. During the 20th century, many of the mosaics have been restored. Lets take a look. Marble columns 104 marble columns A dazzling variety of colors green, white, deep red, pale yellow Sacred column according to legend this column weeps water that can work miracles. It is so popular that over the centuries believers have worn a hold through the column with their constant caresses. To this day, visitors stick their fingers in the hole and make a wish. Ceremonies Nave reserved for clergy and emperor only. Lay people in galleries Separate galleries for men and women When emperor was in nave during ceremony his rule was sanctified; it was symbolic of church and state being one. The Omphalos or navel Located in the nave A decorated piece of pavement representing the center of the church and the navel of the world The Holy Table Who can see the Holy Table without being astonished? (Holy Table is where priest performs Eucharist turning bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ). Many glittering surfaces. So that at one time it all appears of gold; from another place all of silver, and in another of glittering sapphire. What do you think happened to the Holy Table? MOSAIC MASTERPIECES Introduction We looked at Ravenna churches and mosaics in the Late Antiquity section. Why are we re-visiting it now in the Byzantine section? Ravenna was part of Western Empire When Western (Latin) Empire collapsed (476) Ravenna was eventually conquered by the Ostrogoths (King Theodoric) in 493. The Byzantine Empire did not drive out the Ostrogoths until 539. All the art and churches we looked at in the Late Antiquity section were made before 539 and so could not be considered truly Byzantine. Lets look at representative pieces from the 5th to 6th centuries and see if we can see a trend in the art. Ravenna is situated on the Adriatic coast of Italy. During Justinians reign, Ravenna became the Italian center of Justinians empire. Justinian supported the construction of churches which still survive. These churches contain some of the finest surviving Byzantine mosaics. Shows transition from Early Christian to Byzantine style. San Vitale, 526 - 547 Introduction Take a look at the picture of San Vitale. Is the church BASILICAN or CENTRALLY planned? Two concentric octagons. Inner octagon is dome covered. Not read as two octagons inside. Complexity and shifting perspectives hide this. Cross-vaulted choir in front of apse interrupts the flow of ambulatory. But gives some axial direction. Odd, off-axis placement of narthex no explanation yet. The rectangular basilican church was long the favorite in western Europe But Early Christian architects also adopted another building type: THE CENTRAL PLAN building This type is so named because the building parts are of equal or almost equal dimensions around the center In Western Europe, CENTRAL PLAN structures were typically used by Christians as tombs, baptisteries, and shrines to martyrs. See Galla Placidia and Santa Costanza (in Ravenna but from Late Antiquity period were mausoleums, not churches). In the CENTRAL PLAN, the DOME is the natural focus of the church. The DOME functions symbolically as the vault of heaven. The Church of San Vitale is named for Saint Vitalis. Vitalis was a Roman slave and early Christian who was martyred in Ravenna. The church contains some of the best preserved and most famous mosaics created by Byzantine artists. Ceiling of the choir A haloed lamb symbolizes ___________________. Four angels dressed in white stand on blue spheres and hold up the ring encircling the Lamb. Second Coming of Christ Youthful, beardless Christ sits on an orb representing the world. Christs halo contains an image of the cross and he wears a purple robe The four rivers of Paradise flow beneath him. Rainbow hued clouds float above him. Christ holds a scroll with 7 seals (Revelation 5:1) Christ hands a jeweled crown to Saint Vitalis, the patron saint of the Church. Vitalis is introduced to Christ by an angel. At Christs left (our right) another angel introduces Bishop Ecclesius, in whose time the church foundations were laid. Ecclesius offers a model of San Vitale to Christ. Justinian Mosaic Justinian is the central figure. He wears the same purple robe as Christ. Note the halo above Justinians head. It is an indication of his holy and godlike status. Justinian is carrying a large golden bowl called a paten that contains the bread used in the Mass or Eucharist. Note the man standing to Justinians left and holding the jeweled cross. He is Bishop Maximianus, the man responsible for San Vitales completion. Now note the man standing between Justinian and Maximianus. He is Julius Argentarius aka Julius the Banker. He provided the enormous sum of 26,000 gold solidi (weighing in excess of 350 pounds) required to finish the church. Stepping on each others feet. Note that spatial placement of Justinian and Maximianus is ambiguous. Who is behind whom? Church and state are in balance. Gives sense of forward movement to rigid, formal, frontal scene. The two remaining clergymen are holding the book and censer. The man to Justinians immediate right in General