ࡱ> <B D / 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : ; < = > ? @ A V A CEKMvxz|BDJqs~Y bjbj[[ M9 \9 \Z7v ,@,@,@4`@`@`@h@lG*`@tr" W^WW$l",@^YBW^Y^Y ^YL,@ ^Y P 4l  ȆQ$p 30't|T,@ X0?X"aX}XXXXXXX^Y^Y^Y^YXXXXXXXXX > :  JIMMA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF NATURAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICS INTRODUCTION TO OPERATIONS RESEARCH (STAT 3111) HANDOUT By Mr Fikadu Zewudie (MSc) CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO OPERATIONS RESEARCH Operations Research-A Quantitative Approach to Decision- Making Introduction: Operations Research (also referred to Management Science, quantitative methods, quantitative analysis, and decision sciences) is the application of a scientific approach to solve management problems in order to help managers to make better decisions. As implied by this definition, management science encompasses a number of mathematically oriented techniques that have been developed within the field of management science or been adapted from other disciplines such as the natural sciences, mathematics, statistics, and engineering. Management science, although rather young, is recognized and established discipline in the field of business administration. The applications of management science/operations research techniques are wide spread, and they have been frequently credited with increasing the efficiency and productivity of business firms. Operations Research, as one of the quantitative aid to decision-making offers the decision-maker a method of evaluating every possible alternative (act or course of action) by using various techniques to know the potential outcomes. This is not to say, however, that management decision-making is simply about the application of operations research techniques. In general, while solving a real-life problem, the decision-maker must examine it both from quantitative as well as qualitative perspective. Information about the problem from both these perspectives needs to be brought together and assessed in the context of the problem. Based on some mix of the two sources of information, a decision should be taken by the decision-maker. For example, consider a problem of an investor considering investments in three alternatives: Stock Market, Real Estate and Bank Deposit. To suggest an acceptable solution, we need to consider certain quantitative factors and information to be examined in the light of the problem. For instance, factors like financial ratios from the balance sheets of several companies whose stocks are under consideration; real estate companies cash flows and rates of return for investment in property; and how much the investment will be worth in future when deposited at a bank at a given interest rate for a certain number of years, need to be examined. However, before reaching a conclusion, certain other qualitative factors, such as weather, state and central policies, new technology, the political situation, etc., need to be considered. These factors may be difficult to quantify. The evaluation of each alternative is extremely difficult or time consuming for two reasons: first, the amount and complexity of information that must be processed, second the number of alternative solutions could be so large that a decision-maker simply cannot evaluate all of them to select an appropriate one. For these reasons when there is a lack of qualitative factors, decision-makers increasingly turn to quantitative methods and use computers to arrive at the optimal solution to problems involving a large number of alternatives. The study of these methods and how decision-makers use them in the decision process is the essence of operations research approach. However, still there is an imperative need for an analytical research in this subject to present a structural analysis by critically examining the levels of interaction between the application process of operations research and the systems and organizations. THE HISTORY OF OPERATIONS RESEARCH It is generally agreed that operations research came into existence as a discipline during World War II when there was a critical need to manage scarce resources. However, a particular model and technique of OR can be traced back to much earlier times. The term operations research was confined as a result of research on military operations during this war. Since the war involved strategic and tactical problems which were greatly complicated, to expect adequate solutions from individuals or specialists in a single discipline was unrealistic. Therefore, groups of individual who collectively were considered specialists in mathematics, economics, statistics and probability theory, engineering, behavioral, and physical science were formed as special units within the armed forces to deal with strategic and tactical problems of various military operations. NATURE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF OPERATIONS RESEARCH As the term implies, OR involves research on military operations. This indicates the approach as well as the area of its applications. The operations research approach is particularly useful in balancing conflicting objectives (goals or interests) where there are many alternative courses of action available to the decisionsmakers. In theoretical sense, the optimum decision must be one that is best for the organization as a whole. It is often called the global optimum. A decision that is best for one or more sections of the organization is usually called suboptimum decision. The OR approach attempts to find global optimum by analyzing inter-relationships among the system components involved in the problem (described below). Consider a large organization with a number of management specialists but not necessarily well coordinated. For example, consider the basic problem of maintaining stocks of finished goods. To the marketing manager, stocks of a large variety of products are a means of supplying the companys customers with what they want and when they want it. Clearly, according to a marketing manager, a fully stocked warehouse is of prime importance to the company. But the production manager argues for long production runs preferably on a smaller product range, particularly if significant time is lost when production is switched from one variety to another. The result would again be a tendency to increase the amount of stock carried but it is, of course, vital that the plant should be kept running. On the other hand, the finance manager sees stocks in terms of capital tied up unproductively and argues strongly for their reduction. Finally, there appears the personnel manager for whom a steady level of production so advantageous for having better labour relations. Thus, all these people would claim to uphold the interests of the organization, but they do so only from their specialized points of view. They may come up with contradictory solutions and obviously, they cannot all be right. In view of the above involving the whole system, the decision-maker, whatever his specialization, will need help and it is in the attempt to provide this assistance that OR has been developed. Operations research attempts to resolve the conflicts of interest among various sections of the organization and seeks the optimal solution which may not be acceptable to one department but is in the interest of the organization as a whole. Further, OR is concerned with providing the decision-maker with decision aids (or rules) derived from: A total system orientation, Scientific methods of investigation, and Models of reality, generally based on quantitative measurement and techniques. Thus, successful application of OR techniques for solving a problem must involve the following steps. Constructing mathematical, economic or statistical model of the problem under study to treat situations of complexity and uncertainty. This helps to view the problem in its entirety. Analyzing the relationships among different variables and/or parameters associated with the problem, so as to determine consequences of decision alternatives. Suggesting suitable measure of desirability (effectiveness or objective function) in order to evaluate the relative merit of decision alternatives (courses of action, acts or strategies). A detailed methodology of OR will be discussed later in this chapter. Remark: A system is defined as an arrangement of components designed to achieve a particular objective or objectives according to plan. The components may be either physical or conceptual or both but they share a unique relationship with each other and with the overlay objective of the system. FEATURES OF OPERATIONS RESEARCH APPROACH The features of OR approach to any decision and control problem can be summarized as under. 1.4.1. Interdisciplinary Approach Interdisciplinary teamwork is essential because while attempting to solve a complex management problem, one person may not have the complete knowledge of all its aspects (such as economic, social, political, psychological, engineering, etc.). This means we should not expect a desirable solution to managerial problems. Therefore, team of individuals specialized in mathematics, statistics, economics, engineering, computer science, psychology, etc., can be organized so that each aspect of the problem could be analyzed by a particular specialist in that field in order to arrive at an appropriate and desirable solution of the problem. However, there are certain problem situations which may be analyzed even by one individual. Methodological Approach Operations research is the application of scientific methods, techniques and tools to problems involving the operations of systems so as to provide those in control of operations with optimum solutions to the problems. The scientific method consists of observing and defining the problem; formulating and testing their hypothesis; and analyzing the results of the test. The data so obtained is then used to decide whether the hypothesis should be accepted or not. If the hypothesis is accepted, the results should be implemented otherwise an alternative hypothesis has to be formulated. Holistic Approach While arriving at a decision, an operations research team examines the relative importance of all conflicting and multiple objectives and the validity of claims of various departments of the organization from the perspective of the whole organization. Objectivistic Approach An operations research approach seeks to obtain an optimal solution to the problem under analysis. For this, a measure of desirability (or effectiveness) is defined, based on the objective (s) of the organization. A measure of desirability so defined is then used to compare alternative courses of action with respect to their outcomes. OPERATIONS RESEACH: SOME DEFINTIONS Because of the wide scope of application of operations research giving a precise definition is difficult. However, a few definitions of OR are given below: Operations research is the application of the methods of science to complex problems in the direction and management of large systems of men, machines, materials and money in industry, business, government and defiance. The distinctive approach is to develop a scientific model of the system incorporating measurements of factors such as chance and risk, with which to predict and compare the outcomes of alternative decisions, strategies or controls. The purpose is to help management in determining its policy and actions scientifically. Operational Research Society, UK Operations research is concerned with scientifically deciding how to best design and operate man-machine systems usually requiring the allocation of scarce resources. Operations Research society, America A part from being lengthy, the definition given by Operational Research Society of UK, has been criticized because it emphasized complex problems and large systems, leaving the reader with the impression that it is a highly technical approach suitable only to large organizations. The keywords used in the above definitions are scientific approach, scarce resources, system and model. The British definition contains no reference to optimization, while the American definition has no reference to the word, best. A few other definitions which are commonly used and are widely acceptable are as follows: Operations research is the systematic application of quantitative methods, techniques and tools to the analysis of problems involving the operation of systems. Daellenbach and George, 1978 Operations research is essentially a collection of mathematical techniques and tools which in conjunction with a systems approach, is applied to solve practical decision problems of an economic or engineering nature. Daellenbach and George, 1978 These two definitions imply another view of OR as being the collection of models and methods which have developed largely independent of one another. Operations research utilizes the planned approach (updated scientific method) and an interdisciplinary team in order to represent complex functional relationships as mathematical models for the purpose of providing a quantitative basis for decision-making and uncovering new problems for quantitative analysis. Thierauf and Klekamp, 1975. This new decision-making field has been characterized by the use of scientific knowledge through interdisciplinary team effort for the purpose of determining the best utilization of limited resources. H. A. Taha, 1976 These two definitions refer to the interdisciplinary nature of OR. However, there is nothing which can stop one person from considering several aspects of the problem under consideration. One of the best definitions is as follows. Operations research, in the most general sense, can be characterized as the application of scientific methods, techniques and tools, to problems involving the operations of a system so as to provide those in control of the operations with optimum solutions to the problems. Curchman, Ackoff and Arnoff, 1957. Operations research is the art of winning wars without actually fighting them. Auther Clark. This definition refers to the military origin of the subject where team of experts were"not actually participating' in military (operations for winning the war but providing advisory and intellectual support for imitating strategic military actions. Operations research is the art of finding bad answers to problems to which otherwise worse answers are given. This definition refers operations research as a technique for selecting the best course of action out of several courses of action to reach a desirable solution of the problem. A few of definitions of OR are as follows: Operations research has been described as a method, an approach, a set of techniques, a team activity, a combination of many disciplines, an extension of particular disciplines (mathematics, engineering, and economics). A nuw discipline, a vobation, even a religion. It is pebhaps some of all these things. SL C/ok, 1977 Operations research may be described as ascientific approach to decision-making that involves the operations of organizational system. F. S. Hiller and G J Lieberman, 1980 Operations research is a scientific method of providing executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions under their control. P. M. More and G E Kimball Operations research is applied decision theory. It uses scientific, mathematical, or logical means to attempt to cope with the problems that confront the executive, when he tries to achieve a through-going rationality in dealing with his decision problems. D. W. Miller and M K Stan Operations research is a scientific approach to problem-solving for executive management. H. M Wagner As the discipline of operations research grew, numerous names were given to it, such as operations Analysis, Systems Analysis, Decision Analysis, Management Science, Quantitivative analysis, Decision Science. However, each of these emphasizes the quantitative approach to the analysis and solution of management problems. SCIENTIFIC METHODS IN OPERATIONS RESEARCH The most important feature of operations research is the use of the scientific method and building of decision models. There are three phases of the scientific method on which OR approach is based. Judgment Phase This phase includes: identification of the real-life problem Selection of an appropriate objective and the values of various variables related to this objective application of the appropriate scale of measurement, i.e. deciding the measures of effectiveness (desirability) and Formulation of an appropriate model of the problem, abstracting the essential information, so that a solution to the decision-makers goals can be obtained. Research Phase This phase is the largest and longest among other two phases. However, the remaining two are also equally important as they provide the basis for a scientific method. This phase utilizes: (i) observations and data collection for a better understanding of the problem, (ii) formulation of hypothesis and model, (iii) observation and experimentation to test the hypothesis on the basis of additional data, (iv) analysis of the available information and verification of the hypothesis using pre-established measures of desirability, (v) prediction of various results from the hypothesis, and (iv) generalization of the result and consideration of alternative methods. Action Phase This phase consists of making recommendation for implementing the decision by an individual who is in the position to implement results. This individual must be aware of the environment in which the problem occurred, objective, assumption and omissions of the model of the problem. MODELS AND MODELLING IN OPERATIONS RESEARCH A model: a model is an abstraction of reality. It is a simplified and often an idealized representation of reality. By its very nature a model is incomplete. A good model captures the important details of reality without including innumerable minor details. Both simple and complex systems can easily be studied by concentrating on some portion or key features instead of concentrating on every detail of it. This approximation or abstraction, maintaining only the essential elements of the system, which may be constructed in various forms by establishing relationships among specified variables and parameters of the system, is called a model. In general, models attempt to describe the essence of a situation or activity by abstracting from reality so the decision-maker can study the relationship among relevant variables in isolation. Models do not attempt to duplicate reality in all aspects, but for models that do reveal nothing. Hence, models do not, and cannot, represent every aspect of reality because of the innumerable and changing characteristics of the real life problems to be represented. Instead, they are limited approximation of reality. For example, to study the flow of material through a factory, a scaled diagram on paper showing the factory floor, position of equipment, tools, and workers can be constructed. It would not be necessary to give such details as the colour of machines, the heights of the workers, or the temperature of the building. In other words, for a model to be effective, it must be representative of those aspects of reality that are being investigated and have a major impact on the decision situation. From the above discussion, it appears that a model is constructed to analyse and understand the given system for the purpose of improving its performance. The reliability of the solution obtained from a model depends on the validity of the model in representing the system under study. A model, however, allows the opportunity to examine the behavioral changes of a system without disturbing the on-going operations. The key to model-building lies in abstracting only the relevant variables that affect the criteria of the measures-of-performance of the given system and expressing the relationship in a suitable form. However, a model should be as simple as possible so as to give the desired result. But oversimplifying the problem can lead to a poor decision. Model enrichment is accomplished through the process of changing constants into variables, adding variables, relaxing linear and other assumptions, and including randomness. There are many ways to classify models. Classification schemes can also provide a useful frame of reference for modelers. There are eight classification schemes for models as shown in Table 1.1 Table 1.1 Model Classification Scheme 1. Function Descriptive Predictive Normative Structure Iconic Analog Symbolic Dimensionality Two-dimensional Multi-dimensionalDegree of certainty Certainty Conflict Risk Uncertainty Time reference Static Dynamic Degree of generality Specialized General Degree of closure Closed Open Degree of quantification Qualitative Mental Verbal Quantitative Statistical Heuristic Simulation  1.7.1 Classification Based on Structure Physical Models These models provide a physical appearance of the real object under study either reduced in size or scaled up. Physical models are useful only in design problems because they are easy to observe, build and describe. For example, in the aircraft industry, scale models of the proposed new aircraft are built and tested in wind tunnels to record the stresses experienced by the air frame. Since these models cannot be manipulated and are not very useful for predication, problems such as portfolio selection, media selection, production scheduling, etc., cannot be analysed with a physical model. Physical models are classified into the following two categories. Iconic Models. Iconic models retain some of the physical properties and characteristics of the system they represent. An iconic model is either in an idealized form or is a scaled version of the system. In other words, such models represent the system as it is by scaling it up or down (i.e. enlarging or reducing the size). Examples of iconic models are blueprints of a home, maps, globes, photographs, drawings, air places, trains, etc. Iconic models are simple to conceive, specific and concrete. An iconic model is used to describe the characteristics of the system rather than being explanatory. This means that such models are used to represent a static even and characteristics which are not used in determining or predicting effects due to certain changes in the actual system. For example, colour of an atom does not play any vital role in the scientific study of its structure. Similarly, type of engine in a car has no role to play in the study of parking problem. Analogue Models. These models represent a system by a set of properties different from those of the original system and do not resemble it physically. After the problem is solved, the solution is re-interpreted in terms of the original system. For example, the organizational chart represents the state of formal relationships existing between members of the organization. Maps in different colors may represent water, desert and other geographical features. Graphs of time series, stock-market changes, frequency curves, etc., may be used to represent qualitative relationships between any two properties and predict how a change in one property affects the other. These models are less specific and concrete but are easier to manipulate and are more general than iconic models. Symbolic models These models use symbols (letters, numbers) and functions to represent variables and their relationships to describe the properties of the system. These models are also used to represent relationships which can be represented in a physical form. Symbolic models can be classified into two categories. Verbal Models These models describe a situation in written or spoken language. Written sentences, books, etc., are examples of a verbal model. Mathematical Models These models involve the use of mathematical symbols, letters, numbers and mathematical operators (+, -, , x) to represent relationships among various variables of the system to describe its properties or behavior. The solution to such models is then obtained by applying suitable mathematical technique. The relationship among velocity, distance and accelerations is an example of a mathematical model. In accountings, the cost-volume-profit model is also an example of a mathematical model. Symbolic models are precise and abstract and can be analysed and manipulated by using laws of mathematics. The models are more explanatory rather than descriptive. 