ࡱ> y Kbjbj .{{aCRTT8d^ ktjjjjjEEEjjjjjjj$lCotjtEEttjjjjtjjjtj.,cHijÕte@jj0keo,RoioiE>,$EEEjj~jEEEkttttoEEEEEEEEET t: Developmental Psychology What are developmental psychologists interested in studying? Changes that occur in a persons lifespan Two major influences on human development are nature (genetics) and nurture (interactions with ones environment.) Science attempts to answer which force has more of an influence, but most psychologists agree we are a combination of both. John Locke believed that humans are born with a blank slate (tabula rasa) meaning that we come into the world pure and our interaction or experiences with the environment shape who we are. Which argument would this support? Nurture Jean Jacques Rousseau believed that children develop naturally and any interference from the environment would harm our natural development. Which perspective does this support? Nature Arnold Gessell was the first to systematically or scientifically investigate the development of children. From using naturalistic observation, watching students act in their natural environment, he believed that the growth of an organism occurs on its own based on a predetermined timetable and without the aid of the environment, which he called maturation John B. Watson, founder of American behaviorism, believed that during a childs life, nurture is solely responsible for any development. Who was actually the first psychologist to consider the interaction of nature and nurture is responsible for childrens cognitive development? Jean Piaget Dimensions of Early Physical Development The beginning of human development occurs when a new cell created by the fertilization of the ovum by the sperm is formed called a zygote Identify the 3 stages of prenatal development and explain what is occurring in each stage. 1. Germinal stage zygote begins to divide into more cells 2. Embryonic stage basic life support systems begin to form Fetal stage roughly the last seven months of prenatal development Prenatal Risks During prenatal development, what protects and also allows nutrients to reach the fetus? Placenta Certain harmful agents, however, sometimes do pass through the placenta and could cause damage or consequences to the fetus. These harmful agents are called? Teratogens Some teratogens include nicotine, cocaine, and alcohol, which when a mother drinks alcohol during the prenatal period could result in fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), which is characterized by mental impairments and facial impairments. The New Baby Babies are born with reflexes, which are involuntary, unlearned motor skills that are performed without any outside influences. Characterize the following reflexes: Grasping/palmer- placing any object in the palm of the babys hand will cause the baby to grab hold of that object tightly Rooting reflex lightly touching/rubbing the cheek will cause the baby to turn toward that side in preparation for nursing. The baby is vigorously routing for the mothers nipple (source of nourishment) Sucking- inserting an object into the babys mouth will cause the baby to begin the act of obtaining food- typically follows the rooting reflex Babinski lightly moving a finger upward on the babys foot causes the toes to fan outward Swallowing- placing liquid in a babys mouth will elicit this reflex Stepping- baby will step when held upright- fades after 2 months and return after 8 months when baby is capable of walking Moro- when startled or dropped, the baby will exhibit this reflex by flinging the arms outward and then inward across the chest- will disappear after 2 months Temperament Babies struggle to communicate because their brains are not fully developed. Psychologists have noted that babies have a natural tendency to express emotions and needs in a particular way referred to as temperament, which supports nature, but later can be affected by nurture. Developmental Theories of Piaget Jean Piagets Terminology According to Piaget, each child develops a mental representation or map of the environment or world based on experiences called a schema An attempt to integrate new information into an existing schema is referred to as assimilation Accommodation is defined as: new information that changes or modifies an existing schema Jean Piagets Stage Theory Jean Piaget believed that children develop cognitively through a series of stages, each stage built or expanding on the previous one. Each child must pass through each stage to reach the next stage. Sensorimotor stage: (birth- 2 years) learning though ones senses The belief that an object exists despite its being out of sight is called object permanence If a child does not achieve object permanence then what is out of sight is out of mind Preoperational stage: (3-7 years) brain is still preoperational- not completely ready yet Understanding the world through the childs own perspective; the inability to see the world through anothers perspective (not same as selfishness) refers to egocentrism An understanding that despite an apparent change in size/shape/length, the substance or amount remains constant or the same. This is referred to as conservation What is animism? Belief that inanimate objects share human characteristics such as feelings The belief that events of nature are man-made is referred to as artificialism Concrete operational stage (7-11 years) grasping or understanding of concrete/physical items. The process of putting objects into a series (smallest to largest) or putting objects that share similar characteristics (such as color or size) into the same