Belisarius, the commander of Justinians army. Now note the four soldiers. They are holding a shield with the Chi-Rho monogram of Christ. The letters XP, known as the Chi Rho were the first two letters of the word Christos. THE MOSAIC SHOWS JUSTINIAN AS CHRISTS REPRESENTATIVE ON EARTH AND AS A WORTHY SUCCESSOR TO CONSTANTINE. Theodora Mosaic Theodoras father was keeper of the bears in the Hippodrome Name Theodora means gift of God. After the death of her father, the young Theodora became an actress. Fair of countenance, and graceful of form, she could neither dance nor sing, but nonetheless scored immense success with her comic striptease number Justinian met Theodora when he was 40 and she was 25 Ignoring all social norms they were married Theodora proved to be a trusted and brave advisor: Kept Justinian from fleeing during Nika revolt Like Justinian, Theodora wears a royal purple robe and her head is framed by a halo. Theodora carries a golden chalice filled with wine. Note the three figures in the embroidery of her robe. They are the Three Magi, or Three Kings who present gifts to the infant Jesus. Both Theodora and Justinian are shown presenting gifts to the church to be used in the Eucharist. Shows their power intertwined with rule of God. The man to Theodoras right is Narses, her closest confidant. Narses is seen in the modest attitude prescribed by etiquette, both arms concealed beneath his cloak; for it was forbidden to approach the divine rulers with impure hands. The women to Theodoras left are most likely Antonina, the wife of the famous general Belisarius, and her daughter Johannina. Theodoras prominent role in the mosaic program is proof of the power she wielded at Constantinople. Guess how many pieces are in the two imperial mosaics. --- THE ANSWER IS 322,560!!! The New Byzantine AESTHETIC Like Egyptian and Greek Art, the Byzantine artists followed a canon First, compare the Justinian and Theodora mosaics with the following images we have studied: Procession of the Imperial Family on the Ara Pacis Gardner 267 The Parting of Lot and Abraham Christ as Good Shepherd NOTE THE FOLLOWING DIFFERENCES The Byzantine figures are frontal and flat. They seem to hover above the ground. They lack naturalism Love for elaborate patterns and repetition. Hieratic (priestly) elements can be seen in the linear abstraction with gold ground. The figures' gazes are not collectively directed towards the viewer The garments fall straight, stiff and thin from narrow shoulders. The body is de-emphasized and the spirituality of the figures is now emphasized. And note that the blue sky has given way to heavenly gold. As a result, all sense of a natural perspective has disappeared. Saint Apolloniare in Classe, 533 549 NOTE: Different from SantApollinare Nuovo. Housed relics of St. Apollinares body until 9th C. Early Christian type, basilica with nave and flanking aisles. Exterior, plain Interior incredible mosaics, but limited to apse Compare and contrast with Galla Placida mosaic Later did not try to re-create part of physical world. Telling a story in symbols Shapes have no volume only flat silhouettes with linear details No illusionistic devices, no overlapping to create 3D space Simple, clear message: humans duty is to seek salvation. Church of the Virgin, monastery of St. Catherine, Mount Sinai, Egypt, ca. 548 565 Monastery: an enclosed compound for monks Monasticism started in 3rd C. Egypt. Migration away from cities to find a more spiritual life. Authorities alarmed: lots of people going into wilderness. Loss of taxes, military recruits, business. 5th C. started to codify laws governing formation of monasteries. Monastery had oratory (church) and refectory (dining hall). St. Catherines dedicated to Virgin Mary. Mary officially recognized in 5th C. as Mother of God (Theotokos). Settled doctrinal controversy about nature of Christ. Mt. Sinai is where Moses received Ten Commandments. Mosaic is in apse. Shows Transfiguration of Christ. What was the Transfiguration? The Transfiguration took place on top of Mount Tabor. Jesus ascended the mountain with three apostles: Peter, James, and John According to Matthew 17:2, Jesus ascended the mountain and was transformed: his face shone like the sun, and his garments became white as light. Moses and Elijah then appeared and talked with Jesus. A voice then resounded from Heaven saying: This is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased; listen to him. (Matthew 17:5) The figure of Christ Bearded Surrounded by a MANDORLA a radiant light surrounding the head or body of a sacred person. Wears white as a sign of his transfigured state Rays of white light stream down on the apostles. Christ is thus literally represented as the light of the world. Compare the eternal composure of the heavenly beings (Jesus, Moses, and Elijah) with the distraught responses of the earthbound apostles. A depthless field of gold The figures cast no shadows even though supernatural light streams over them. This is a world of mystical vision, where the artist has subtracted all substance that might suggest the passage of time or motion through physical