1.7.2. Classification Based on Function or Purpose Models based on the purpose of their utility include the following types. Descriptive models Descriptive models simply describe some aspects of a situation, based on observation, survey, questionnaire results or other available data of a situation and do not predict or recommend anything. Examples of such models are: Organization chart, plant layout diagram, block diagram representing an algorithm or method for solving a problem, etc. Predictive models These models indicate if this occurs, then that will follow. They relate dependent and independent variables and permit trying out, what if questions. In other words, these models are used to predict the outcomes due to a given set of alternatives for the problem. These models do not have an objective function as a part of the model to evaluate decision alternatives. For example, S = a + bA + cI is a model that describes how the sale (S) of a product changes with a change in advertising expenditure (A) and disposable personal income (I). Here a, b and c are parameters whose values must be estimated. Thus, having estimated the values of a, b and C, the value of advertising expenditure (A) can be adjusted for a given value of I to study the impact of advertising on sales. In these models, however, one does not attempt to choose the best decision alternative, but can only have an idea about each alternative available to him. Normative (or Optimization) models These models provide the best or optimal solution to problems subject to certain limitations on the use of resources. These models provide recommended courses of action. For example, in mathematical programming, models are formulated for optimizing the given objective function, subject to restrictions on resources in the context of the problem under consideration and non-negativity of variables. These models are also called prescriptive models because they prescribe what the decision-maker ought to do. 1.7.3 Classification Based on Time Reference Static models Static models represent a system at some specified time and do not account for changes over time. For example, an inventory model can be developed and solved to determine an economic order quantity for the next period assuming that the demand in planning period would remain the same as that for today. Dynamic models In a dynamic model, time is considered as one of the variables and allows the impact of changes due to change in time. Thus, a sequence of interrelated decisions over a period of time is made to select the optimal course of action to optimize the given objective. Dynamic programming is an example of a dynamic model. Classification Based on Degree of Certainty Deterministic models If all the parameters, constants and functional relationships are assumed to be known with certainty when the decision is made, the model is said to be deterministic. Thus, in such a case, the outcome associated with a particular course of action is known. That is, for a specific set of input values, there is a uniquely determined output which represents the solution of the model under conditions of certainty. The results of the models assume single value. Linear programming models are examples of deterministic models. Probabilistic (Stochastic) models Models in which at least one parameter or decision variable is random variable are called probabilistic (or stochastic) models. Since at least one decision variable is random, therefore, an independent variable which is the function of dependent variable (s) will also be random. This means consequences or payoff due to certain changes in the independent variable cannot be predicted with certainty. However, it is possible to predict a pattern of values of both the variables by their probability distribution. Insurance against risk of fire, accidents, sickness, etc. are examples where the pattern of events is studied in the form of a probability distribution. Classification Based on Method of Solution or Quantification Heuristic models These models employ some sets of rules which, though perhaps not optimal, do facilitate solutions of problems when applied in a consistent manner. Analytical models These models have a specific mathematical structure and thus can be solved by known analytical or mathematical techniques. Any optimization model (which requires maximization or minimization of an objective function) is an analytical model. Simulation models These models also have a mathematical structure but are not solved by applying mathematical techniques to get a solution. Instead, a simulation model is essentially a computer-assisted experimentation on a mathematical structure of a real-life problem in order to describe and evaluate its behaviors under certain assumptions over a period of time. Simulation models are more flexible than mathematical ones and therefore, can be used to represent a complex system which otherwise cannot be represented mathematically. These models do not provide general solution like those of mathematical models. ADVANTAGES OF MODELS Models in general are used as an aid for analyzing complex problems. However, a model can also serve other purposes as given below: A model provides economy in representation of the realities of the system. That is, models help the decision-maker to visualize a system so that he can understand the systems structure or operation in a better way. For example, it is easier to represent a factory layout on paper than to construct it. It is cheaper to try out modifications of such systems by rearrangement on paper. The problem can be viewed in its entirety, with all the components being considered simultaneously. Models serve as aids to transmit ideas and visualization among people in the organization. For example, a process chart can help the management to communicate about better work methods to worker. A model allows us to analyse and experiment in a complex situation to a degree that would be impossible in the actual system and its environment. For example, the experimental firing of INSAT satellite may cost millions of dollars and require years of preparation. Models simplify the investigation considerably and provide a powerful and flexible tool for predicting the future state of the process or system. METHODELOGY OF OPERATION RESEARCH Every OR specialist may have his/her own way of solving problems. However, for effective use of OR techniques, it is essential to follow some steps that are helpful for decision-makers to make better decisions. The flow diagram representing the methodology of operations research is also shown in Fig 1.2  Abstraction L Logic Not acceptable Fig.1.2. Methodology of Operations Research Step 1: Formulating the Problem Problem formulation involves an analysis of the system under study, the objective of the decision-maker, and alternative courses of action, etc., so as to understand and describe, in precise terms, the problem that an organization faces. The analysis begins by detailed observation of the organizational structure, climate, communication and control system, its objectives and expectations. Such information will help in assessing the difficulty of the study in terms of costs, time requirement, resource requirement, probability of success of the study, etc. The major steps which have to be taken into consideration for formulating the problems are as follows: Problem components: - The first component of the problem to be defined is the decision-maker who is not satisfied with the existing sate of affairs. That is, either he has already obtained some solution of the problem and wants to retain it, or he wants to improve it to a higher degree. If the decision-maker has conflicting multiple objectives, he may be advised to rank his objectives in order of preference; overlapping among several objectives may be eliminated. Decision environment: - It is desirable to know about the resources such as managers, employees, equipments, etc., which are required to carry out the policies of the organization considering the social and ecological environment in which the organization functions. Knowledge of such factors will help in modifying the initial set of the decision-makers objectives. Alternative courses of action: - The problem arises only when there are several courses of action available for a solution. An exhaustive list of courses of action can be prepared in the process of going through the above steps of formulating the problem. Courses of action which are not feasible with respect to objectives and resources may be ruled out. Measure of effectiveness: - A certain measure of effectiveness or performance is required in order to evaluate the merit of the several courses of action listed above. The performance or effectiveness can be measured in different units such as dollars (net profits), percentage (share of market desired), time dimension (service or waiting time). In order to bring uniformity in the measurement, one of the performance criteria must be chosen to express the value in terms of the value of the criterion chosen earlier. Qualitative objectives which can not be quantified must be assigned weight age and probability measures to their attainability. Step 2: Collecting Data and Constructing a Mathematical Model After the problem is clearly defined and understood, the next step is to collect required data and then formulate a mathematical model. Model construction consists of hypothesizing relationships between variables subject to and not subject to control by decision-maker. Certain basic components required in every decision problem model are: Controllable (decision) variables: - These are the issues or factors in the problem whose values are to be determined (in the form of numerical values) by solving the model. The possible values assigned to these variables are called decision alternatives (strategies or courses of action). For example, in queuing theory, the number of service facilities is the decision variable. Uncontrollable variables: - These are the factors whose numerical value depends upon the external environment prevailing in the organization. The values of these variables are not under the control of the decision-maker and are also termed as state of nature. Objective function:- It is a representation of (i) the criterion that expresses the decision-makers manner of evaluating the desirability of alternative values of the decision variables, and (ii) how that criterion is to be optimized (minimized or maximized). For example, in queuing theory the decision-marker may consider several criteria such as minimizing the average waiting time of customers, or the average number of customers in the system at any time. Constraints (or Limitations):- These are the restrictions on the values of the decision variables. These restrictions can arise due to limited resources such as space, money, manpower, material, etc. The constraints may be in the form equations or inequalities. Functional relationships: - In a decision problem, the decision variables in the objective function and in the constraints are connected by a specific functional relationship. A general decision problem model might take the form: Optimize (Max or Min) Z = f(x) Subject to the constraints  Gi(x) d", =, e" bi; i = 1,2, . . ., m and X e" 0 where, X = a vector of decision variables (x1, x2 . . .,xn) f (x) = criterion or objective function to be optimized gi(x) = the ith constraint bi = fixed amount of the ith resource A model is referred to as a linear model of all functional relationships among decision variables x1, x2, . . .,Xn in f(x) and g(x) are of a linear form. But if one or more of the relationships are non-linear, the model is said to be a non-linear model. Parameters: These are constants in the functional relationships. Parameters can be deterministic or probabilistic in nature. A deterministic parameter is one whose value is assumed to occur with certainty. However, if constants are considered directly or explicitly as random variables, they are probabilistic parameters. Step 3: Solving the Mathematical Model Once a mathematical model of the problem has been formulated, the next step is to solve it, that is, to obtain numerical values of decision variables. Obtaining these values depends on the specific form or type, of mathematical model. Solving the model requires the use of various mathematical tools and numerical procedures. In general, the following two categories of methods are used for solving an OR model. Optimization Methods: These methods yield the best values for the decision variables both for unconstrained and constrained problems. In constrained problems, these values simultaneously satisfy all the constraints and provide an optimal or acceptable value for the objective function or measure of effectiveness. The solution so obtained is called the optimal solution to the problem. Heuristic Methods: These methods yield values of the variables that satisfy all the constraints, but not necessarily provide optimal solution. However, these values provide an acceptable value for the objective function. Heuristic methods are sometimes described as rules of thumb which work. An example of a commonly used heuristic is stand in the shortest line. Although using this rule may not work if everyone in the shortest line requires extra time, in general, it is not a bad rule to follow. These methods are used when obtaining optimal solution is either varies time consuming or model is complex. Sometimes difficulties in problem solving arise due to lack of an appropriate methodology for it and psychological perceptions on the part of the problem solver. The major difficulties in problem solving can be grouped into several categories: Failure to recognize the existence of a problem Some people tend to personalize problems Information is not received to signal that a problem exists Problems arise in contexts with which people have had no experience There is a lack of objectives or standards Failure to define the correct problem One situation may contain many intertwined problems Obvious problems are often the symptoms of much deeper problems An inability to identify accurately what is going on can lead to inaccurate problem identification Incorrect inferences can lead to inaccurate problem identification Attitudes and beliefs can blind the problem solver to the real causes of an undesirable situation Problems and their causes are over-simplified fixation on either a world view or functions provide too narrow a scope Failure to use all available information The problem-solver fails to seek out information Perceptual blocs to thinking exist Failure to recognize or question assumptions It is assumed that there is a solution to every problem Rigid thinking limits ones viewpoint Failure to consider a wide range of alternatives Problem definition is limited Premature evaluation or judgment takes place Lack of time is cited as an excuse Step 4 validating the Solution After solving the mathematical model, it is important to review the solution carefully to see that the values make sense and that the resulting decisions can be implemented. Some of the reasons for validating the solution are: The mathematical model may not have enumerated all the limitations of the problem under consideration. Certain aspects of the problem may have been overlooked, omitted or simplified. The data may have been incorrectly estimated or recorded, perhaps when entered into the computer. Steps 5: Implementing the Solution The decision-maker has not only to identify good decision alternatives but also to select alternatives that are capable of being implemented. It is important to ensure that any solution implemented is continuously reviewed and undated in the light of a changing environment. The behavioral aspects of change are exceedingly important to the successful implementation of results. In any case, the decision-maker who is in the best position to implement results must be aware of the objective, assumption, omissions and limitations of the model. Step 6: Modifying the Model For a mathematical model to be useful, the degree to which it actually represents the system or problem being modeled must be established. If during validation, the solution cannot be implemented, one needs to identify constraint that were omitted during the original problem formulation or to find if some of the original constraints were incorrect and need to be modified. In all such cases, one must return to the problem formulation step and carefully make the appropriate modification to represent more accurately the given problem. A model must be applicable for a reasonable time period and should be updated form time to time, taking into consideration the past, present and future aspects of the problem. Step 7: Establishing Controls over the Solution The dynamic environment and changes within the environment can have significant implications regarding the continuing validity of models and their solutions. Thus, a control procedure has to be established for detecting significant changes in decision variables of the problem so that suitable adjustment can be made in the solution without having to build a model every time a significant change occurs. BASIC OPERATIONS RESERCH MODELS There is no unique set of problems which can be solved by using OR models or techniques. Several OR models or techniques can be grouped into some basic categories as given below. In this course, a large number of OR models have been discussed in detail. Here, only an introductory description of these models is given. Allocation Models Allocation models are used to allocate resources to activities in such a way that some measure of effectiveness (objective function) is optimized. Mathematical programming is the broad term for the OR techniques used to solve allocation problems. If the measure of effectiveness such as profit, cost, etc., is represented as linear function of several variables and if limitations on resources (constraints) can be expressed as a system of linear equalities or inequalities, the allocation problem is classified as a linear programming problem. But if the objective function of any or all of the constraints cannot be expressed as a system of linear equalities or inequalities, the allocation problem is classified as a non-linear programming problem. When the solution values or decision variables for the problem are restricted to being integer values or just zero-one values, the problem is classified as an integer programming problem or a zero-one programming problem, respectively. The problem having multiple, conflicting and incommensurable objective functions (goals) subject to liner constraints is called a goal programming problem. If the decision variables in the linear programming problem depend on chance, such a problem is called a stochastic programming problem. If resources such as workers, machines or salesmen can be assigned to perform a certain number of activities such as jobs or territories on a one-to-one basis so as to minimize total time, cost or distance involved in performing a given activity, such problems are classified as assignment problems, But if the activities require more than one resource and conversely if the resources can be used for more than one activity, the allocation problem is classified as a transportation problem. Inventory Models Inventory models deal with the problem of determination of how much to order at a point in time and when to place an order. The main objective is to minimize the sum of three conflicting inventory costs: The cost of holding or carrying extra inventory, the cost of shortage or delay in the delivery of items when it is needed, a cost of ordering or set-up. These are also useful in dealing with quantity discount and selective inventory control. Waiting Line (or Queuing) Models These models have been developed to establish a trade-off between costs of providing service and the waiting time of a customer in the queuing system. Constructing a model entails describing the components of the system: arrival process, queue structure and service process and solving for the measure of performance-average length of waiting time, average time spent by the customer in the line, traffic intensity, etc., of the waiting system. Competitive (Game Theory) Models These models are used to characterize the behavior of two