category is referred to as seriation What is reversibility? Understanding that concepts can be reversed/ 8+4=12/ 12-4=8 Formal operational stage (12 and up) child begins to think abstractly and hypothetically- weighing several options at once/ while considering the consequences for their actions. An individuals belief that he or she is invincible and will not be harmed in any instance; he or she also believes that his or her ideas and opinions are unique and special. This is referred to as personal fable developed by David Elkind. David Elkind also believed that everybody is looking at one, who is on a stage for others to watch is called imaginary audience Strengths and Weaknesses of Piagets Stage Theory Piaget was the first psychologist to suggest children progress cognitively through a series of stages. However, many present psychologists question his theory. StrengthWeaknessesPiaget identified changes that occurred cognitively Cognitive changes that take place during each stage are not as rigid as Piaget thoughtThe child is an active learner in the environment Some children can understand higher level concepts before chronologically being in the next stage. Piaget thought Piaget pioneered or started research in child development Cognitive development does not appear to be as culturally universal as Piaget hypothesized  Environmental Influences on Child Development Who believed that cognitive development is influenced by ones culture? Lev Vygotsky What did Lev Vygotsky disagree with Jean Piaget? Learn more difficult tasks at an earlier age According to Vygotsky, the number of tasks a child can complete with or without the aid of someone older is called zone of proximal development What else did Vygotsky believe could affect cognitive development? No stimuli in environment, nutrition, socio-economic factors Attachment During the first few years of life, a strong bond between the primary caregiver and the child develops refers to attachment. This attachment leads to later personality development. Harry Harlow Before Harry Harlows research, many believed that attachment was based on the mother providing food to the infant. Harlows famous study of monkeys provided 2 cages: one cage with surrogate mother comprised of wires and a bottle from which the baby monkeys could feed/ and another cage with a surrogate mother draped in a soft terrycloth, but no food provided. Harlow found that the monkeys spent more time with the terrycloth monkey thus showing that there is more to attachment than just food. From Harlows conclusions, the touch of another provides a sense of security called contact comfort. Konrad Lorenz According to Korrad Lorenz, there is a time frame during which a stimulus must be experienced in order for a certain stage of development to occur- this is called the critical period. Lorenz found that during the critical period, the geese formed an attachment to him instead of the mother. The eliciting of behavior due to exposure of a certain stimulus during the critical period is called imprinting Attachment in Infants Mary Ainsworth measured different types of attachment. In her strange situation scenario introduced an infant to new people. While the new person was in the room, the caregiver would leave the room, leaving the child behind. Ainsworth would then observe what the child was like when the caregiver or mother returned. Describe the 3 attachment styles that she observed. Secure attachment: child seeks comfort from the caregiver when he or she returns. Insecure attachment: two forms: Anxious/ avoidant attachment Child ignores the caregiver when the caregiver returns Anxious/ ambivalent attachment Child happy to see caregiver when he/she returns, but then pushes caregiver away Psychosocial Development Erik Erikson, like Piaget, believed we developed in stages, but unlike Piaget, Erikson believed that we encounter a crisis during several stages of life. He believed like Freud that early childhood experiences can affect us, but also he believed that the environment could also impact us. What happens if a person does not resolve a particular crisis? Could affect next stage/ or later in life Fill out an example for each Erikson crises Stage and AgeCrises ExampleBirth-12 monthsTrust vs. mistrust Caregiver provides needs: shelter, food/ if not child develops mistrust1-2 yearsAutonomy vs. shame & doubt Child learns to control environment/ going to the bathroom/ if made to be shameful may develop lack of self-confidence3-5 yearsInitiative vs. guilt Child given more responsibility and independence/ if not allowed may develop low self-esteem and feel guilty6-pubertyIndustry vs. inferiority Child wants to be productive and is eager to learn/ if not given opportunities may feel inferiority- play him/herselfAdolescenceIdentity vs. role confusion Try to figure out identity through different social peer groups/ if not accepted may develop identity confusionEarly adulthoodIntimacy vs. isolation Search for stable relationships/ if not might become self-absorbed with themselves Middle ageGenerativity vs. stagnation Give back to next generation- coaching, parent involvement in school/ if generosity not appreciated maybe become less involvedOld ageIntegrity vs. despair Reflect back on life/ either experience pride or regret Parenting Styles Diana Baumrind developed a list of 3 distinct personality styles. Explain the following parenting styles. Authoritarian -Strict and relatively unsympathetic -Believe that what they say goes: Because I said so! -Child learns not to question authority Permissive- aka laissez-faire -Allows child to do as he or she pleases -Sets few, if any, boundaries -Allows the child to fend for him- or herself Authoritative- same as democratic -Compromising -Compassionate -Allows independence, but with limits According to Baumrind, which parenting style produces the best, well-adjusted, respectful children? Authoritative What are the possible results for children of permissive and authoritarian parents? Produce socially inept children: aggressive, uncooperative, unfriendly, disrespectful Environmental Influences on Socialization Social Skills Children are exposed to a variety of influences. Many skills are learned at an early age. The ability to share with others is learned through daily routines this leads to cooperation. Children also learn the ability to relate to and understand others emotionally called empathy. Children also learn the ability to understand how to control ones emotions and their corresponding behaviors. This is referred to as self-regulation. Gender roles Understanding the roles of male vs. female behaviors and characteristics are learned at early age through interactions with others and society. This supports what theory of gender development? Social Learning theory Adolescence Adolescence typically begins the physical changes of the body as it prepares for the ability to sexually reproduce, and lasts until approximately the end of the teenage years or early twenties called puberty During puberty, essential reproductive organs begin to develop and work. These characteristics are referred to as primary sex characteristics The development of nonessential reproductive characteristics (such as body hair and the deepening of the voice) called secondary sex characteristics Lawrence Kohlbergs Moral Reasoning Lawrence Kohlbergs Heinz dilemma, asked children to contemplate a moral dilemma that involved a man named Heinz, who had to make a decision to steal a drug that could possibly save his wife. According to Kohlberg, each childs level of moral reasoning based on cognitive thinking Describe each level and stage of Kohlbergs moral reasoning: Level 1: Preconventional morality- based on avoiding punishment or personal gain Stage 1: Obedience orientation Obey rules fear of punishment Dont cheat or get a detention Stage 2: Personal gain (hedonistic) orientation Do what is best for yourself Cheat on test because you need an A Level 2: Conventional morality, based on the approval of others and society Stage 3: Good boy/ nice girl orientation Act in way that is socially acceptable Dont cheat because good students dont cheat Stage 4: Law and order orientation Understand that society needs laws to uphold society standards If you cheat, you should be prepared to get punished Level 3: Postconventional morality, base on higher morals- expectations with behavior Stage 5: Contractual legalistic Develop a social contract with each other- deciding what is good for all Allow a person to cheat off you because their parents going through rough time Stage 6: Universal ethical orientation Certain ethical principles that all people believe in Cheating is justified because test covered things not discussed Criticism of Kohlberg What has research sited about Kohlbergs morality theory? First 2 levels are universal, but level 3 is more cultural specific What did Carol Gilligan suggest about Kohlbergs morality? Was not aimed at women who emphasize social relationships Physical, Social, and Cognitive Dimensions in Adult Development Early adult years (20s-30s) Physical changes -Increase in physical abilities -Muscle mass stays the same or increases -Typically in top physical shape (20s) Cognitive changes -Increase in cognitive abilities (vocabulary, knowledge, understanding) Social changes -Search for life partner begins -Balance between work and marriage -May Create a family and have children. -Satisfaction with marriage may decrease during this time -Peer relationships may diminish due to increased family obligations Middle adult years (40s-50s) Physical changes - decline in senses, muscle mass, sexual functioning Cognitive changes - increases in cognitive functioning- vocab, knowledge, understanding Social changes Midlife transition- people reevaluate what they have done so far Midlife crisis (Michael Levinson)- realization life is half over; may become angry and try to regain their youth- dating someone younger Middlescence (Gail Sheehy)- a second adolescence- reliving the life as now more affordable Late adult years (60s and beyond) Physical changes -decreases in sensing, digestion, height Cognitive changes -Decreased fluid intelligence, ability to think quickly and complete tasks quickly. Memory appears to fade typically related to episodic (event based) memories, which is consistent with fluid intelligence -Staying mentally active slows down loss of fluid intelligence -Increased crystallized intelligence- general/ overall knowledge Social changes - Begins to lose friendships (due to death) - Find current relationships more valuable Two theories of Aging: Nature vs. Nurture Describe the nature point of view: programmed senescence: Biologically programmed to die at certain age- longevity gene The wear-and-tear (actively living approach) nurture point of view suggest when we are young our bodies can repair themselves as damage occurs, but as we age we lost our ability to repair ourselves eventually leading to death. Death and Dying Who believed that a dying person progresses through 5 distinct stages? Elizabeth Kuber-Ross M.D. What are the five stages? 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