space. As a result, the devout can contemplate the eternal and motionless world of religious truth. Looking Ahead Gustav Klimt and The Kiss Andy Warhol and the Gold Marilyn Monroe Ivory Carving and Painting Barberini Ivory (called this because it was once part of Cardinal Barberinis collection in 17th C. Rome): Justinian as world conqueror, mid-sixth century, Ivory Six original panels, one is lost Center panel Emperor on rearing horse while barbarian recoils in fear behind him. Emperor has thrusting spear Personification on bountiful Earth Palm bearing Victory Barbarians on bottom panel bearing tribute and seeking clemency Exotic animals from conquered lands (bottom panel) A to F are all motifs from pagan Roman equestrian figures Left panel: Roman soldier carrying statuette of another Victory. Top Panels: Christ carrying cross and blessing emperor. St. Michael the Archangel, right leaf of diptych, early sixth century Prototype was winged victory, changed sex Adapt pagan motif to Christian use Style indicates artist was working in tradition of classical art Flowing Drapery reveals body Delicately incised wings Facial type and hairstyle BUT had Byzantine lack of concern for naturalistic representation. Feet on three steps Feet behind columns, wings in front of columns: Spatial ambiguities. See Justinian mosaic in San Vitale Ascension of Christ, folio 13 of Rabbula Gospels, 586 CE, Tempera on parchment Belief in Ascension is critical to Christianity. Gospels dont mention Mary as witness to ascension. Based on a lost mural or mosaic? Shows growing tendency for Mary to assume a more important role in medieval art and theology. Mary in pose of orant. ICONS AND ICONOCLASM Icons Definition An ICON is a sacred image representing Christ, the Virgin Mary, or some other holy person. Purpose Icons functioned as living images to instruct and inspire the worshipper. Because the actual figure be it Christ, Mary, a saint, or an angel was thought to reside in the image, icons were believed to work miracles and to intercede on behalf of the faithful. An Example The Virgin and Child Virgin (Theotokos or bearer of God) and Child this is the earliest representation we have of the Virgin and Child (late 500s CE), 23 high. Mary is flanked by two warrior saints (Theodore and George) who recall the stiff figures that accompany Justinian in the San Vitale mosaics Behind them are two angels The painting is an ENCAUSTIC a painting technique in which pigment is mixed with wax and applied to the surface while hot ICONOCLASM (726 843) Background It is one thing to VENERATE (or hold in high esteem) the image of a person. It is quite another to worship the image. Remember, the worship of images is forbidden as idolatry in the Ten Commandments. Iconoclasm In 726, Emperor Leo III prohibited religious images. The Byzantine Empire was beginning to lose it territory in the Holy Land to the Muslims. Emperor Leo III thought God was punishing the Byzantine Empire because its inhabitants were worshipping icons. The Iconoclasts (image destroyers) insisted on a literal interpretation of the biblical ban against graven images. They wanted to restrict religious art to abstract symbols and plant or animal forms. ICONOCLASM may be defined as the movement within Christianity that banned and destroyed images or icons. Impact Much art was destroyed especially in Constantinople. Many artists migrated to the west where their skills and traditions were adopted by Western European courts. Strongly influenced character of Western European art. The controversy also caused an irreparable break between Catholicism in the West and the Greek Orthodox faith in the East. MIDDLE BYZANTINE ART (RENOVATION) Introduction Mid-ninth century reaction against iconoclasm. Iconophiles triumph over iconoclasts Iconoclasm condemned as heresy Icon restoration started in 843. Byzantine culture returned to Hellenistic and Justinian art sources Basil I (867 886) condemned Carolingian kings for claiming title of Holy Roman Emperor. HE was HRE. In 867 Basil I started new icon commissions and restoration of old icons. Basil I is the start of the Macedonian dynasty. A second Byzantine golden age (867 1204) Artists produced small luxury items for members of the royal court as well as for the Church Many of these items were commissioned by rulers and high secular officials and church officials as gifts. Slides Virgin (Theotokos) and Child enthroned, apse mosaic, Hagia Sophia, dedicated 867 Huge, Theotokos is 16 feet tall Echoes style and composition of Thetokos at Mt. Sinai. Not as severely frontal Some imperfect perspective Folds more schematic flatter B & C are contradictory trends; not uncommon Significance is that it marks the end of iconoclasm. Hosios Loukas, Greece, First quarter 11th C. New church construction variations on central plan Domed cube on drum Small and vertical, draw viewers eye up Exterior walls decorated with vivid patterns different from plain ext. walls of earlier churches. Probably Islamic influence. Church of the Theotokos: light stones framed by red bricks, cloisonn. From center out plan is circle, octagon, square, oblong rectangle