or more opponents (called players) who compete for the achievement of conflicting goals. These models are classified according to several factors such as number of competitors, sum of loss and gain, and the type of strategy which would yield the best or the worst outcomes. Network Models These models are applied to the management (planning, controlling and scheduling) of large-scale projects. PERT/CPM techniques help in identifying potential trouble spots in a project through the identification of the critical path. These techniques improve project coordination and enable the efficient use of resources. Network methods are also used to determine time-cost trade-off, resource allocation and updating of activity time. Sequencing Models The sequencing problem arises whenever there is a problem in determining the sequence (order) in which a number of tasks can be performed by a number of service facilities such as hospital, plant, etc., in such a way that some measure of performance, for example, total time to process all the jobs on all the machines, is optimized. Replacement Models These models are used when one must decide the optimal time to replace equipment for one reason or the other-fro instance, in the case of equipment whose efficiency deteriorates with time or fails immediately and completely. For example, in case of an automobile, the user has his own measure of effectiveness. So there will not be single optimal answer for everyone even if each automobile gives exactly the same service. Dynamic Programming Models Dynamic programming may be considered as an outgrowth of mathematical programming involving the optimization of multi-stage (sequence of inter-related decision) decision processes. The method starts by dividing a given problem into stages or sub-problems and then solves those sub-problems sequentially until the solution to the original problem is obtained. Markov-Chain Models These models are used for analyzing a system which changes over a period of time among various possible outcomes or sates. The model while dealing with such systems describes transitions in terms of transition probabilities of various states. These models have been used to test brand-loyalty and brand-switching tendencies of consumers, where each system sate is considered to be a particular brand purchase. These have also been used in relatialbity analysis, where the states of the system are the various levels of performance of the equipment being monitored. Simulation Models These models are sued to develop a method to evaluate the merit of alternative courses of action by experimenting with a mathematical model of the problems where various variables are random. That is, these provide a means for generating representative samples of the measures of performance variables. Thus, repetition of the process by using the simulation model provides an indication of the merit of alternative course of action with respect to the decision variables. Decision Analysis Models These models deal with the selection of an optimal course of action given the possible pay offs and their associated probabilities of occurrence. These models are broadly applied to problems involving decision making under risk and uncertainty. CHAPTER 2 LINEAR PROGRAMMING (LP) 2.1. BASIC CONCEPTS IN LINEAR PROGRAMMING A large number of decision problems faced by a business manager involve allocation of resources to various activities, with the objective of increasing profits or decreasing costs, or both. When resources are in excess, no difficulty is experienced. But such cases are very rare. Practically in all situations, the managements are confronted with the problem of scarce resources. Normally, there are several activities to perform but limitations of either of the resources or their use prevent each activity from being performed to the best level. Thus, the manager has to take a decision as to how best the resources be allocated among the various activities. The decision problem becomes complicated when a number of resources are required to be allocated and there are several activities to perform. Rule of thumb, even an experienced manager, in all likelihood, may not provide the right answer in such cases. The decision problems can be formulated, and solved, as mathematical programming problems. Mathematical programming involves optimization of a certain function, called the objective function, subject to certain constraints. For example, a manager may be faced with the problem of deciding the appropriate product mix of the four products. With the profitability of the products along with their requirements of raw materials, labor etc. known, his problem can be formulated as a mathematical programming problem taking the objective function as the maximization of profits obtainable from the mix, keeping in view the various constraints-the availability of raw materials, labor supply, market and so on. The methods of mathematical programming can be divided into three groups: linear, integer, and non-linear programming. This chapter is devoted to linear programming, while integer programming and Non-linear programming are not considered at this level. Definition: Linear Programming (LP) is a mathematical modeling technique useful for economic allocation of scarce or limited resources, such as labor, material, machine, time, warehouse, space, capital, etc. to several competing activities such as products, services, jobs, new equipment, projects etc, on the basis of a given criterion of optimality. The phrase scarce resource means resources that are not in infinite in availability during planning period. The criterion of optimality generally is performance return or investment, profit, cost, utility, time, distance etc. George B. Dantzing while working with the US Air force during World War II developed this technique primarily for solving military logistics problems. But now, it is being used extensively in all functional areas of management, airlines, agriculture, military operations, oil refining, education, Energy, Healthcare systems, pollution control, transportation, planning and scheduling research and development etc. Although these applications are diverse, all LP models consist of certain common properties and assumptions. Before LP modeling technique is applied for solving a real life decision problem, the decision maker must be aware of all these properties and assumptions which are discussed later in this chapter. The linear programming method is a technique for choosing the best alternative from a set of feasible alternatives, in situations in which the objective function as well as the constraints can be expressed as linear mathematical functions. The word linear refers to linear relationships among variables in a model. The word programming refers to modeling and solving a problem mathematically that involves the economic allocation of limited resources and by choosing a particular course of action or strategy `among various alternative strategies to achieve the desired objective. In order to apply linear programming, there are certain requirements to be met. These are discussed here. There should be an objective which should be clearly identifiable and measurable in quantitative terms. It could be, for example, maximization of sales, of profit, minimization of cost, and so on. The activities to be included should be distinctly identifiable and measurable in quantitative terms, for instance, the products included in a production planning problem. The resources of the system which are to be allocated for the attainment of the goal should also be identifiable and measurable quantitatively. They must be in limited supply. The technique would involve allocation of these resources in manner that would trade off the returns on the investment of the resources for the attainment of the objective. The relationships representing the objective are also the resource limitation considerations, represented by the objective function and the constraint equations or inequalities, respectively, must be linear in nature. There should be a series of feasible alternative courses of action available to the decision-maker that is determined by the resource constraints. When these sated conditions are satisfied in a given situation, the problem can be expressed in algebraic form, called the Linear programming Problem (LPP), and then solved for optimal decision. We shall first illustrate the formulation of linear programming problems and then consider the method of their solution. GENERAL STRUCTURE OF LPP MODEL The general structure of LP model consists of three basic elements or components. Decision variables (Activities): We need to evaluate various alternatives (courses of actions) for arriving at the optimal values of objective function. The evaluation of various alternatives is guided by the nature of objective function and availability of resources. The activities (also called the decision variables) are usually denoted by,  EMBED Equation.3 . The values of these activities represent the extent to which each of these is performed. For example, the number of units of a product to manufacture by using limited resources such as personnel, machinery, money, material, etc. The values of certain variables may or may not be under the decision makers control. If the values are under the control of the decision maker, then such variables are said to be controllable otherwise uncontrollable. In an LP model all decision variables are continuous, controllable, and non-negative. i.e.  EMBED Equation.3  The objective function: the objective (goal) function of each LP problem is expressed in terms of decision variables to optimize the criterion of optimality (also called the measure of performance) such as profit, cost, revenue, distance, etc. In its general form it is expressed as: Optimize (Maximize or Minimize) Z=  EMBED Equation.3  Where Z is the measure of performance variable, which is the function of  EMBED Equation.3  Quantities  EMBED Equation.3 are parameters that represent the contribution of a unit of the respective variables  EMBED Equation.3  to the measures of performance Z. The optimal value of the given objective function is obtained by the graphical method or simplex method. The constraints: There are always certain limitations (or constraints) on the use of resources, e.g. labor, Machine, Raw material, space, money, etc. that limit the degree to which an objective can be achieved. Such constraints must be expressed as linear equalities or inequalities in terms of decision variables. The solution of an LP model must satisfy these constraints. GENERAL MATHEMTICAL MODEL OF LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEM In general terms, a linear programming problem (or model) with n decision variables and m constraints can be stated in the following form: Find the values of decision variables  EMBED Equation.3 so as to Optimize (Maximize or Minimize) Subject to the linear constraints and Z =  EMBED Equation.3   a11x1 + a12x2 + . . . + a1nxn ( d",=, EMBED Equation.3 ) b1 a21x1 + a22x2 + . . . + a2nxn ( d" , =, EMBED Equation.3 ) b2 . . . . . . . . . . . . am1x1 + am2x2 + . . . amnxn ( d", =, EMBED Equation.3 ) bm x1, x2 . . . , xn e" 0 Objective Function Constraints Non-negativity Restriction The above formulation can also be expressed in a compact form using summation sign. Optimize (Max. or Min.) Z =  EMBED Equation.3  (objective function) Subject to linear constraints  EMBED Equation.3  (Constraints) (Non-negativity conditions) Where, the EMBED Equation.3 s are coefficients representing the per unit contribution of decision variable EMBED Equation.3  , to the value of objective function. The EMBED Equation.3 s are called the technological coefficients or input output coefficients.  EMBED Equation.3 s can be positive, negative or zero in the given constraints. The  EMBED Equation.3  represents the total availability of the  EMBED Equation.3 resource. It is assumed that  EMBED Equation.3  for all i. However, if any  EMBED Equation.3 < 0, then both sides of the constraint i can be multiplied by -1 to make  EMBED Equation.3 >0 and reverse the inequality of the constraint. Note: Generally, the constraints in the maximization problems are of the d" type, and of the e" type in the minimization problems. But a given problem may contain a mix of the constraints, involving the sign d", e" and /or =. Usually, the decision variables are non-negative. However, they need not always be so. To illustrate, in an investment problem, if we let x1 shall be non-negative since we may decide to invest (x1 > 0) or not to invest (x1 = 0). But, if we already hold such shares which may be sold, if the need be, and then x1 may take positive value (more investment), zero value (indicating no new investment in it) or negative value (implying disinvestment in this share). Hence, x1 shall be unrestricted in sign or a free variable. Formulation of some typical linear programming problems is given later in this chapter under Illustrations. ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING LINEAR PROGRAMMING A linear programming model is based on the assumptions of proportionality, additively, continuity, certainty, and finite choices. These are explained here. Proportionality: A basic assumption of linear programming is that proportionality exists in the objective function and the constraint inequalities. For example, if one unit of a product is assumed to contribute birr 10 toward profit, then the total contribution would be equal to 10x1, where x1 is the number of units of the product. For 4 units, it would equal birr 40 and for 8 units it would be birr 80, thus if the output (and sales) is doubled, the profit would also be doubled. Similarly, if one unit takes 2 hours of labor of a certain type, 10 units would required 20 hours, 20 units would require 40 hours. and so on. In effect, then, proportionality means that there are constant returns to scale-and there are no economies of scale. Additivity: Another assumption underlying the linear programming model is that in the objective function and constraint inequalities, both the total of all the activities is given by the sum total of each activity conducted separately. Thus, the total profit in the objective function is determined by the sum of the profit contributed by each of the products separately. Similarly, the total amount of a resource used is equal to the sum of the resource values used by various activities. This assumption implies that there is no interaction among the decision variables (interaction is possible when, for example, some product is a by-product of another one). Continuity: It is also an assumption of a linear programming model that the decision variables are continuous. As a consequence, combination of output with fractional values, in the context of production problems, is possible and obtained frequently. For example, the best solution to a problem might be to produce 5 2/3 units of product A and 10 1/3 units of product B per week. Although in many situations we can have only integer values, but we can deal with the fractional values, when they appear, in the following ways. Firstly, when the decision is a one-shot decision, that is to say, it is not repetitive in nature and has to be taken only once, we round the fractional values to the nearest integer values. However, when we do so, we should evaluate the revised solution to determine whether the solution represented by the rebounded values is a feasible solution and also whether the solution is the best integer solution. Secondly, if the problem relates to a continuum of time and it is designed to determine optimal solution for a given time period only, then the fractional values may not be rebounded. For instance, in the context of a production problem, a solution like the one given earlier to make 5 2/3 units of A and 201/3 units of B per week can be adopted without any difficulty. The fractional amount of production would be taken to be the work-in-progress and become a portion of the production of the following week. In this case, an output of 17 units of A and 31 units of B over a three-week period would imply 52/3 units of A and 10 1/3 units of B per week. Lastly, if we must insist on obtaining only integer values of the decision variables, we may restate the problem as an integer programming problem, forcing the solutions to be in integers only. Certainty: A further assumption underlying linear programming model is that the various parameters, namely, the objective function coefficients, the coefficients of the inequality/equality constraints and the constraint (resource) values are known with certainty. Thus, the profit per unit of the product, requirements of materials and labor per unit, availability of materials and labor, etc. are given and known in a problem involving these. The linear programming is obviously deterministic in nature. Finite choices: A linear programming model also assumes that a limited number of choices are available to a decision-maker and the decision variables do not assume negative values. Thus, only non-negative levels of activity are considered feasible. This assumption is indeed a realistic one. For instance, in the production problems, the output cannot obviously be negative, because a negative production implies that we should be able to reverse the production process and convert the finished output back into the raw materials! APPLICATION AREAS OF LP MODEL Linear programming is the most widely used technique of decision making in business and industry and in various other fields. Agricultural applications: in agricultural planning, e.g. allocation of limited resources such as acreage, labor, and water supply, and working capital, etc. in way so as to maximize net revenue. Military applications: such as selecting an air weapon against enemy, minimizing the aviation gasoline, maximization of the tonnage of bombs dropped on a set of targets and the problem of community defense against disaster. Production management: product mix, production planning, assembly line balancing, blending problems, and so on. Financial management : like in portfolio selection, profit planning Marketing management: like in media selection, traveling salesman problem, physical distribution, Personnel management: Staffing problem, determination of equitable salaries, job evaluation and selection. 2.2. FORMULATION OF LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEM The term formulation is used to mean the process of converting the verbal description and numerical data into mathematical expressions which represents the relevant relationship among decision factors, objectives and restrictions on the use of resources. Guidelines on Linear Programming Model Formulation: The steps of linear programming model formulation are summarized as follows: Step1. Identify the decision Variables Express each constraint in words and see whether the constraint is of the form d", e" and /or = sign. Then express the objective function verbally. Step 2. Identify the problem data. Step 3. Formulate the constraints. Step 4. Formulate the objective function 2.2.1. The maximization case: Consider the following example. Example: 2. 1. A firm is engaged in producing two products, A and B. Each unit of product A requires 2 kg of raw material and 4 labor hours for processing, whereas each unit of product B requires 3 Kg of raw material and 3 hours of labor, of the same type. Every week, the firm has an availability of 60 kg of raw material and 96 labor hours. One unit of product A sold yields Birr 40 and one unit of product B sold gives Birr 35 as profit. Formulate this problem as a linear programming problem to determine as to how many units of each of the products should be produced per week so that the firm can earn the maximum profit. Assume that there is no marketing constraint so that all that is produced can be sold. The objective function The first major requirement of an LPP is that we should be able to identity the goal in terms of the objective function. This function relates mathematically the variables with which we are dealing in the problem. For our problem, the goal is the maximization of profit, which would be obtained by producing (and selling) products A and B. If we let x1 and x2 represent the number of units produced per week of the products A and B respectively, the total profit, Z, would be equal to 40x1 + 35x2 because the unit profit on the two products is, respectively, Birr 40 and Birr 35. Now Z= 40x1 + 35x2 is then, the objective function, relating the profit and the output level of each of the two items. Notice that the function is a linear one. Further, since the problem calls for a decision about the optimal values of x1 and x2, these are known as the decision variables. The constraints: As has been said, another requirement of linear programming is that the resources must be in limited supply. The mathematical relationship which is used to explain this limitation is inequality. The limitation itself is known as a constraint. Each unit of product A requires 2 Kg of raw material while each unit of product B needs 3 kg. The total consumption would be 2x1 + 3x2, which cannot exceed the total availability of 60 kg every week. We can express this constraint as 2x1 + 3x2, d" 60. Similarly, it is given that a unit of A requires 4 labor hours for its production and one unit of B require 3 hours. With an availability of 96 hours a week, we have 4x1 + 3x2 d" 96 as the labour hour s constraint. It is important note that for each of the constraints, inequality rather than equation has been used. This is because the profit maximizing output might not use all the resources to the full-leaving some unused. Hence the d" sign. However, it may be noticed that all the constraints, like objective function, are also linear in nature. Non-negativity condition: Quite obviously, x1 and x2, being the number of units produced cannot have negative values. Thus, both of them can assume values only greater-than-or-equal-to zero. This is the non-negativity condition, expressed symbolically as x1 e" 0 and x2 e" 0. Now, we can write the problem in complete form as follows. Maximize Subject to Z = 40x1 + 35x2 2x1 + 3x2d" 60 4x1 + 3x2 d" 96 x1, x2 e" 0Profit Raw material constraint Labor hours constraint Non-negativity restrictionThe minimization case: Consider the following example. Example 2.2 The Agricultural Research institute suggested to a farmer to spread out at least 4800kg of a special phosphate fertilizer and not less than 7200 kg of a special nitrogen fertilizer to raise productivity of crops in his fields. There are two sources for obtaining these-mixtures A and B. Both of these are available in bags weighing 100kg each and they cost Birr 40 and Birr 24 respectively. Mixture A contains phosphate and nitrogen equivalent of 20 kg and 80 kg respectively, while mixture B contains these ingredients equivalent of 50 kg each. Write this as a linear programming problem and determine how many bags of each type the farmer should buy in order to obtain the required fertilizer at minimum cost. The objective function: In the given problem, such a combination of mixtures A and B is sought to be purchased as would minimize the total cost. If x1 and X2 are taken to represent the number of bags of mixtures A and B respectively, the objective function can be expressed as follows: Minimize Z = 40x1 + 24x2 Cost The constraints: In this problem, there are two constraints, namely, a minimum of 4800 kg of phosphate and 7200kg of nitrogen ingredients are required. It is known that each bag of mixture A contains 20 kg and each bag of mixture B contains 50 kg of phosphate. The phosphate requirement can be expressed as 20 x1 + 50x2 e" 4800. Similarly, with the given information on the constraints, the nitrogen requirement would be written as 80x1 + 50x2 e" 7200. Non-negativity condition As before, it lays that the decision variables, representing the number of bags of mixtures A and B, would be non-negative. Thus, x1 e" 0 and x2 e" 0. The linear programming problem can now be expressed as follows: Minimize Subject to Z = 40x1 + 24x2 20x1 + 50x2 e" 4800 80x1 + 50x2 e" 7200 x1,x2 e" 0Cost Phosphate requirement Nitrogen requirement Non-negativity restriction2.3: SOLUTION TO LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS Now we shall consider the solution to the linear programming problems. They can be solved by graphic method or by applying algebraic method, called the simplex Method. The graphic approach is restricted in application-it can be used only when two variables are involved. Nevertheless, it provides an intuitive grasp of the concepts that are used in the in the simplex technique. We shall discuss the graphic method and the use of simplex algorithm in the next sections. 