intricate yet unified interrelationships. Viewers eye is drawn up to dome. Middle Byzantine architects wanted complex interior spaces with dramatically shifting perspectives. Christ as Pantokrator (Final Judge) Judge at Last Judgment on dome. Looks stern and imposing Climax of hierarchical pictorial program What does this mean? Connects viewer with Heaven through Christ. Crucifixion, mosaic in Church of the Dormition (Sleep refers to Ascension of VM at her death), 1090 1100, Daphni, Greece. Post-Iconoclastic pictorial style Blend of classical modeling of forms and traits of Simplicity, dignity, grace with Byzantine abstraction and formalism as well as piety and pathos (pathos, think symPATHy) Christ not above the pain Skull = Golgatha place of skulls Symmetrical, motionless, timeless: NOT a narrative. Represents unchanging mystery of Christianity. VM and John the Baptist act as intercessors (go-betweens) between viewer and Christ St. Marks, Venice History In 751 Ravenna fell to Lombards. Venice became an independent power. Venice was crucial link between Latin west and Byzantium Had relics of St. Mark and built martyrium First building burnt down. Second started in 1063 and modeled on Church of the Holy Apostles at Constantinople during Justinians time (not extant). Cruciform plan with central dome and 4 equal arms (Greek cross). Mosaics from 12th and 13th C. has narrative of Crucifixion, Resurrection, and Anastasis (going to hell to rescue pre-Christian) biblical figures. Has explanatory labels in Greek and Latin. Figures are weightless and insubstantial. No substance, just mystery of Christian faith. Pantokrator (Ruler of the Universe), Theotokos and Child, apse mosaic, cathedral at Monreale, Sicily, ca. 1180 -90. Normans controlled Sicily Assimilated Byzantine culture and art (along with Islamic influence: Normans conquered Moslems). Erected by William II. Shows Christ with hand on Williams crown and William II kneeling before VM with model of church (see Bishop Ecclesius at San Vitale). Christ as Pantokrator: strong allusion to William IIs power and his right to rule. Artistry in Ivory: The Harbaville Triptych What is a TRIPTYCH? A triptych is a three-paneled work of art The Harbaville Triptych is a portable shrine used for private devotion The wings or side panels depict warrior saints and other holy figures The central panel contains a scene called a DEESIS (supplication). In a DEESIS, Saint John the Baptist and Mary appear as intercessors praying on behalf of the viewer to the enthroned Savior. Below is John the Baptist flanked by four apostles Style Not as frontal or formal Softer Looser stances (not contrapposto) Three-quarter views of heads Lamentation over dead Christ, wall PAINTING, St. Pantaleimon, Nerezi, Macedonia, 1164 Hilly landscape, blue sky: contrast with eternal, placeless gold backgrounds Doesnt follow Gospels: VM and St. John not at entombment. More emotionally charged to place in natural setting with people witnessing event. Alternate style: natural setting and naturalistic modeling. Emulated in Italy. Paris Psalter, David composing the Psalms, ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPT, 950 970. Macedonian Renaissance: reassertion of Greco-Roman past Similar to settings in Pompeian murals. Allegorical figures: do not appear in bible. From Greco-Roman painting. Byzantine artists kept classical style alive in Middle Ages. Vladimir Virgin, TEMPERA ON WOOD, PAINTING, late 11th to 12th C. Icons started to be displayed in hierarchical order in tiers on TEMPLON (screen separating sanctuary from main area) Characteristic Byzantine traits Long, straight nose Small mouth Golden rays Decorative sweep of unbroken contour against golden background Intimate portrayal of mother and child Important historical symbol on Byzantiums religious and cultural mission to Slavic world. Late Byzantine Art History Turks conquered most of Anatolia (Turkey) Byzantine church broke with Church of Rome Latins (westerners) attacked and occupied Constantinople in 1203 and 1204 (Diversion from original goal to go to Palestine). Byzantines re-conquered Constantinople but was not powerful anymore. Eventually Ottoman Turks conquered Byzantine empire in 1453 When Constantinople fell in 1453 Russia became Byzantiums defender against the infidel (Islam). Thought of themselves as Third Rome. Painting 14th and 15th C.: Murals and icon paintings. Byzantine artists frequently looked back to Greco-Roman illusionism. But painters and mosaicists were not concerned with systematic observation of material nature as source for their representation of the eternal. They drew their images from a persistent and conventionalized vision of a spiritual world unsusceptible to change. Ohrid Icon, Macedonia, early 14th C. Tempera Typical Byzantine eclecticism. Christs fully modeled head and neck with schematic linear folds placed in front not on body. Andrei Rublyev, Three angels, Russia, Tempera on wood, ca. 1410 Russian painting had intense, contrasting colors and strong patterns and lines. Better to be seen in low light of churches. 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