2.3.1. GRAPHIC METHOD A Graphical solution method (for LP problems which involve only two decision variables), for an optional as well as feasible solution to an LP problem is obtained by choosing from several values of decision variables X1, X2, . . . Xn,- the set of values that satisfies the given set of constraints simultaneously and also provides the optimum (maximum or minimum) value of a given objective function. For LP problems that have only two variables, it is possible that the entire set of feasible solutions can be displayed graphically by plotting a linear constraints on graph paper to locate the best (optimal) solution. The technique used to identify optimal solution is called the graphical solution approach or technique from an LP problem with two variables. Graphical solution approaches are of two types, Extreme point enumeration approach Iso- profit (cost) function line approach. Note the following important definitions: Solution:- The set of values of decision variables Xi (i = 1,2 . . .,n) which satisfy the constraints of an LP problem is said to constitute solution to that LP problem Feasible solutions: The set of values of decision variables Xi ( i = 1,2, . . ., n) which satisfy all the constraints and non- negativity conditions of an LP simultaneously. Infeasible solution: The set of values of decision variables which do not satisfy all the constraints and non-negativity conditions of an LP problem. Basic solution: For a set of m simultaneous equations in n variable (n>m), a solution obtained by setting (nm) variables equal to zero and solving for remaining m equations in n variables is called a basic solution. The (n m) variables whose value did not appear in this solution are called non- basic variables and the remaining m variables are called basic variables. Basic Feasible solution: A feasible solution to an LP problem which is also the basic solution is called the basic feasible solution. That is all basic variables assume non-negative values. Basic feasible solutions are of two types: Optimum basic feasible solution: A basic feasible solution which optimizes (maximizes or minimizes) the objective function value of the given LP problem is called an optimum basic feasible solution. Unbounded solution: A solution which can increase or decrease the value of objective function of LP problem indefinitely is called un- bounded solution. To use the graphic method for solving linear programming problems, the following steps are required: Identify the problem-the decision variables, the objective function, and constraint restrictions. Draw a graph that includes all the constraints/restrictions and identify the feasible region. Obtain the point on the feasible region that optimizes the objective function-the optimal solution. Interpret the results. We shall demonstrate the graphical approach first in respect of the maximization and then for the minimization problems. The maximization case: We consider Example 2.1 again. For this problem, the decision variables are x1 and x2, the number of units of the products A and B respectively. The objective function and the constraints are reproduced as. Maximize Subject to Z = 40x1 + 35x2 2x1 + 3x2 d" 60 4x1 + 3x2 d" 96 x1, x2 e" 0Profit Raw material constraint Labor hours constraint  Graphing the constraints: We shall first chart the given restrictions on the graph. The constraint of raw material availability,  EMBED Equation.3  states that any combination  EMBED Equation.3  that does not exceed 60 is acceptable. With varying values of X1, and X2, the combination can assume a maximum value equal to 60. This constraint can be depicted graphically by plotting the straight line EMBED Equation.3  since only two points are needed to obtain a straight line we can get the two points by setting one of these variables in turn equal to 0, and calculating the value of the other. Thus, when x1= 0, x2 would equal 20, and when x2 is set equal to 0, x1 would be 30. joining the points ( 0,20) and (30, 0) we get the required straight line which is shown in fig.2.1 as line PT. Similarly, the other constraint 4x1 + 3x2 = 96 can be plotted.  X2   32- J 30-  4x1 + 3x2 = 96 (Labor hours constraint) 25- P  20   15-   10- Q  EMBED Equation.3   FEASIBLE REGION (Raw Materials Constraint)  5-   O R T X1 5 10 15 20 24 25 30 No. of units of product A. Obtaining the optimal solution: The Z- values corresponding to the various points in respect of the given problem are shown below: Point O P Q RX1 0 0 18 24X2 0 20 8 0Z = 40x1 + 35x2 0 700 1000 960 maximum  Since Z is highest at point Q, the optimal solution is to produce 18 units of product A and 8 units of product B every week, to get the profit of Birr 1000. No other product mix under the given conditions could yield more profit than this. The minimization case: Now we shall consider the graphical solution to the linear programming problems of the minimization nature. Here, example 2.2 is reconsidered. Minimize Subject to Z = 40x1 + 24x2 20x1 + 50x2 e" 4800 80x1 + 50x2 e" 7200 x1, x2 e" 0Total Cost Phosphate Requirement Nitrogen RequirementHere the decision variables x1 and x2 represent, respectively, the number of bags of mixture A and of mixture B, to be bought. Graphing the restrictions: The constraints are plotted in Figure 2.2. The first constraint of phosphate requirement, 20x1 + 50x2 e" 4800 can be represented as follows. We set 20x1 + 50x2 =4800. Putting x1 = 0, we get x2 = 96 and putting x2 = 0 we have x1 = 240. Joining the two points (0, 96) and (240, 0) we get the straight line corresponding to the above equation. The area beyond this line represents the feasible area in respect of this constraint-any point on the straight line or in the region above this line would satisfy the constraint. Similarly, the second constraint can be depicted by plotting the straight line corresponding to the equation 80x1 + 50x2 = 7200. Line PT in the figure represents the equation. The points falling on this line and in the area beyond it indicate the feasible values of x1 and x2 in respect of this constraint. Since both the requirements are to be met, the feasible region in respect of the problem is as represented by the shaded area. The feasible region here represents a convex set. However, it is not bounded form all the sides, as was in case of the maximization problem. The region is unbounded on the upper side because none of the restrictions in the problem places an upper limit on the value of either of the decisions variables. Obviously, if such limits are placed, the feasible region would be bounded one. X2   200-  No. of bags of mixture B 150- FEASIBLE REGION   144 P 100-  96 K Q   50-   O T R X1 50 90 100 150 200 240 250 No. of bags of mixture A. Obtaining the optimal solution: The optimal solution to the problem may be seen to be located at an extreme point-at point P, Q, or R in our example. We can evaluate the ordinates at each of these points as follows: Point P Q RX1 0 40 240X2 144 80 0Z = 40x1 + 24x2 3456 3520 9600 Minimum  Since the total cost is the minimum at point P, the optimal solution to the problem is to buy 144 bags of mixture B only and none of mixture A. This would entail a total cost of Birr 3456.  Binding and Non-Binding constraints: Once the optimal solution to an LPP is obtained; we may classify the constraints as being binding or non-binding. A constraint is termed as binding if the left hand side and right hand side of it are equal when optimal values of the decision variables are substituted into the constraint. On the other hand, if the substitution of the decision variables does not lead to equality between the left and the right hand sides of the constraint, it is said to be non-binding. In Example 2.1, the optimal values of decision variables are: x1= 18 and x2 = 8. Substituting these values in the two constraints we get: 2x1 + 3x2 or 2 x 18 + 3 x 8 = 60 RHS, and 4x1 + 3x2 or 4 x 18 + 3 x 8 = 96 -RHS. Thus, both the constraints are binding in nature. In Example 2.2, on the other hand, X1 = 0 and x2 = 144, the optimal values, may be substituted in the two constraints to get 20x1 + 50x2 or 20 X 0 + 50 X 144 = 7200 `" 4800 (RHS). And 80x1 + 50x2 or 80 X 0 + 50 X 144 = 7200 = RHS. Accordingly, the first of the constraints is non-binding and the second one is a binding one. Redundant Constraint (s): As we have observed, plotting of each of the constraints on the graph serves to determine the feasible region of a given problem. If a constraint, when plotted, does not form part of the boundary marking the feasible region of the problem. It is said to be redundant. The inclusion or exclusion of a redundant constraint obviously does not affect the optimal solution to the problem. Exercise: Continuing with Example 2.1, suppose that each of the products are required to be packed. Every unit of product A requires 4 hours while every unit of product B needs 3.5 hours for packaging. Suppose that in the packaging department, 105 hours are available every week. Formulate the LP to determine what product mix would maximize the profit? The problem can be restated as follows: Maximize Subject to Z = 40x1 + 35x2 2x1 + 3x2 d" 60 4x1 + 3x2 d" 96 4x1 + 3.5x2 d" 105 x1, x2 e" 0Profit Raw material constraint Labor hours constraint Packaging hours constraint SOME SPECIAL CASES OF LP In each of the three examples discussed so far, we have obtained a unique optimal solution. We now consider three types of linear programming problems which do not have unique optimal solutions. These are, respectively, problems having multiple optimal solutions, no feasible solution, and unbounded solutions. Multiple optimal solutions: As stated above, in each of the three examples that we have considered, we have observed that the optimal solution is given by an extreme point of the feasible region and the solution is unique. The uniqueness implies that other solution to given problem shall yield the same value of the objective function as given by that solution. It is, of course, possible that in a given problem there may be more than one optimal solution. Each of the multiple optima would naturally yield the same objective function value. The solution (if it exists) to a linear programming problem shall always be unique if the slope of the objective function (represented by the iso-profit lines) is different from the slopes of the constraints. In case the objective function has slope which is same as that of a constraint, then multiple optimal solutions might exist. There are two conditions that should be satisfied in order that multiple optimal solutions exist. The objective function should be parallel to a constraint that forms an edge or boundary on the feasible region; and The constraint should form a boundary on the feasible region in the direction of optimal movement of the objective function. In other words, the constraint must be a binding constraint. To fully understand, let us consider the following examples. Exercise: Solve graphically the following LPP: Maximize Subject to Z = 8x1 + 16x2 X1 + x2 d" 200 X2 d" 125 3x1 + 6x2 d" 900 x1, x2 e" 0 X2   X1+X2 = 200  200-  MULTIPLE OPTIMAL SOLUTIONS  150-  A B X2=125  100-  C 3X1+6X2 = 900  50-  FEASIBLE Iso-profit Lines  REGION   O D X1 100 200 300 FIG.: Multiple optimal solutions The constraints are shown plotted on the graph in the Figure above. Also, iso-profit lines have been graphed. We observe that iso-profit lines are parallel to the equation for third constraint 3x1 + 6x2 = 900. As we move the iso-profit line farther from the origin, it coincides with the portion BC of the constraint line that forms the boundary of the feasible region. It implies that there are an infinite number of optimal solutions represented by all points lying on the line segment BC, including the extreme points represented by B (50, 125) and C (100, 100). Since the extreme points are also included in the solutions, we may disregard all other solutions and consider only these ones to establish that the solution to a linear programming problem shall always lie at an extreme point of the feasible region. The extreme points of the feasible region are given and evaluated here. Point 0 A B C DX1 0 0 50 100 200X2 0 125 125 100 0Z = 8x1 + 16x2 0 2000 2400 2400 1600 Maximum The B and C clearly represent the optima. In this example, the constraint to which the objective function was parallel was the one which formed a side of the boundary of the space of the feasible region. As mentioned in condition (a), if such a constraint (to which the objective function is parallel) does not form an edge or boundary of the feasible region, then multiple solutions would not exist. Infeasibility: It has already been stated that a solution is called feasible if it satisfies all the constraints and the non-negativity conditions. Sometimes it is possible that the constraints may be inconsistent so that there is no feasible solution to the problem. Such situations are called infeasibility. In the graphic approach to the solution to an LPP, the infeasibility is evident if its feasible region is empty so that there is no feasible region in which all the constraints may be satisfied simultaneously. Consider the following example. Example: Solve graphically the following LPP Maximize Subject to Z = 20x1 + 30x2 2x1 + x2 d" 40 4x1  x2 d" 20 x1 e" 30 x1, x2 e" 0Fig.: Infeasibility X2  X1 = 30   FEASIBLE REGION    40-A 2X1+X2= 40   30- 4X1- X2 = 20   20-  B  10-   O C 10 20 30 X1  - 10- As we can see in the graph, the feasible region corresponding to the constraints is indicated in the shaded regions. We can easily observe that there is no common point in the areas shaded. Therefore, all the constraints cannot be satisfied and, as such, there is no feasible solution to the given problem. 3. Unbounded-ness: For a maximization type of linear programming problem, unboundedness occurs when there is no constraint on the solution so that one or more of the decision variables can be increased indefinitely without violating any of the restrictions (constraints). Thus, an unbounded LPP occurs if it is possible to find points in the feasible region with arbitrarily large Z-values (may be profit or revenue). This suggests that practically if we find the solution to be unbounded for a profit-maximizing linear programming problem, it may be concluded that the problem has not been correctly formulated. Example: Consider the following example: Maximize Subject to Z = 10x1 + 20x2 2x1 + 4x2 e" 16 x1 + 5x2 e" 15 x1, x2 e" 0  X2  10  8  FEASIBLE REGION  6  4 2X1+4X2=16  2  X1+5X2=15   0 X1 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Clearly, here the objective function is not bound over the feasible region and we can move the iso-profit line upward without any limit. The problem has, therefore, unbounded solution. For a minimization LPP, unboundedness occurs when there are points in the feasible region with arbitrarily small values. To conclude, a maximization LPP is unbounded , if moving parallel to the original iso-profit line in the direction of increasing Z, we never entirely leave the feasible region and, on the other hand, a minimization problem is unbounded if we never leave the feasible region while moving in the direction of decreasing Z. Infeasibility vs. Unbounded ness Both infeasibility and unboundedness have a similarity in that there is no optimal solution in either case. But there is a striking difference between the two, while in infeasibility there is not a single feasible solution, in unboundedness there are infinite feasible solutions but none of them can be termed as the optimal.  Review Exercises________________________________________________ Exercise 1: A firm produces three products A, B and C. It uses two types of raw materials I and II of which 5000 and 7500 units, respectively, are available. The raw material requirements per unit of the products are given below: __________________________________________________________ Requirement per Unit of Product Raw Material _______________________________________________________ A B C ___________________________________________________________________ I 3 4 5 II 5 3 5 ___________________________________________________________________ The labour time for each unit of product A is twice as that of product B and three times that of product C. The entire labor force of the firm can produce the equivalent of 3000 units. The minimum demand for the three products is 600, 650 and 500 units respectively. Also, the ratio of the number of units produced must be equal to 2:3:4. Assuming the profits per unit of A, B and C are 50, 50 and 80, respectively. Formulate the problem as a linear programming problem in order to determine the number of units of each product which will maximize the profit. Exercise 2: A furniture manufacturer produces two types of desks: standard and Executive. These desks are sold to an office furniture wholesaler, and for all practical purposes, there is an unlimited market for any mix of these desks, at least within the manufacturers production capacity. Each desk has to go through four basic operations: cutting of the lumber, joining of the pieces, pre-finishing, and final finish. Each unit of the standard desk produced takes 48 minutes of cutting time, 2 hours of joining, 40 minutes of pre-finishing, and 5 hours and 20 minutes of final finishing time. Each unit of the Executive desk required 72 minutes of cutting, 3 hours of joining, 2 hours of pre-finishing and 4 hours of final finishing time. The daily capacity for each operation amounts to 16 hours of cutting, 30 hours of joining, 16 hours of pre-finishing and 64 hours of final finishing time. The profit per unit produced is Birr 40 for the Standard desk and Birr 50 for the Executive desk. Determine the product mix that maximizes total revenue. 2.3.2.4. SIMPLEX ALGORITHM: MAXIMIZATION WITH MIXED CONSTRAINTS AND MINIMIZATION In certain cases as discussed below, it is difficult to obtain an initial basic feasible solution. Such cases arise. When the constraints are of the  EMBED Equation.3  type  EMBED Equation.3  but some right hand side constants are negative [i.e. bj< 0]. In this case after adding the non-negative slack variable sj(i = 1, 2, , m), the initial solution so obtained will be si = -bi for some i. It is not the feasible solution because it violates the non-negativity conditions of slack variables (i.e. si > 0). When the constraints are of the  EMBED Equation.3  type  EMBED Equation.3  In this case to covert the inequalities into equation form, adding surplus (negative slack) variables,  EMBED Equation.3  Letting xi = 0 (j = 1, 2, , m) we get an initial solution -si = bi or si = - bi . It is also not a feasible solution as it violates the non-negativity conditions of surplus variables (i.e.si  EMBED Equation.3 0). In this case, we add artificial variables, Ai (i =1, 2, , m) to get initial basic feasible solution. The resulting system of equations then becomes:  EMBED Equation.3  and has m equations and (n + m + m ) variables (i.e. n. decision variables, m artificial variables and m surplus variables). An initial basic feasible solution of the new system can be obtained by equating (n+2m -m) = (n+m) variables equal to zero, Thus, the new solution to the given LP problem is: Aj = bi (i=1,2,,m), which does not constitute a solution to the original system of equations because the two systems of equations are not equivalent. Thus, to get back to the original problem, artificial variables must be dropped out of the optimal solution. There are two methods for eliminating these variables from the solution: (i): Two-Phase Method (ii). Big-M Method or Method of Penalties The simplex method both for the minimization and the maximization LP problem may be summarized in the form of a flow chart as follows:  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  Fig. Flow Chart of simplex Algorithm  Remark: Artificial variables have no meaning in a physical sense and are only used as a tool for generating an initial LP problem solution. Before the final simplex solution is reached, all artificial variables must be dropped out from the solution mix. This is done by assigning appropriate coefficients to these variables in the objective function. These variables are added to those constraints with equality (=) and greater than or equal to ( EMBED Equation.3 ) sign. 1. Two -Phase Method In the first phase of this method, the sum of the artificial variables is minimized subject to the given constraints to get a basic feasible solution of the LP problem. The second phase minimized, the original objective function starting with the basic feasible solution obtained at the end of the first phase. Since the solution of the LP problem is completed in two phases, this is called the two-phase method. Advantages of the method No assumptions on the original system of constraints are made, i.e. the system may be redundant, inconsistent or not solvable in non-negative numbers. It is easy to obtain an initial basic feasible solution for phase I. The basic feasible solution (if it exists) obtained at the end of phase I is used to start phase II. Steps of the algorithm Phase I Step 1: (a) If all the constraints in the given LP problem are ( EMBED Equation.3 ) type, then phase II can be directly used to solve the problem. Otherwise, the necessary number of surplus and artificial variables are added to convert constraints into equality constraints. (b) If the given LP problem is of minimization, then convert it to the maximization type by the usual method. Step 2: Assign zero coefficients to each of the decision variables (xj)nd to the surplus variables; and assign- coefficient to each of the artificial variable. This yields the following auxiliary LP problem.  EMBED Equation.3  Subject to the constraints  EMBED Equation.3  Step 3: Apply the simplex algorithm to solve this auxiliary LP problem. The following three cases may arise at optimality. Max Z* = 0 and at least one artificial variable is present in the basis with positive value. Then, no feasible solution exists for the original LP problem. Max Z* = 0 and no artificial variable is present in the basis. Then the basis consists of only decision variables (xj s) and hence we may move to phase II to obtain an optimal basic feasible solution on the original LP problem. Max Z* = 0 and at least one artificial variable is present in the basis at zero value. Then a feasible solution to the above LP problem is also a feasible solution to the original LP problem. Now in order to arrive at the basic feasible solution we may proceed directly to phase II or else eliminate the artificial basic variable and then proceed to phase II. Once an artificial variable has left the basis it has served its purpose and can, therefore, be removed from the simplex table. An artificial variable is never considered for re-entry into the basis. Remark: The LP problem defined above is also called an auxiliary problem. The value of the objective function in this problem is bounded from below by zero because the objective function represents the sum of artificial variables with negative unit coefficients. Thus, the solution to this problem can be obtained in a finite number of steps. Phase II Assign actual coefficients to the variables in the objective function and zero to the artificial variables which appear at zero value in the basis at the end of phase I, that is, the last simplex table of phase I can be used as the initial simplex table for phase II. Then, apply the usual simplex algorithm to the modified simplex table to get the optimal solution to the original problem. Artificial variables which do not appear in the basis may be removed. Example 1: Solve the following LP problem by using the two-phase simplex method. Minimize Z = x1 + x2 Subject to the constraints  EMBED Equation.3  Solution: After adding surplus variables s1 and s2 and artificial variables A1 and A2, the problem becomes: Minimize Z* = -x1 - x2 Subject to the constrains  EMBED Equation.3  Where Z* = - Z Phase I: This phase starts by considering the following auxiliary LP problem: Maximize Z* = -A1 - A2 Subject to the constraints  EMBED Equation.3  The initial solution is presented in Table .1 Table .1 Initial Solutions Cj EMBED Equation.3 0000-1-1Profit per Unit CBVariables in Basis B Solution Values b (= xB)X1X2S1S2A1A2-1A14 2 1-1 0 1 0-1A27 1  0-1 0 1 EMBED Equation.3 Z*= -11Zj-3-8 1 1-1-1Cj - Zj 3 8  EMBED Equation.3 -1-1 0 0 Artificial variables A1 and A2 are now removed one after the other maintaining the feasibility of the solution. Iteration 1: Applying following row operations to get an improved solution by entering variable x2 in the basis and first removing variable A2 from the basis as shown in Table 2. Note that the variable x1 cannot be entered into basis as it would create an infeasible solution.  EMBED Equation.3  Table 2: Improved Solution Cj EMBED Equation.3 0000-1-1Profit per Unit CBVariables in Basis B Solution Values b (=xB)X1X2S1S2A1A*2-1A1313/70-11-1/7 EMBED Equation.3 0X211/71 0-1/7 01/7Z*= -3Zj-13/70 1-1/7-11/7Cj - Zj 13/70-11/7  EMBED Equation.3  0-8/7 * This column may be removed forever at this stage. Iteration 2: To remove A1 from the solution shown in Table 2, we enter variable s2 in the basis by applying the following row operations as shown in Table 3. Here it may be noted that if variable x1 is chosen to enter into the basis, it will lead to an infeasible solution.  EMBED Equation.3  Table3. Improved Solution Cj EMBED Equation.3 0000-1-1Profit per Unit CBVariables in Basis B Solution Values b (=xB)X1X2S1S2A*1A*20S121130-717-10X2421-1010Z*= 0Zj000000Cj - Zj0000-1-1* Remove columns A1 and A2 form table 3. Since all Cj - Zj  EMBED Equation.3  0 correspond to non-basic variables, the optimal solution: x1 = 0, x2 = 4, s1 = 0, s2 = 2, A1 = 0, A2 = 0 which Z* = 0 is reached. However, the solution may or may not be the basic feasible solution to the original LP problem. Thus, we have to move to phase II to get an optimal solution to our original LP problem. Phase II: The modified simplex table obtained from Table 3 is represented in Table 4. Table 4. Cj EMBED Equation.3 -1-100Profit per Unit CBVariables in Basis B Solution Values b (=xB)X1X2S1S2Min Ratio xB/X1 0S2210-7121/13 EMBED Equation.3 -1X24 21-104/2Z*= 0Zj-2-110Cj - Zj 1  EMBED Equation.3 0-10 Iteration 1: Introducing variable x1 into the basis removing variable s2 from the basis by applying the following row operations.  EMBED Equation.3  The improved basis feasible solution so obtained is given in Table 5. Since in Table 5, cj - zj  EMBED Equation.3  0 for all non- basic variables, the current solution is optimal. Thus, the optimal basic feasible solution to the given LP problem is: x1= 21/13, x2 = 10/13 and Max Z* = -31/13 or Min Z= 31/13. Table5. Optimal Solution Cj-1-100Profit per Unit CBVariables in Basis B Solution Values b (=xB)X1X2S1S2-1X121/1310-7/131/13-1X210/13 01 1/13-2/13Z*= -31/13Zj-1-16/131/13Cj - Zj 0 0-6/13-1/13Example 2: Solve the following LP problem by the using two-phase simplex method. Minimize Z= x1 -2x2 - 3x3 Subject to the constraints  EMBED Equation.3  Solution: After converting the objective function into maximization form and adding artificial variables A1 and A2 in the constraints of the given LP problem, the problem becomes: Maximize Z* = -x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 Subject to the constraints  EMBED Equation.3  Where Z* = -Z Phase I: This phase starts by considering the following auxiliary LP problem: Maximize Z* = -A1 - A2 Subject to the constraints  EMBED Equation.3  The initial solution is presented in Table 1. Table .1 Initial Solution Cj EMBED Equation.3 000-1-1Profit per Unit CBVariables in Basis B Solution Values b (=xB)X1X2X3A1A2-1A12-21310-1A21 2301 EMBED Equation.3 Z*= -3Zj 0-4-7-1-1Cj - Zj 0 4 7  EMBED Equation.3  00 To remove artificial variable A2 first from the solution shown in Table .1, introduce variable x3 into the basis by applying the following row operations:  EMBED Equation.3  The improved solution so obtained is given in Table .2, since cj -zj  EMBED Equation.3  0 corresponds to non-basic variables, the optimal solution is: x1 =0, x2=0, x3 = 1/4, A1 = 5/4 and A2 =0 with Max Z* = -5/4. Bu at the same time, the value of Z* < 0 and the artificial variable A1 appears in the basis with positive value 5/4. Hence, the given original LP problem does not possess any feasible solution. Table .2: Optimal but not Feasible Solution Cj EMBED Equation.3 000-1Profit per Unit CBVariables in Basis B Solution Values b (=xB)X1X2X3A1-1A15/4-7/2-5/401 0X31/41/23/410Z*= -5/4Zj7/25/40-1Cj - Zj-7/2-5/400 2: The Big- M Method The Big-M method is another method of removing artificial variables from the basis. In this method, we assign coefficients to artificial variables, undesirable from the objective function point of view. If objective function Z is to be minimized, then a very large positive price (called penalty) is assigned to each artificial variable. Similarly, if Z is to be maximized, then a very large negative price (also called penalty) is assigned to each of these variables. The penalty will be designated by -M for a maximization problem and +M for a minimization problem, where M> 0. Note that in maximization problems, assigning a large negative contribution will ensure that an artificial variable will not appear in the optimal solution. Conversely, in a minimization problem, assigning a large positive cost will have a similar effect. Although it would be acceptable to arbitrarily select a large negative or positive value for the artificial variable coefficients, it is more common to simply designate the coefficient with a large M. The Big-M method for solving an LP problem can be summarized in the following steps. Artificial variables are somewhat analogous to slack variables in that they are added to equality constraints in the same way that slack variables are added to  EMBED Equation.3  constraints. However artificial variables have no physical interpretation, they merely serve as a device to enable as to use the simplex process. During the simplex process, any artificial variables are quickly eliminated from the solution. In fact, the optimal solution should never contain an artificial variable with a nonzero value. Steps of the algorithm Step 1: Express the LP problem in the standard form by adding slack variables, surplus variables and artificial variables. Assign a zero coefficient to both slack and surplus variables and a very large positive coefficient + M (Minimization case) and M (Maximization case) to artificial variable in the objective function. Step 2: The initial basic feasible solution is obtained by assigning zero value to original variables. Step 3: Calculate the values of cj -zj in last row of the simplex table and examine these values. If all cj - zj  EMBED Equation.3  0, then the current basic feasible solution is optimal. If for a column, k, ck- zk is most negative and all entries in this column are negative, then the problem has an unbounded optimal solution. If one or more cj -zj< 0 (Minimization case), then select the variable to enter into the basis with the largest negative cj - zj value. That is,  EMBED Equation.3  Step 4: Determine the key row and key element in the same manner as discussed in the simplex algorithm of the maximization case. Remarks: At any iteration of the simplex algorithm any one of the following cases may arise: If at least one artificial variable is present in the basis with zero value and the coefficient of M in each cj - zj (j=1, 2 n) values is non-negative, then the given LP problem has no solution. That is, the current basic feasible solution is degenerate. If at least one artificial variable is present in the basis with positive value and the coefficient of M in each cj - zj (j= 1, 2, .,n) values is non-negative, then the given LP problem has no optimum basic feasible solution. In this case, the given LP problem has a pseudo optimum basic feasible solution. Example 1: Use the penalty (Big -M) method to solve the following LP problem. Minimize Z= 5x1+ 3x2 Subject to the constraints  EMBED Equation.3  Solution: Introducing slack variable s1, surplus variable, s2 and artificial variables A1 and A2 in the constraints of the given LP problem. The standard form of the LP problem is stated as follows: Minimize  EMBED Equation.3  Subject to the constraints  EMBED Equation.3  An initial basic feasible solution is obtained by letting x1 = x2 = s2 =0. Therefore, the initial basic feasible solution is: s1 =12, A1 = 10, A2 =10 and Min Z = 10 M + 10M =20M. Here it may be noted that the columns which corresponds to current basic variables and form the basis (identity matrix) are s1 (slack variable), A1 and A2 (both artificial variables). The initial basic feasible solution is given in Table 1. Since the value C1 - z1 = 5 -7M is the smallest value, therefore, x1 becomes the entering variable. To decide which basic variable should leave the basis, the minimum ratio is calculated as shown in Table 1. Table 1 Initial Solution Cj EMBED Equation.3 5300MMCost per Unit CBVariables in Basis B Solution Values b (=xB)X1X2S1S2A1A2Min Ratio xB/x10S112241 00012/2=6MA110220 01010/2=5MA21020-10110/5=2 EMBED Equation.3 Z*= 20MZj7M4M0-MMMCj - Zj5-7M  EMBED Equation.3 3-4M0 M00 Iteration 1: Introduce variable x1 into the basis and remove A2 from the basis by applying the following row operations. The new solution is shown in Table 2.  EMBED Equation.3  Table 2: Improved Solution Cj5300MCost per Unit CBVariables in Basis B Solution Values b (=xB)X1X2S1S2A1Min Ratio xB/x20S18016/512/508/(16/5)=5/2 EMBED Equation.3 MA1606/502/516/(6/5) =55X1212/50-1/502/(2/5) =5Z*= 10+6MZj5(6M/5)+20(2M/5)-1MCj - Zj0(-6M/5)+1  EMBED Equation.3 0(-2M/5)+10 Iteration 2: Since the value of c2 -z2 in Table .2 is largest negative value, variable x2 is chosen to enter into basis. For introducing variable x2 into the basis and to remove s1 from the basis we apply the following row operations. The new solution is shown in Table 3.  EMBED Equation.3  Table 3: Improved Solution Cj EMBED Equation.3 5300MCost per Unit CBVariables in Basis B Solution Values b (=xB)X1X2S1S2A1Min Ratio xB/S23X25/2015/161/80(5/2)/(1/8)=40MA1300-3/8 13/(1/4)=125X1110-1/8-1/40*Non-negativeZ*= 25/2+3MZj53-3M/8+5/16M/4-7/8MCj - Zj00 3M/8-5/16-M/4+7/8  EMBED Equation.3 0*the ratio should be non-negative Iteration 3: As c4 -z4 < 0 in s2- column, current solution is not optimal. Thus, introduce s2 into the basis and remove A1 from the basis by apply the following row operations:  EMBED Equation.3  Table 4.Optimal Solution Cj EMBED Equation.3 5300Cost per Unit CBVariables in Basis B Solution Values b (=xB)X1X2S1S23X21011/200S21200-3/215X1410-1/20Z*= 23Zj53-10Cj - Zj0010 In Table 4, all cj -zj  EMBED Equation.3 0. Thus, an optimal is arrived at with value of variables as: x1 =4, x2 = 1, s1 = 0, s2 = 12 and Min Z = 23.  Example 2: The ABC Printing Company is facing a tight financial squeeze and is attempting to cut cost wherever possible. At present it has only one printing contract and, luckily, the book is selling well in both the hardcover and paperback editions. It has just received a request to print more copies of this book in either the hardcover or paperback form. The printing cost for hardcover books is Birr 600 per 100 while that for paperback is only Birr 500 per 100. Although the company is attempting to economize, it does not wish to lay off any employee. Therefore, it feels obliged to run its two printing presses at least 80 and 60 hours per week, respectively. Press I can produce 100 hardcover books in 2 hours or 100 paperback books in l hour. Press II can produce 100 hardcover books in 1 hour or 100 paperbacks books in 2 hours. Determine how many books of each type should be printed in order to minimize costs. Solution: Let x1, x2 be the number of batches containing 100 hard cover and paperback books respectively, then the LP problem can be formulated as follows: Minimize Z=600x1 +500x2 Subject to the constraints  EMBED Equation.3  Standard form: By introducing surplus variables s1, s2 and artificial variables A1, A2 in the inequalities of the constraints, the standard form of the LP problem becomes; Minimize Z= 600x1 + 500x2 + 0s1 + 0s2 + MA1 + MA2 Subject to the constraints  EMBED Equation.3  Solution by simplex method: The initial feasible solution is obtained by setting x1=x2= s1 =s2 = 0. Then, we shall have A1 =80, A2 =60 and Min Z= 80M+ 60M = 140M This initial basic feasible solution is shown in Table 1. Table 1: Initial Solution Cj60050000MMCost per Unit CBVariables in Basis B Solution Values b (=xB)X1X2S1S2A1A2Min Ratio xB/X2MA18021-101080/1MA260120-0160/2 EMBED Equation.3 Z = 140MZj3M3M-M-MMMCj - Zj600-3M500-3M  EMBED Equation.3 MM00 As c2 -z2 value in x2- column of Table1 is largest negative, therefore enter variable x2 to replace basic variable A2 into the basis. For this, apply following row operations.  EMBED Equation.3  Table 2: Improved Solution Cj EMBED Equation.3 60050000MCost per Unit CBVariables in Basis B Solution Values b (=xB)X1X2S1S2A1Min Ratio xB/x1MA1503/20-10100/3 EMBED Equation.3 500x2301/210--1/2160Z= 15,000+50MZj3M/2+250500-MM/2-250MCj - Zj350-3M/2  EMBED Equation.3 0M250-M/20 As ci zj value in x1- column of Table 2 is largest negative, enter variable x1 to replace basic variable A1 into the basis. For this, apply row operations:  EMBED Equation.3  To get the new solution as shown in Table 3. Table .3 Optimal Solution Cj EMBED Equation.3 60050000Cost per Unit CBVariables in Basis B Solution Values b (=xB)X1X2S1S2600X1100/310-2/31/3500X240/3011/3-2/3Z= 80,000/3Zj600500-700/3-400/3Cj - Zj00700/3400/3 In Table .3, all the numbers in the cj-zj row are either zero or positive and also both artificial variables have been reduced to zero, an optimum solution has been arrived at with x1= 100/3 batches of hardcover books, x2 = 40/3 batches of paperback books, at a total minimum cost, Z=Birr 80,000/3. Example 3: An advertising agency wishes to reach two types of audiences: Customers with annual income greater than Birr 15,000 (target audience A) and customers with annual income less than Birr 15,000 (target audience B). The total advertising budget is birr 200,000. One programme of TV advertising costs birr 50,000; one programme on radio advertising cost birr 20,000. For contract reasons, at least three programmers ought to be on TV, and the number of radio programmers must be limited to five. Surveys indicate that a single TV programme reaches 450,000 customers in target audience A and 50,000 in target audience B. One radio programme reaches 20,000 in target audience A and 80,000 in target audience B. Determine the media mix to maximize the total reach. Solution: Let x1 and x2 be the number of insertions in TV and radio, respectively. Then, the LP problem can be formulated as follows: Maximize (total reach) Z = (450,000 +50,000) x1 + (20,000 + 80,000) x2 = 500,000 x1 + 100,000 x2 = 5x1 + x2 Subject to the constraints  EMBED Equation.3  Standard form: By introducing slack/surplus and/or artificial variables in the inequalities of the constraints to LP problem the standard form becomes: Maximize Z= 5x1 + x2 + 0s1 + 0s2 + 0s3 -MA1 Subject of the constraints  EMBED Equation.3  Solution by simplex method: An initial basic feasible solution is obtained by setting x1 = x2 = s2 =0. Thus, s1 = 20, A1 = 3, s3 = 5 and Max Z = -3/M. . Table 1 Initial Solution Cj EMBED Equation.3 51000-MCBVariables in Basis B Solution Values b (=xB)X1X2S1S2S3A1Min Ration xB/x10S12052100020/5/=4-MA23100-1013/1=3 EMBED Equation.3 0S35010010-Z=-3MZj-M00M0-MCj - ZjM+5  EMBED Equation.3 10-M00 As c1 - z1 value in x1 column of Table 1 is the largest positive value, enter variable x1 to replace basic variable A1 into the basis. For this apply following row operations:  EMBED Equation.3  To get the new solution as shown in Table 2 Table 2 Improved Solution Cj EMBED Equation.3 51000CBVariables in Basis B Solution Values b (=xB)X1X2S1S2S3Min Ration xB/s20S15021505/5 =15A23100-10-0S3501001-Z=15Zj500-50Cj - Zj0105  EMBED Equation.3 0 The Solution shown in Table 2 is not optimal as c4 - z4 value in s2-column is the largest positive. Thus, enter variable s2 to replace basic variable s1 into the basis. For this apply the following row operations:  EMBED Equation.3  Table 3 Optimal Solution Cj51000CBVariables in Basis B Solution Values b (=xB)X1X2S1S2S30S2102/51/5105X1412/51/5000S3501001Z=20Zj52100Cj - Zj0-1-100 Since all the numbers in the cj-zj row of Table 3 are either negative or zero, the total reach of target audience cannot be increased further. Hence, the optimal solution is: x1= 4 insertions in TV and x2 =0 in radio with Max (total audience) Z = 2000,000. SELF PRACTICE PROBLEMS VESTEL, a television company, has three major departments for the manufacture of its two models, A and B. The monthly capacities are given as follows: Per Unit Time Requirement (hours)Model AModel BHours Available this MonthDepartment I4.02.01,600Department II2.51.01,200Department III4.51.51,600 The marginal profit per unit from model A is Birr 400 and that of model B is Birr 100. Assuming that the company can sell any quantity of either product due to favorable market conditions, determine the optimum output for both the models, the highest possible profit for this month and the slack time in the three departments. Use the both the graphic and simplex method ELICO, A manufacturer of leather Products, makes three types of belts A, B and c which are processed on three machines M1, M2 and M3. Belt A requires 2 hours on machine M1 and 3 hours on machine M2 and 2 hours on machine M3. Belt B requires 3 hours on machine M1, 2 hours on machine M2 and 2 hour on machine M3 and Belt C requires 5 hours on machine M2 and 4 hours on machine M3. There are 8 hours of time per day available on machine M1, 10 hours of time per day available on machine M2 and 15 hours of time per day available on machine M3. The profit gained from belt A is birr 3.00 per unit, from Belt B is birr 5.00 per unit, from belt C is birr 4.00 per unit. What should be the daily production of each type of belt so that the profit is maximum? A company produces three products A, B and C. These products require three ores 01, 02 and 03. The maximum quantities of the ores 01, 02 and 03 available are 22 tones, 14 tones and 14 tones, respectively. The tones of each of these products ore requirement are: ABC013 -30212303323Profit per tone (Birr in thousands)145 The company makes a profit of Birr 1000, 4000 and 5000 on each tone of the Products A, B and C respectively. How many tones of each product should the Company produce to maximize its profits? A manufacturing firm has discontinued production of a certain unprofitable product line. This has created considerable excess production capacity. Management is considering to devote this excess capacity to one or more of three products: product 1, 2 and 3. The available capacity on the machines which might limit output is summarized in the following table: Machine TypeAvailable Time (in Machine- hours per Week)Milling Machine 250Lather 150Grinder 50 The number of machine-hour required for each unit of the respective product is as follows Machine Type Productivity in Machine-hours per Unit)Product 1Product 2Product 3Milling Machine 823Lathe 430Grinder2-1 The profit per unit would be Birr 20, Birr 6, and Birr 8 respectively for product 1, 2 and 3. Find how much of each product the firm should produce in order to maximize profit. 2.5: Duality Theory and Sensitivity Analysis (post optimality Analysis)  2.5.1. Introduction: In the previous sections, we have discussed the nature, formulation and solution to linear programming problems, using graphic approach and by application of simplex method. Besides yielding solution to a problem, the simplex method provides a host of additional information which is useful from the management viewpoint. This part gives an account of this and is divided broadly into two distinct but related parts-duality and sensitivity analysis. Sensitivity analysis or postoptimality analysis carries the LP problem beyond the determination of the optimal solution. It begins with the final simplex tableau. Its purpose is to explore how changes in any of the parameters of a problem, such as the coefficients of the constraints, the coefficients of the objective function, or the right hand side values would affect the solution. This kind of analysis can be quite beneficial to a decision maker in a number of ways. First we discuss about the duality which describes that linear programming problems exist in parts so that corresponding to every given linear programming problem, there is another LPP. The method of deriving the dual to a problem is followed by a discussion on the economic interpretation of the dual problem. Sensitivity analysis deals with the robustness of a solution to an LPP to changes in the inputs. It thus discusses how changes in the profit rates of the products, resource availability and resource requirements for the products would affect the solution to a linear programming problem.  DUALITY IN LINEAR PROGRAMMING The term dual in general sense implies two or double. The concept of duality is very useful in mathematics, physics, and statistics, engineering and managerial decision-making. For example, in two-person game theory, one competitors problem is the dual of the opponents problem. In the context of linear programming, duality implies that each linear programming problem can be analyzed in two different ways but having equivalent solutions. Each LP problem (both maximization and minimization) stated in its original form has associated with another linear programming problem (called dual linear programming problem or inshore dual), which is unique, based on the same data. In general, it is immaterial which of the two problems is called primal or dual, since the dual of the dual is primal. For example, consider the problem of production planning. By using primal LP problem, the production manager attempts to optimize resource allocation by determining quantities for each product to be produced that will maximize profit. But through dual LP problem approach, he attempts to achieve production plan that optimize resource allocation so that each product is produced at that quantity such that its marginal opportunity cost equals its marginal return. Thus, the main focus of dual is to find for each resource its best marginal value or shadow price. This value reflects the scarcity of the resources, i.e. the maximum additional prices to be paid to obtain one additional unit of the resources to maximize profit under the resource constraints. If a resource is not completely used, i.e. there is slack, and then its marginal value is zero. The shadow price is also defined as the rate of change in the optimal objective function value with respect to the unit change in the availability of resource. Precisely for any constraint, we have: Shadow price = Change in optimal objective function value Unit change in the availability of resource The format of the simplex method is such that solving one type of problem is equivalent to solving the other simultaneously. Thus, if the optimal solution to one is known, the optimal solution of the other can also be read from the cj zj row of the final simplex table. In some cases, considerable computing time can be reduced by solving the dual. 2.5.2. FORMAULATION OF DUAL LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEM There are two important forms of primal and dual problems, namely the symmetrical (canonical) form and the standard form. 2.5.2.1. Symmetrical Form Suppose the primal LP problem is given in the form Maximize Zx = c1x1 + c2x2 + . . . + cnxn Subject to the constraints a11x1 + a12x2 + . . . + a1nxn d" b1 a21x1 + a22x2 + . . . + a2nxn d" b2 . . . . . . am1x1 + am2x2 + . . . + amnxn d" bm x1, x2 . . . xn e" 0 and Then, the corresponding dual LP problem is defined as: Minimize Zy = b1y1 + b1y2 + . . . bmym Subject to the constraints: a11y1 + a21y2 + . . . + am1ym d" c1 a12y1 + a22y2 + . . . + am2ym d" c2 . . . . . . a1ny1 + a2ny2 + . . . + amnym d" cn and y1,y2, . . ., ym e" 0 EMBED Equation.3  The above pair of LP problems can be expressed in the general LP model form as primalDual  EMBED Equation.3  Subject to the constraints   EMBED Equation.3  Min  EMBED Equation.3  Subject to the constraints   EMBED Equation.3  and  EMBED Equation.3   A summary of the general relationships between primal and dual LP problems is given in the Table below. Table 1 Primal-Dual Relationship If primalThen DualObjective is to maximize Variable xj Constraint i Variables Xj unrestricted in sign Constraint i is = type d" type constraints xj is unrestricted in signObjective is to minimize Constraint j Variable yi Constraint j is = type Variable yi is unrestricted in sign e" type constraints jth constraint is an equation Economic Interpretation: In the maximization primal LP model, we may define each parameter as follows: Z = return cj = return per unit of variable xj Xj = number units of variable j aij = units of resource, i consumed bi = units of resource, i available (required) per unit of variable j. The new variables introduced in the dual problem are Zy and yi (dual variables). Since Zx = Zy , therefore, Zy is also in terms of return. The interpretation associated with the dual variables yi (i = 1, 2 . . . , m) is discussed below. We can rewrite the primal LP problem in terms of new terminology as follows:  Primal LP problem Maximize (return)  EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3 (Return per unit of variable EMBED Equation.3 ) (Units of variable EMBED Equation.3 ) Subject to the constraints  EMBED Equation.3  Or  EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3 (Units of resource i, consumed per unit of variable, EMBED Equation.3 ) (Units of variable, EMBED Equation.3 )  EMBED Equation.3  Units of resource available, i available). and  EMBED Equation.3  EMBED Equation.3 ,for all j. Dual LP problem: Minimize (cost)  EMBED Equation.3  Or  EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3  (units of resource i,) (cost per unit of resource, i) Subject to the constraints  EMBED Equation.3  Or  EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3  (Units of resource j, consumed per unit of variable, EMBED Equation.3 ) (Cost per Unit of resource, i)  EMBED Equation.3  return per unit of variable,  EMBED Equation.3 . and  EMBED Equation.3  EMBED Equation.3 0, for all i.  From the above expression of parameters of both primal and dual problems, it is clear that for the unit of measurement to be consistent, the dual variable ( EMBED Equation.3 ) must be expressed in terms of return (or worth) per unit of resource i and is called dual price or shadow price of resource i. In other words, optimal value of a dual variable associated with a particular primal constraint gives the marginal change (increase, if positive or decrease, if negative) in the optimal value of the primal objective function for a marginal increase (or decrease) in the right hand side constant value (resource) of that constraint. For example, if y2 = 5, it indicates that, for every additional unit (up to a certain limit) of resource 2 (resource associated with constraint 2 in the primal), the objective function value will increase by five units. The value y2 = 5 is called the marginal (or shadow or implicit) value or price of resource 2. 2.5.2.2. Rules for Constructing the Dual from Primal The rules for constructing the dual from the primal or primal from the dual when using the symmetrical form are: If the objective function of the primal is to be maximized, the objective function of the dual becomes minimization and vice versa. For a maximization primal with all d" (less that or equal to) type constraints, there exists a minimization dual problem with all e" (greater than or equal to) type constraints and vice versa. Thus, the inequality sign is reversed in all the constraints except the non-negativity conditions. Each constraint in the primal corresponds to a dual variable in the dual and vice versa. Thus, given a primal problem with m constraints and n variables, there exists a dual problem with m variables and n constraints. The right hand side constants b1, b2, . . . , bm of the primal becomes the coefficients of the dual variables y1, y2, . . . ym in the dual objective function Zy. Also the coefficients c1, c2, . . ., cn of the primal variables x1, x2, . . . xn in the objective function become the right hand side constants in the dual. The matrix of the coefficients of variables in the constraints of dual is the transpose of the matrix of coefficients of variables in the constraints of primal and vice versa. That is, coefficients of the primal variables x1, x2, . . ., xn in the constraints of primal LP problem are the coefficients of dual variables in first, second, . . ., nth, constraints for the dual problem, respectively. If the ith dual variable is unrestricted in sign, then jth primal constraint is = (equality) type and vice versa. The primal-dual relationships may also be remembered conveniently by using the following table: Dual variables Primal variables x1 x2 . . . X EMBED Equation.3 Maximum Zx  EMBED Equation.3    EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3  EMBED Equation.3    EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3  Minimum Zy EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3  The primal constraints should be read across the rows and the dual constraints should be read across the columns. Example.1: Write the dual to the following Lp problem: Maximize Z EMBED Equation.3  Subject to the constraints X1 + X2 + X3  EMBED Equation.3  2X1 - 0X2 X3  EMBED Equation.3  2X1 2X2 - 3X3  EMBED Equation.3  And X1, X2, X3  EMBED Equation.3  Solution: In the given LP problem there are m = 3 constraints and n = 3 variables. Thus, there must be m = 3 dual variables and n = 3 constraints. Further, the coefficients of the primal variables, c1 = 1, c2 = -1, c3 = 3 become right hand side constants of the dual. The right hand side constants b1 = 10, b2 = 2, b3 = 6 become the coefficients in the dual objective function. Finally, the dual must have a minimizing objective function with all e" type constraints. If y1,y2 and y3 are dual variables corresponding to three primal constraints in the given order, the resultant dual is: Minimize Zy = 10y1 + 2y2 + 6y3 Subject to the constraints Y1 + 2y2 + 2y3 e" 1 Y1  0y2  2y3 e"-1 Y1  y2  3y3 e" 3 And Y1, y2, y3 e" 0 Example .2 Write the dual of the following LP problem Minimize Zx = 3x1  2x2 + 4x3 Subject to the constraints 3x1 + 5x2 + 4x3 e" 7 6x1 + x2 + 3x3 e" 4 7x1  2x2 - x3 d" 10 x1  2x2 + 5x3 e" 3 4x1 + 7x2  2x3 e" 2 And x1, x2,x3 e" 0 Solution: Since the objective function of the given LP problem is of minimization, the direction of each inequality has to be changed to e" type by multiplying on both sides by  1. The standard primal LP problem so obtained is: Minimize Zx = 3x1  2x2 + 4x3 Subject to the constraints 3x1 + 5x2 + 4x3 e" 7 6x1 + x2 + 3x3 e" 4 -7x1 + 2x2 + x3 e" -10 x1  2x2 + 5x3 e" 3 4x1 + 7x2 + 2x3 e" 2 and x1, x2, x3 e" 0 If y1, y2, y3, y4 and y5 are dual variables corresponding to the five primal constraints in the given order, the dual of this primal LP problem is stated as: Maximize Zy = 7y1 + 4y2  10y3 + 3y4 + 2y5 Subject to the constraints 3y1 + 6y2  7y3 + y4 + 4y5 d" 3 5y1 + y2 + 2y3 - 2y4 + 7y5 d" -2 4y1 + 3y2 + y3 + 5y4  2y5 d" 4 y1, y2, y3, y4, y5 e" 0 Example 3: Obtain the dual problem of the following primal LP problem: Minimize Z = x1 + 2x2 Subject to the constraints 2x1 + 4x2 d" 160 x1  x2 = 30 x1 e" 10 and x1, x2 e" 0 Solution: Transform all d" type constraints to e" type constraints by multiplying the constraint on both sides by -1. Also write = type constraint equivalent to two constraints of the type e" and d". Then the given primal problem can be written as: Minimize Zx = x1 + 2x2 Subject to the constraint -2x1  4x2 e" -160 x1 - x2 e" 30 x1  x2 d" - 30 or -x1 + x2 e" -30 x1 e" 10 and x1, x2 e" 0 Let y1, y2, y3 and y4 be the dual variables corresponding to the four constraints in the given order, then the dual of the given primal problem can be formulated as follows: Maximize Zy = -160y1 + 30y2  30y3 + 10y4 Subject to the constraints -2y1 + y2  y3 + y4 d" 1 -4y1  y2 + y3 d" 2 y1, y2, y3, y4 e" 0 and Let y = y2  y3 (y2 ,y3 e" 0). Then the above dual problem reduces to the form Maximize Zy = -160y1 + 30y + 10y4 Subject to the constraints -2y1 + y + y4 d" 1 -4y1  y d" 2 And y1,y4 e" 0; y being unrestricted in sign to apply rule 6, note that the second constraint in the primal is equality, therefore, the corresponding second dual variable y (= y2 y3) should be unrestricted in sign. Example 4. Obtain the dual problem of the following primal LP problem: Minimize Zx = x1 3x2 2x3 Subject to the constraints 3x1 x2 + 2x3 d" 7 2x1  4x2 e" 12 -4x1 + 3x2 + 8x3 = 10 x1, x2 e" 0; x3 unrestricted in sign. Solution: Since x3 is an unrestricted variable, therefore, it can be expressed as the difference of two non- negative variables, i.e. x3 = x 3  x3 , x 3, x3 e" 0. Then the given LP problem can be written as: Minimize Zx = x1  3x2  2 (x 3  x3 ) Subject to the constraints 3x1  x2 + 2(x 3  x  3 ) d" 7 or -3x1 + x2 -2 (x 3  x  3 ) e" -7 2x1  4x2 e" 12 -4x1 + 3x2 + 8(x 3  x  3 ) = 10 x1, x2, x 3, x3  e" 0 Let y1, y2 and y3 be the dual variables corresponding to three primal constraints in the given order. As the given problem is of minimization, all constraints can be converted to e" type by multiplying both sides by -1. Since the third constraint of the primal is an equation, the third dual variable y3 will be unrestricted in sign. Now the dual of the given primal can be formulated as follows: Maximize Zy = 7y1 + 12y2 + 10y3 Subject to the constraints -3y1 + 2y2  4y3 d" 1 y1  4y2 + 3y3 d" -3 -2y1 + 8y3 d" -2 y1, y2 e" 0; y3 unrestricted in sign. Example 5:- Obtain the dual of the following primal LP problem Maximize Zx = x1  2x2 + 3x3 Subject to the constraints -2x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 2 2x1 + 3x2 + 4x3 = 1 And x1, x2, x3 e" 0 Solution: Since both the primal constraints are equality type, corresponding dual variables y1 and y2, will be unrestricted in sign. Following the rules of duality formulation, the dual of the given primal LP problem is: Minimize Zy = 2y1 + y2 Subject to the constraints -2y1 + 2y2 e" 1 y1 + 3y2 e" -2 3y1 + 4y2 e" 3 y1, y2 unrestricted in sign. Example 6:- Write the dual of the following primal LP problem Maximize Z = 3x1 + x2 + 2x3  x4 Subject to the constraints 2x1  x2 + 3x3 + x4 = 1 x1 + x2  x3 + x4 = 3 x1, x2 e" 0 and x3, x4 unrestricted in sign Solution: Here we may apply the following rules of forming a dual of the given primal LP problem. The x3 and x4 variables in the primal are unrestricted in sign. Therefore, the third and fourth constraints in the dual shall be equalities. The given primal problem is of maximization. Therefore, the first two constraints in the dual will be e" type constraints. Since both the constraints in the primal are equalities the corresponding dual variables y1 and y2 will be unrestricted in sign. If y1 and y2 are dual variables corresponding to the two primal constraints in the given order, the dual of the given primal can be written as: Minimize Zy = y1 + 3y2 Subject to the constraints 2y1 + y2 e" 3 -y1 + y2 e" 1 3y1  y2 = 2 y1 + y2 = -1 y1, y2 unrestricted in sign. CHAPTER 3: TRANSPORTATION AND ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS 3.1. TRANSPORTATION PROBLEMS One important application of linear programming is in the area of physical distribution (transportation) of goods and services from several supply origins to several demand destinations. It is easy to express a transportation problem mathematically in terms of an LP model, which can be solved by the simplex method. But because it involves a large number of variables and constraints, it takes a long time to solve it. However, transportation algorithms, namely the Stepping Stone Method and the MODI (Modified Distribution) Method, have been developed for this purpose. The structure of transportation problem involves a large number of shipping routes from several supply origins to several demand destinations. The places where goods originate from (like plants, warehouses etc.) are called the sources or the origins and places where they are to be shipped to are the called the destinations. Objective: The objective is to determine the number of unit which should be shipped from an origin to a destination in order to satisfy the required quantity of goods or services at each demand destination, within the limited quantity of goods or services available at each supply origin, at the minimum transportation cost and/or time. The transportation algorithm discussed in this chapter applies to minimize the total cost of transporting a homogeneous commodity (product) from supply origins to demand destinations. However, in can also be applied to the maximization of some total value or utility, for example, financial resources are distributed in such a way that the profitable return is maximized. There are various types of transportation models and the simplest of them was first presented by LF Hitchcock (1941). It was further developed by T.C. Koopmans (1949) and GB Dantzig (1951). Several extensions of transportation model and methods have been subsequently developed.  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  3.1.1. MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF TRANSPORTATION PROBLEM A transportation problem typically involves a set of sending locations, which are referred to as origins and a set of receiving locations, which are referred to destinations. In order to develop a model of a transportation problem, it is necessary to have the following information: Supply quantity (capacity) of each origin. Demand quantity of each destination. Unit transportation cost for each origin-destination route. The transportation algorithm requires the assumption that all goods be homogeneous, so that any origin is capable of supplying any destination and the assumption that transportation costs are a direct linear function of the quantity shipped over any route. Let us consider Example 1 to illustrate the mathematical model formulation of transportation problem of transporting single commodity from three sources of supply to four demand destinations. The sources of supply are production facilities, warehouses, or supply point characterized by available capacities. The destinations are consumption facilities, warehouses or demand points, characterized by required levels or demand. Example 1: A Company has three production facilities s1, s2 and s3 with production capacity of 7, 9 and 18 units (in 100s) per week of a product, respectively. These units are to be shipped to four warehouses D1, D2, D3 and D4 with requirement of 5, 6, 7 and 14 units (in 100s) per week, respectively. The transportation cost (in birr) per unit between the warehouses is in the table below. D1D2D3D4Capacity S1193050107S2703040609S3408702018Demand 5871434 Formulate this transportation problem as an LP model to minimize the total transportation cost. Model Formulation: Let xij = number of units of the product to be transported from factory i (i=1,2,3) to warehouse j (j=1,2,3,4) The transportation problem is stated as an LP model as follows: Minimize (Total transportation cost) Z = 19x11 + 30x12 + 50x13 + 10x14 + 70x21 +30 x22 + 40x23 + 60x24 +40x31 + 8x32 +70x33 + 20x34 Subject to the constraints Capacity constraints  EMBED Equation.3  Requirement constraints  EMBED Equation.3  And In the above LP model, there are m x n = 3 x 4 =12, decision variables, xij and m + n = 7 constraints, where m are the number of rows and n are the number of columns in a general transportation table. In general: Let there be m sources of supply, S1, S2, Sm having ai (i=1,2,,m ( units of supply (or capacity) respectively, to be transported among n destinations, D1, D2, ,Dn with bj (j=1,2,,n) units of demand (or requirement) respectively and Let cij be the cost of shipping one unit of the commodity from source i to destination j for each route. If xij represents number of units shipped per route from source i to destination j, the problem is to determine the transportation schedule so as to minimize the total transportation costs satisfying supply and demand conditions. Mathematically, the problem in general may be stated as follows: Minimize (Total cost) Z =  EMBED Equation.3  (1) Subject to the constraints  EMBED Equation.3  (2)  EMBED Equation.3  (3) and  EMBED Equation.3  (4) For easy presentation and solution, a transportation problem data is generally presented as shown in Table 3.1. Existence of Feasible Solution: A necessary and sufficient condition for the existence of a feasible solution to the transportation problem (1) and (4) is: Total supply = Total demand  EMBED Equation.3  That is, the total capacity (or supply) must equal total requirement (or demand). Table 3.1 General Transportation Table From /ToD1D2DnSupply aiS1C11 C12 C1n a1S2C21 C22 C2n a2 EMBED Equation.3  EMBED Equation.3  EMBED Equation.3  EMBED Equation.3  EMBED Equation.3 SmCml Cm2 Cmn amDemand bjb1b2bn EMBED Equation.3 In this problem, there are (m + n) constraints and m x n variables. Since all (m + n) constraints are equations, there is one extra (redundant) equation on account of two way rim conditions (supply and demand conditions). The extra constraint can be derived from the other constraints without affecting the feasible solution. It follows that that any feasible solution for a transportation problem must have exactly (m + n -1) non- negative basic decision variables xij (or allocations) satisfying rim conditions. BALANCED AND UNBALANCED TRASPORTATION PROBLEMS: When the total supply equals total demand, the problem is called a balanced transportation problem, otherwise an unbalanced transportation problem. The unbalanced transportation problem can be made balanced by adding a dummy supply centre (row) or a dummy demand centre (column) as the need arises. DEGENERATE AND NON-DEGENERATE SOLUTIONS When the number of positive allocations (values of decision variables) at any stage of the feasible solution is less than the required number (row + columns -1), i e. number of independent constraint equations, the solution is said to be degenerate, otherwise non-degenerate. OCCUPIED AND NON-OCCUPIED CELLS Cells in the transportation table having positive allocation will be called occupied cells, otherwise empty or non- occupied cells. 3.1.2. SOLUTION TO THE TRANSPORTAION PROBLEMS A transportation problem can be solved by two methods: The Simplex Method and Transportation Method. But the solution in the case of the simplex method is going to be very lengthy and a cumbersome process because of the involvement of a large number of decision and artificial variables. Hence we look for an alternate solution procedure called the transportation method which is an efficient one that yields results faster and with less computational effort. A significant point of difference between the simplex and the transportation methods is regarding the determination of initial basic feasible solution. As we use simplex method to solve a minimization problem, we must add artificial variables to make the solution artificially feasible. As we progress from one tableau to another, the artificial variables are dropped one after the other as they become non-basic. Then eventually an optimal solution is obtained where all the artificial variables are excluded. The transportation method obviates the need to use artificial variables because with this method it is fairly easy to find an initial solution that is feasible, without using the artificial variables. 3.1.2.1. THE TRANSPORTATION METHOD The solution algorithm to a transportation problem may be summarized into the following steps: Step 1: Formulate the Problem and Set up in the Matrix Form. The formulation of transportation problem is similar to the LP problem formulation. Here the objective function is the total transportation cost and the constraints are the supply and demand available at each source and destination, respectively. Step 2: Obtain an initial basic feasible solution In this chapter, we shall discuss following three different methods to obtain and initial solution: North- West Corner( NWC)Method, Least Cost Method(LCM), and Vogels Approximation (or penalty) Method (VAM). The initial solution obtained by any of the three methods must satisfy the following conditions: The solution must be feasible, i.e. it must satisfy all the supply and demand constraints (also called rim conditions). The number of positive allocations must be equal to m + n - 1, when m is the number of rows and n is the number of columns. Any solution that satisfies the above conditions is called non-degenerate basic feasible solution, otherwise, degenerate solution. Step 3: Test the initial solution for optimality In this chapter, we shall discuss the Stepping- Stone and the Modified Distribution (MODI) method to test the optimality of the solution obtained in Step 2. If the current solution is optimal, then stop. Otherwise, determine a new improved solution. Step 4: Updating the solution Repeat Step 3 until an optimal solution is reached. 3.1.2.2. METHODS FOR FINDING INITIAL SOLUTION There are several methods available to obtain an initial basic feasible solution. Here we shall discuss only three different methods: 3.1.2.2.1 North- West Corner Method (NWCM) It is a simple and efficient method to obtain an initial solution. This method does not take into account the cost of transportation on any route of transportation. The method can be summarized as follows: Step 1: Start with the cell at the upper left (north-west) corner of the transportation matrix and allocate as much as possible equal to minimum of the rim values for the first row and first column, i.e. min (a1, b1). Step 2: (a). If allocation made in Step 1 is equal to the supply available at first source (a1, in first row), then move vertically down to the cell (2, 1) in the second row and first column and apply Step 1 again, for next allocation. (b). If allocation made in Step 1 is equal to the demand of the first destination (b1 in first column), then move horizontally to the cell (1, 2) in the first row and second column and apply Step 1 again for next allocation. (c). If a1 = b1, allocate x11 = a1 or b1 and move diagonally to the cell (2, 2). Step 3: Continue the procedure step by step till an allocation is made in the south-east corner cell of the transportation table. Note: If during the process of making allocation at a particular cell, supply equals demand; the next allocation of magnitude zero can be made in a cell either in the next row or column. This condition is known degeneracy. Illustration: Taking data of Example.1, the initial solution using NWCM and total transportation cost is calculated as follows and is shown in Table 3.2. The cell (S1, D1) is the North-West corner cell in the given transportation table. The rim values for row S1 and column D1 are compared. The smaller of the two, i.e 5, assigned as the first allocation; otherwise it will violate the feasibility condition. This means that 5 units of a commodity are to be transported from source S1 to destination D1. However, this allocation leaves a supply of 7-5 =2 units of commodity at S1. Move horizontally and allocate as much as possible to cell (S1, D2). The rim value for row S1 is 2 and for column D2 is 8. The smaller of the two, i.e.2, is placed in the cell. Proceeding to row S2, since demand of D1 has been met; nothing further can be allocated to D1. The unfulfilled demand of D2 is now 8-2 = 6 unit. This can be fulfilled by S2 with capacity of 9 units. So, 6 units are allocated to cell (S2, D2). The demand of D2 is now satisfied and a balance of 9-6 = 3 units remains with S2. Table 3.2 Initial Solution using NWCM FROM/ TOD1D2D3D4Supply S119 3050107S2703040 609S340870 20 18Demand 5871434 By moving in the same manner horizontally and vertically as successive demand and supply are met, we ensure that the solution is feasible, that is, the number of positive allocations (occupied cells) is equal to m + n - 1 = 3 + 4 - 1 = 6 The total transportation cost of the initial solution derived by the NWCM is obtained by multiplying the quantity xij in the occupied cells with the corresponding unit cost cij and adding. Thus, the total transportation cost of this solution is Total Cost = 5 x 19 + 2 x 30 +6 x 30 + 3 x 40 + 4 x 70 + 14 x 20 = Birr 1,015 3.1.2.2.2. Least Cost Method (LCM) Since the objective is to minimize the total transportation cost, we must try to transport as much as possible through those routes (cells) where the unit transportation cost is lowest. This method takes into account the minimum unit cost of transportation for obtaining initial solution and can be summarized as follows: Step 1: Select the cell with the lowest unit cost in the entire transportation table and allocate as mush as possible to this cell and eliminate (line out) that row or column in which either supply or demand is exhausted. If both a row and a column are satisfied simultaneously, only one may be crossed out. In case the smallest unit cost cell is not unique, then select the cell where maximum allocation can be made. Step 2: After adjusting the supply and demand for all uncrossed-out rows and columns repeat the procedure with the next lowest unit cost among the remaining rows and columns of the transportation table and allocate as much as possible to this cell and eliminate (line out) that row and column in which either supply or demand is exhausted. Step 3: Repeat the procedure until the entire available supply at various sources and demand at various destinations is satisfied. The solution so obtained need not be non-degenerate. Illustration: Taking data on Example1. The initial solution using LCM and total transportation cost is calculated as follows: The cell with lowest unit cost (i.e. 8) is (S3, D2). The maximum unit which we can allocate to this cell is 8. This meets the complete demand of D2 and leaves 10 units with S3, as shown in Table 3. In the reduced table without column D2, the next smallest unit transportation cost, is 10 cells (S1, D4). The maximum which can be allocated to this cell is 7. This exhausts the capacity of S1 and leaves 7 unit with D4 as unsatisfied demand as shown in Table 3.3. Table 3.3 D1D2D3D4Supply S119 305010 7S2703040 3609S3408 70 420 18Demand 5871434 In Table 3.3, the next smallest cost is 20 in cell (S3, D4). The maximum allocation in this cell could be 7 units. This satisfies the entire demand of D4 and leaves 3 with S3 as remaining supply as shown in Table 3.4. In Table 3.4, the next smallest unit cost cell is not unique. That is, there are two cells (S2, D3) and (S3, D1) having same unit transportation cost 40. Allocate 7 units in cell (S2, D3) first because it can accommodate more units as compared to cell (S3 D1), and allocate 3 units (only supply left with S3) in cell (S3, D1). The remaining demand of 2 units of D1 is fulfilled from S2. Since supply and demand at each origin and destination is exhausted, the initial solution is arrived at, and is shown in Table 3.4 Table 3.4: INTIAL SOLUTION USING LCM D1D2D3D4Supply S119 305010 7S270 3040 7609S340 8 70 20 18Demand 5871434 The total transportation cost of the initial solution by LCM is calculated as given below: Total cost = 7 x 10 +2 x 70 + 7 x 40 + 3 x 40 + 8 x 8 + 7 x 20 = Birr 814. The total transportation cost obtained by LCM is less than the cost obtained by NWCM. The optimal solution can also be obtained faster by using LCM. 3.1.2.2.3. Vogels Approximation Method (VAM) Vogels approximation (penalty or regret) method is a heuristic method and is preferred to the other two methods described above. In this method, each allocation is made on the basis of the opportunity (or penalty or extra) cost that would have been incurred if allocations in certain cells with minimum unit transportation cost were missed. In this method allocations are made so that the penalty cost is minimized. The advantage of this method is that is gives and initial solution which is nearer to an optimal solution or is the optimal solution itself. The steps in VAM are as follows: Step 1: Calculate penalties for each row (column) by taking the difference between the smallest and next smallest unit transportation cost in the same row (column). This difference indicates the penalty or extra cost which has to be paid if one fails to allocate to the cell with the minimum unit transportation cost. Step 2: Select the row or column with the largest penalty and allocate as much as possible in the cell having the least cost in selected row or column satisfying the rim conditions. If there is a tie in the values of penalties, it can be broken by selecting the cell where maximum allocation can be made. Step 3: Adjust the supply and demand and cross out the satisfied row or column. If a row and column are satisfied simultaneously, only one of them is crossed out and the remaining row (column) is assigned a zero supply (demand). Any row or column with zero supply or demand should not be used in computing future penalties. Step 4: Repeat steps 1 to 3 until the entire available supply at various sources and demand at various destinations are satisfied. Illustration: Taking data of Example.1, the use of VAM to obtain initial solution is illustrated in Table 3.5. As shown in Table 3.5 differences (penalty costs) for each row and column have been calculated. In the first round, the maximum penalty, 22 occurs in column D2. Thus, the cell (S3, D2) having the least transportation cost 8 is chosen for allocation. The maximum possible allocation in this cell is 8 and it satisfies demand in column D2. Adjust the supply of S3 from 18 to 10 (18 - 8= 10). Table 3.5 INITIAL SOLUTION USING VAM D1D2D3D4Supply Row differences 1 2 3 4 S119 305010 7994040S2703040 60 910202020S3408 7020 18122050-Demand 5871434Column21221010 1Differences21 - -- - -10 10 1010 2 10 3 50 4 The new row and column penalties are calculated except column D2 because its demand has been satisfied. The second round allocation is made in column D1 with target penalty 21 in the same way as in the first round as shown in cell (S1, D1) of Table 3.5. In the third round, the maximum penalty 50 occurs at S3. The maximum possible allocation of 10 units is made in cell (S3, D4) having least transportation cost 20 as shown in Table 3.5. The process is continued with new allocations till a complete solution is obtained. The initial solution using VAM is shown in Table 3.5. The total transportation cost associated this method is calculated as: Total cost = 5 x 19 + 2 x 10 + 7 x 40 + 2 x 60 + 8 x 8 + 10 x 20 = Birr 779 Example .2: A dairy firm has three plants located in a state. The daily milk production at each plant is as follows: Plant 1: 6 million liters, Plant 2: 1 million liters, and Plant 3: 10 million liters Each day, the firm must fulfill the needs of its four distribution centers. Minimum requirement at each centre is as follows: Distribution centre 1: 7 million liters Distribution centre 2: 5 million liters. Distribution centre 3: 3 million liters, and Distribution centre 4: 2 million liters Cost in hundreds of Birr of shipping one million liters from each plant to each distribution centre is given in the following table: D1D2D3D4 Plant P123117P21061P358159 Find initial basic feasible solution for the given problem by using: North- west corner rule Least cost method Vogels approximation method If the object is to minimize the total transportation cost. Solution: (a). North- West Corner Rule Table 3.6 Distribution Centre Plant Demand  P1 D2 P3D1D2D3D4Supply 6 = a1 1 = a2 10 = a32 31171 06158 15 9 7=b15 = b23 = b32 = b4 Comparing a1 and b1 since a1 < b1; allocate x11 = 6. This exhausts the supply at P1 and leaves 1 unit as unsatisfied demand at D1. Move to cell (P2, D1). Compare a2 and b1 (i.e. 1 and 1). Since a2 = b1 allocate x21 = 1. Move to cell (P3, D2). Since supply at P3, is equal to the demand at D2, D3 and D4, therefore, allocate x32 = 5, x33 = 3 and x34 = 2. It may be noted that the number of allocated cells (also called basic cells) are 5 which is one less than the required number m + n - 1 (3 + 4 - 1 = 6). Thus, this solution is the degenerate solution. The transportation cost associated with this solution is: Total cost = Birr (2 x 6 + 1 x 1 + 8 x 5 + 15 x 3 + 9 x 2) x 100 = Birr 11,600 (b): Least Cost Method Table 3.6 Distribution Centers Plant Demand  P1 D2 P3D1D2D3D4Supply 6 1 10 2 31171 0 6158 15 9  75 3 2  The lowest unit cost in Table 3.7 is 0 in cell (P2, D2,); therefore maximum possible allocation which can be made here is 1. This exhausts the supply at plant P2, therefore, row 2 is crossed out. The next lowest unit cost is 2 in cell (P1, D1) the maximum possible allocation which can be made here is 6. This exhausts the supply at plant P1. Therefore, row P1 is crossed out. Since the total supply at plant P3 is now equal to the unsatisfied demand at all the four distribution centers, therefore, maximum possible allocations satisfying the supply and demand conditions are made in cells (P3, D1), (P3, D2), (P3, P3) and (P3,D4). The number of allocated cells in this case are six which is equal to the required number m + n - 1 (3 + 4 - 1 = 6 ). Thus, this solution is non- degenerate. The transportation cost associated with this solution is Total cost = Birr (2 x 6 + 5 x 1 + 8 x 4 + 15 x 3 + 9 x 2) x 100 =Birr 11,200 (c) Vogels Approximation Method The method is self- explanatory as shown in Table 3.8. Table 3.8 Distribution Centers P1 Plant P2 P3D1D2D3D4Supply Row differences  2 3 11761151061 10--5 815 9 10334Demand 7532 Column penalty 1 33 55 46 23-42The number of allocated cells in Table 3.8 is six, which is equal to the required number m + n - 1 (3 + 4 - 1 = 6), therefore, this solution is non- degenerate. The transportation cost associated with this solution is Total cost = Birr (2 x 1 + 3 x 5 + 1 x 1 + 5 x 6 + 15 x 3 + 9 x 1) x 100 = Birr 10,200. it can be seen that the total transportation cost found by VAM is lower than those determined by the other two methods. Therefore, it is of advantage to use this method in order to reduce computational time required to obtain optimum solution REVIEW QUESTIONS With reference to a transportation problem define the following terms: (i) Feasible solution (ii) Basic feasible solution (iii) Optimal solution (iv). Non- degenerate base feasible solution Given a mathematical formulation of the transportation problem and the simplex methods, what are the differences in the nature of problems that can be solved by these methods? Describe the transportation problem with its general mathematical formulation. Show that a transportation problem is a special type of LP problem. In what areas of management can the transpiration model be use effectively? Discuss. What are the characteristics of transportation problem of linear programming? What is meant by non- degenerate basic feasible solution of a transportation problem? Explain in brief three methods of initial feasible solution for transportation problem? Explain the (i) North-West Corner method, (ii) Least-Cost method, and (iii) Vogels Approximation method for obtaining an initial basic feasible solution of transportation problem. State the transportation problem. Describe clearly the steps involved in solving it. Is the transportation model and example of decision-making under certainty or under uncertainty? Why? Why does Vogels approximation method provide a good initial feasible solution? SELF PRACTICE PROBLEMS Determine an initial basic feasible solution to the following transportation problem by using (a) NWCR, (b) LCM and (c) VAM. D1D2D3D4SupplyS1211615311SourceS21718142313S33227184119Demand6101215 Determine an initial basic feasible solution to the following transportation problem by using (a) the least cost method, and (b) Vogels approximation method. D1D2D3D4SupplyS1121430SourceS2332150S3425920Demand20403010 Determine an initial basic feasible solution to the following transportation problem by using (a) NWCM, (b) LCM. And (c) VAM. D1D2D3D4SupplyA11131714250SourceB16181410300C21241310400Demand200225275250 Determine initial basic feasible solution to the following transportation problem by using the North- West corner rule, where 0i and Dj represent ith origin and jth destination, respectively. D1D2D3D4SupplyO1641514SourceO2892716O343625Demand610154  EMBED Equation.3  3.1.2.3. METHODS FOR TESTING OPTIMAL SOLUTION Once an initial solution is obtained, the next step is to check its optimality. An optimal solution is one where there is no other set of transportation routes (allocations) that will further reduce the total transportation cost. Thus, we have to evaluate each unoccupied cell (representing unused route) in the transportation table in term of an opportunity of reducing total transportation cost. An unoccupied cell with the largest negative opportunity cost is selected to include in the new set of transportation routes (allocations). This is also known as an incoming variable. The outgoing variable in the current solution is the occupied cell (basic variable) in the unique closed path (loop) whose allocation will become zero first as more units are allocated to the unoccupied cell with largest negative opportunity cost. Such an exchange reduces total transportation cost. The process is continued until there is no negative opportunity cost. That is, the current solution cannot be improved further. This is the optimal solution. An efficient technique called the modified-distribution (MODI) method (also called u-v method) which helps in comparing the relative advantage of alternative allocations for all the unoccupied cells simultaneously is discussed below. The MODI method is based on the concept of duality. 3.1.2.3.1. The Modified Distribution (MODI) Method Dual of Transportation Model For a given basic feasible solution if we associate numbers (also called dual variables or multipliers) ui and vj with row i(i= 1,2, ,m) and column j (j=1,2,,n) of the transportation table, respectively then ui and vj must satisfy the equation  EMBED Equation.3  These equations yield m + n - 1 equation in m + n unknown dual variables. The values of these variables can be determined by assigning arbitrarily zero value to any one of these variables and then the value of the remaining (m + n 1) variables can be obtained algebraically using the above relationship for occupied cells. Once the values of ui and vj have been determined, evaluation in terms of opportunity cost of each unoccupied cell (called non-basic variable or unused route) is done by using the equation:  EMBED Equation.3  For proving these two results, let us consider the general transportation model using sigma notation: Minimize  EMBED Equation.3  Subject to the constraints  EMBED Equation.3  and Where ai represent supplies and bj represent demands, respectively. Since all of the constraints are equalities, write each equality constraint equivalent to two inequalities as follows:  EMBED Equation.3  Let  EMBED Equation.3  and  EMBED Equation.3  be the dual variables one for each supply constraint i. Similarly  EMBED Equation.3  be the dual variables one for each demand constraint j. Now the dual of the transportation model is given by: Maximize  EMBED Equation.3  Subject to the constraints  EMBED Equation.3  The variables  EMBED Equation.3  appear in the objective function, may take positive, negative or zero values. Thus, either of these will appear in the optimal basis because one is the negative of the other. The same argument may be given for vj+ and vi-. Let  EMBED Equation.3  Then ui and vj will be unrestricted in sign. Thus, the dual of the transportation model can now be written as Maximize  EMBED Equation.3  Subject to the constraints  EMBED Equation.3  And The variable xij form an optimal solution to the given transportation problem provided Solution xij is feasible for all (i,j) with respect to original transportation model. Solution ui and vj is feasible for all (i,j) with respect to the dual of the original transportation model. (cij-ui-vj) xij =0 for all i and j The relationship  EMBED Equation.3  is also known as complementary slackness for a transportation problem and indicates that If xij > 0 and is feasible , then cij - ui - vj = 0 or cij =ui + vj, for each occupied cell, If xij =0 and cij > ui + vj, then it is not desirable to have xij > 0 in the solution mix because it would cost more to transport on a route (i, j), If cij < ui + vj for some xij = 0, then xij can be brought into the solution mix. The per unit net contribution (opportunity cost) to the objective function for a route (i.j) is given by  EMBED Equation.3  Here it may be noted that dij =0 for occupied cells (basic variables). Economic Interpretation of ui s and vjs The dual variables uis and vjs represent the shadow prices (value of the commodity) for the supply centers and demand centers. The value of each variable ui measures the comparative implicit contribution (value or location advantages) of a unit of capacity at supply centre I and, therefore, may be termed location rent. Similarly, the value of each variable vj measures the comparative implicit contribution of an additional unit of commodity transported to demand centre j and, therefore, may be termed market price. Illustration: Continuing with the data from Example.1 lets see how the general dual problem is obtained for the transportation model. In Table 3.9, there are m=3 rows and n=4 columns. Thus, let the dual variables be u1, u2 and u3 corresponding to each of the supply constraints in that order and v1, v2, v3 and v4 for the demand constraints. The dual problem then becomes. Table 3.9 D1D2D3D4Supply uiS1193050107U1S2703040609U2S3408702018U3Demand 5871434VjV1V2V3V4 Maximize Z = (7u1 + 9u2 + 18u3) + (5v1 + 8v2 + 7v3 + 14v4) Subject to the constraints  EMBED Equation.3  For interpretation let us consider the constraint EMBED Equation.3 . This represents the delivered market value of the commodity at destination D1 which should be les than or equal to the unit cost of transportation from S1 to D1 minus the free on board (FOB) per unit value of commodity at D1. A similar interpretation can also be given for other constraints. Now, the optimal values of dual variables can be obtained either by solving this LP problem or by reading values of these variables from the transportation table containing optimal solution. It must be clear that total transportation cost at optimal solution obtained by MODI method be the same as obtained by putting values of uj s and vjs from optimal transportation table in the dual objective function. Steps of MODI Method (Transportation Algorithm) The steps to evaluate unoccupied cell are as follows: Step 1: For an initial basic feasible solution with m + n - 1 occupied cell, calculate uj and vj for rows and columns. The initial solution can be obtained by any of the three methods discussed earlier. To start with, any one of ujs or vjs is assigned the value zero. It is better to assign zero for a particular ui or vi where there are maximum number of allocations in a row or column respectively, as it will reduce arithmetic work considerably. Then complete the calculation of ujs and vjS for other rows and columns by using the relation  EMBED Equation.3  Step 2: For unoccupied cells, calculate opportunity cost by using the relationship  EMBED Equation.3  Step 3: Examine sing of each dij If dij > 0, then current basic feasible solution optimal. If dij =0, then current basic feasible solution will remain unaffected but an alternative solution exists. If one or more dij < 0, then an improved solution can be obtained by entering unoccupied cell (i, j) in the basis. An unoccupied cell having the largest negative value of dij is chosen for entering into the solution mix (new transportation schedule). Step 4: Construct a closed path (or loop) for the unoccupied cell with largest negative opportunity cost. Start the closed path with the selected unoccupied cell and mark a plus sign (+) in this cell, trace a path along the rows (or columns) to an occupied cell, mark the corner with minus sing (-) and continue down the column (or row) to an occupied cell and mark the corner with plus sing (+) and minus sign (-) alternatively. Close the path back to the selected unoccupied cell. Step 5: Select the smallest quantity amongst the cells marked with minus sign on the corners of closed loop. Allocate this value to the selected unoccupied cell and add it to other occupied cells marked with plus sings and subtract it from the occupied cells marked with minus signs. Step 6: Obtain a new improved solution by allocating units to the unoccupied cell according to Step 5 and calculate the new total transportation cost. Step 7: Test the revised solution further for optimality. The procedure terminates when all dij > 0, for unoccupied cells. NOTE: The loop starts and ends at the selected unoccupied cell. It consist of successive horizontal and vertical (connected) lines whose end points must be occupied cells, except for a end point associated with entering unoccupied cell. This means that every corner element of the loop must be an occupied cell. It is immaterial whether the loop is traced in a clockwise or anti-clockwise direction. However, for a given solution only one loop can be constructed for each unoccupied cell. Any basic feasible solution must contain m + n - 1 independent non- zero allocations. The independent non-zero allocations imply that one cannot form a closed circuit (loop) by joining positive allocations by horizontal and vertical lines only. Each row and column in the transportation table should have only one plus and minus sign. All cells that have a plus or a minus sign, except the starting unoccupied cell, must be occupied cells. Closed loops may or may not be square in shape. The steps of MODI method for solving a transportation problem can be described by the following flow chart as shown in Fig.1.  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  Fig .1 Flow Chart of MODI Method Example 3: Taking data from Example1, obtain an optimal solution by MODI method. D1D2D3D4SupplyS1193050107S2703040609S3108702018Demand 5871434 Solution: Applying Vogels Approximation Method to obtain an initial basic feasible solution as shown in Table 3.5 This solution is again reproduced in Table 3.11 for ready reference. Table 3.11: Initial Solution VAM D1D2D3D4Supply ujS119 530 +3250 +6010 27U1 = 10S270 +130  (+) - 1840  760 2 (-)9U2 = 60S340 +118  (-) 870 +7020 10 (+)18U3 = 20Demand 5871434VjV1=9V2 = -12V3 = -20V4 = 0 Steps 1: In Table 3.11, the numbers of occupied cells are m + n - 1 = 3 + 4 - 1 = 6, and initial solution is non- degenerate. Thus, and optimal solution can be obtained. The total transportation cost associated with this solution is 779. Step 2: In order to calculate the values of uis (i = 1, 2, 3) and vjs (j= 1, 2, 3, 4) for each occupied cell we arbitrarily assign v4 = 0 to simplify calculations. Given v4 = 0, u1, u2 and u3 can be computed immediately by using the relation cij = ui + vj for occupied cells as shown below:  EMBED Equation.3  Given u1, u2 and u3, value of v1, v2 and v3 can also be calculated as shown below:  EMBED Equation.3  Step 3: The opportunity cost for each of the occupied cell is determined by using the relation dji= cij - (ui + vj) and is shown below.  EMBED Equation.3  Step 4: According to the optimality criterion for cost minimizing transportation problem, the current solution is not optimal, since the opportunity cost of the unoccupied cell are not all zero or positive. The value of d22 = -18 in cell (S2, D2) is indicating that the total transportation cost can be reduced in the multiple of 18 by shifting an allocation to this cell. Step 5: A closed loop (path) is traced along row S2 to an occupied cell (S3, D2). A plus sing is placed in cell (S2, D2) and minus sing in cell (S3, D2). Now take a right-angle turn and locate an occupied cell in column D4. An occupied cell (S3, D4) exists at row S3, and a plus sing is placed in this cell. Continuing the process and complete the closed path. The occupied cell (S2, D3) must be by passed otherwise it will violate the rules of constructing closed path. Step 6: In order to maintain feasibility, examine the occupied cells with minus sign at the corners of closed loop, and select the one that has the smallest allocation. This determines the maximum number of units that can be shifted along the closed path. The minus signs are in cells (S3, D2) and (S2, D4). The cell (S2, D4) is selected because it has the smaller allocation, i.e. 2. The value of this allocation is then added to cell (S2, D2) and (S3, D4), which carry plus signs. The same value is subtracted from cells (S2, D4) and (S3, D2) because they carry minus sings. Step 7: The revised solution is shown in Table 3.12. The total transportation cost associated with this solution as shown in Table 3.12 is Total cost = 5 x 19 + 2 10 + 2 x 30 + 7 x 40 + 6 x 8 + 12 x 20 =birr 743 Table 3.12 Optimal Solution D1D2D3D4Supply ujS119 530 +3250 +4210 27U1 = 0S270 +1930 240 760 +149U2 = 32S340 +118 670 +5220 1218U3 = 10Demand 5871434VjV1=19V2 = -2V3 = 8V4 = 10 Step 8: Test the optimality of the revised solution once again in the same way as discussed in earlier steps. The values of uis and dijs are shown in Table 3.12. Since each of dijs is positive, therefore, the current basic feasible solution is optimal with minimum total transportation cost of Birr 743.  EXAMPLE 2: A company has factories at F1, F2, and F3 which supply to warehouses at W1, W2 and W3. Weekly factory capacities are 200, 160 and 90 units respectively. Weekly warehouse requirements are 180, 120 and 150 units, respectively. Unit shipping costs (in Dollars) are as follows: Warehouse Factory W1W2W3SupplyF1162012200F214818160F326241690Demand180120150450 Determine the optimal distribution for this company to minimize total shipping cost. Solution: Initial basic feasible solution obtained by North-West Corner Rule is given in Table 1. Table .1 Initial Solutions W1W2W3Supply F116 18020 2012200F2148 10018 60160F3262416 9090Demand 180120150450 The initial solution has m + n - 1 = 3+ 3 - 1 = 5 allocations. Therefore, it is a non-degenerate solution. The optimality test can, therefore, be performed. The total transportation cost associated with this solution is: Total cost = 16 x 180 + 20 x 20 + 8 x 100 + 18 x 60 + 16 x 90 = $6,800 Determining the values of ujs and vjs as usual by assigning u1 =0 arbitrarily. Given u1, 0, the values of others variables so obtained by using the equation, cij - ui + vj for occupied cells are shown in Table 2. Table: 2. w1w2w3Supply ujF116 18020  (-) 2012  (+) -18200U1 = 0F214 +108  (+) 10018 60 (-)160U2 = 12F326 +2424 +1816 9090U3 = -14Demand 180120150450VjV1=16V2 = 20V3 = 30  EMBED Equation.3  The opportunity cost for each of the unoccupied cells is determined by using the equation, dij = cij - (ui + vj) as shown below:  EMBED Equation.3  The value of d13 =-18 in the cell (F1, W3) indicates that the total transportation cost can be reduced in a multiple of 18 by introducing this cell in the new transportation schedule. To see how many units of the commodity could be allocated to this cell (route) we shall form a closed path as shown in Table 3. The largest number of units of the commodity which should be allocated to the cell (F1, W3) is 20 units because it does not violate the supply and demand restrictions (minimum allocation among the occupied cells bearing negative sign at the corners of the loop). The new transportation schedule (solution) so obtained is show in Table 3. Table 3 W1W2W3Supply F116 1802012 20200F2148 12018 40160F3262416 9090Demand 180120150450 The total transportation cost associated with this solution is: Total Cost = 16 x 180 + 12 x 20 + 8 x 120 + 18 x 40 + 16 x90 = birr 6,240 To test the optimality of the new solution shown in Table 3, again calculate the opportunity cost of each unoccupied cell in the same manner as discussed earlier. The calculations for uis vjs and dijs are shown in Table 4. Table: 4. W1W2W3Supply ujF116 (-) 18020 12 20 (+) 200U1 = 12F214 (+) - 88 12018 40 (-)160U2 = 18F326 624 16 9090U3 = 16Demand 180120150VjV1=4V2 = -10V3 = 0  EMBED Equation.3  The value of d21 = -8 in the cell (F2, W1) indicates that the total cost of transportation can further be reduced in a multiple of 8 by introducing this cell in the new transportation schedule. The new solution is obtained in the same manner by introducing 40 unit of the commodity in the cell (F2, W1) as indicated in Table 5; the new solution is shown in Table 5. W1W2W3Supply F116 1402012 60200F214 408 12018160F3262416 9090Demand180120150 The total transportation cost associated with this solution is Total cost =16 x 140 + 12 x 60 + 14 x 40 + 8 x 120 + 16 x 90 = birr 5,920. To test the optimality of the new solution shown in Table 5 again calculate the opportunity cost of each unoccupied cell in the same manner as discussed earlier. The calculations are shown in Table 6. Table 6: Optimal Solution W1W2W3Supply U1F116 14020 +1012 60200U1=16F214 408 12018 +8160U2=14F326 +624 +1016 9090U3=20Demand180120150vjV1=0V2=-6V3=-4  EMBED Equation.3  Since none of the unoccupied cells in Table.6 has a negative opportunity cost value, therefore, total transportation cost cannot be reduced further. Thus, the solution shown in Table 6 is the optimal solution giving optimal transportation schedule with a total cost of birr 5,920.  Unbalanced Supply and Demand For a feasible solution to exist, it is necessary that the total supply must equal total demand. That is, Total supply= Total demand  EMBED Equation.3  But a situation may arise when the total available supply is not equal to the total demand. The following two eases may arise: If total supply exceeds total demand, an additional column (called a dummy demand centre) can be added to the transportation table to absorb the excess supply. The unit transportation cost for the cell in this column is set equal to zero because these represent product items that are not being made and not being sent. If total demand exceeds total supply, a dummy row (called a dummy supply centre) can be added to the transportation table to account for the excess demand equality. The unit transportation cost here also for the cells in the dummy row is set equal to zero. Example 1: A company has received a contract to supply gravel for three new construction projects located in towns A, B, and C. Construction engineers have estimated the required amounts of gravel which will be needed at these construction projects: Project LocationWeekly Requirement (Truckloads)A 72B102C 41 The company has 3 gravel pits located in towns X, Y and Z. The gravel required by the construction projects can be supplied by three pits. The amount of gravel which can be supplied by each pit is as follows:  Plant : X Y Z Amount available (truckloads) : 76 82 77  The company has computed the delivery cost from each pit to each project sites. These costs (in $) are shown in the following table: Project location X Pit Y ZABC48816241681624 Required: determine the Schedule of the shipment from each pit to each project in such a manner so as to minimize the total transportation cost within the constraints imposed by pit capacities and project requirements. Also find the minimum cost. Solution: The total plant availability of 235 truckloads exceeds the total requirement of 215 truckloads by 20 truckloads. The excess truckload capacity, 20 is handled by adding a dummy project location (column), Dexcess with a requirement equal to 20. We uses zero unit transportation costs to the dummy project location. The modified transportation table is shown in Table 1. Table 1: Initial Solution ABCDexcess Supply W48 358 41076X1624 62160 2082Y8 7216 524077Demand 721024120235 The initial solution is obtained by using Vogels approximation method as shown in Table .2. It may be noted that 20 units are allocated from pit X to dummy project location D. This means pit X is short by 20 units. Now in order to apply optimality test, calculate uis and vjs corresponding to tows and columns respectively in the same way as discussed before. The values are shown in Table 3.Table 2. ABCDexcess Supply uiW4 +48 (+) 358  41 (-)0 +1676U1=8X1624 (-) 6216 (+)-80 2082U2=24Y8 7216 524 +80 +877U3=16Demand 721024120235vjV1= -8V2= 0V3= 0V4=-24 In Table.2, all opportunity costs dijs are not positive; the current solution is not optimal. Thus, the unoccupied cell (X, C) where d23 -8 must enter into the basis and cell (W,C) must leave the basis as shown by closed path. The new solution is shown in Table 3. Table 3. ABCDexcess Supply uiW4 +48 768 80 +1676U1=-16X16 024 2116 410 2082U2=0Y8 7216 524 +160 +877U3=-8Demand 721024120235vjV1= 16V2= 24V3= 16V4=0 Since all opportunity cost dijs are not negative in Table 3, the current solution is optimal. The total minimum transportation cost associated with this solution is: Total cost = 8 x 76 + 24 x 21 + 16 x 41 + 0 x 20 + 8 x 72 + 16 x 5 = $ 2,424. Example 2: A product is manufactured at four factories A, B, C, and D. The unit production costs are $ 2, $ 3, $1 and $5, respectively. Their production capacities are 50, 70, 30 and 50 units respectively. These factories supply the product to four stores, demands of which are 25, 35, 105, and 20 units respectively. Unit transportation cost in dollars from each factory to each store is given in the table below. Stores A Factories B C DIIIIIIIV 246111087 5133912 468 3 Determine the extent of deliveries from each of the factories to each of the stores so that the total production and transportation cost is minimum. Solution: The new transportation costs which consists of both production and transportation costs is given in Table 1 Table 1. IIIIIIIVSupply A2 + 2 = 44 + 2 = 66 + 2 = 811 + 2 = 1350B10 + 3 = 138 + 3 = 117 + 3 = 105 + 3 = 870C13 + 1 = 143 + 1 = 4 9 + 1 = 1012 + 1 = 1330D4 + 5 = 96 + 5 = 118 + 5 = 133 + 5 = 850Demand253510520 200 185  Since the total supply of 200 units exceeds the total demand of 185 units by 15 units, a dummy destination (store) is added (or created) to absorb the excess capacity. The associated cost coefficients in dummy store are taken as zero. It may be due to the reason that surplus quantity remains lying in the respective factories and is not shipped at all. The modified table is shown in Table 2. Table .2 Initial Solutions IIIIIIIVDummy Supply A 4 25 6 5 8 2013050B131110 70 8070C14 4 301013030D 91113 15 8 200 1550Demand 25351052015200 Using VAM method the initial solution is shown in Table .2. Also it van be seen that 15 units are allocated to dummy store from factory D. This means that the company may cut don the production by 15 units at the factory where it is uneconomical. Now to test the optimality of the solution as shown in Table.2 we evaluate each unoccupied cell in terms of opportunity cost associated with it in the usual manner as shown in Table .3. Table .3 IIIIIIIVDummySupply uiA4 256 58 2013 +100 +550U1=-5B13 +711 +310 708 +30 +370U2=-3C14 +124 3010 +413 +120 +730U3=-7D9 011 013 158 200 1550U4=0Demand 25351052015200vjV1= 9V2= 11V3= 13V4=8V5 =0 Since opportunity cost in all the unoccupied cells is positive, the solution is an optimal solution. The total cost of transportation associated with this solution is Total cost = 4 x 25 + 6 x 5 + 8 x 20 + 10 x 70 + 4 x 30 + 13x15 + 8 x 20 + 0 x 15 = $ 1,465.  Some Special Cases of Transportation Problems Degeneracy and Its Resolution A basic feasible solution for the general transportation problem must consist of exactly m + n - 1(number of Rows + number of columns-1) positives allocations in independent positions in the transportation table. A solution will be called degenerate when the number of occupied cells is less than the required number, m + n - 1. In such cases, the current solution cannot be improved because it is no possible to draw a closed path for every occupied cell. Also, the values of dual variables ui and vj which are used to test the optimality cannot be computed. Thus, we need to remove the degeneracy to improve the given solution. The degeneracy in the transportation problems may occur at two stages: When obtaining an initial basic problems may occur at two stages: At any stage while moving towards optimal solution. This happens when two or more occupied cells with the same minimum allocation become unoccupied simultaneously. Case 1: Degeneracy at the Initial Solution To resolve degeneracy at the initial solution, we proceed by allocating a very small quantity close to zero to one or more (if needed) unoccupied cells so at to get m + n - 1 number of occupied cells. This amount is denoted by a Greek letter  EMBED Equation.3 (epsilon) or  EMBED Equation.3  (delta). This quantity would not affect the total cost as well as supply and demand values. In minimization transportation problem it is better to allocate  EMBED Equation.3  to unoccupied cells that have lowest transportation costs, whereas in maximization problems it should be allocated to a cell that has a high payoff value. In some cases,  EMBED Equation.3  must be added in one of those unoccupied cells which make possible the determination of ui and vi uniquely. The quantity  EMBED Equation.3  is considered to be so small that if it is transferred to an occupied cell it does not change the quantity of allocation. That is,  EMBED Equation.3  It is also then obvious that EMBED Equation.3  does not affect the total transportation cost of the allocation. Hence, the quantity EMBED Equation.3  is used to evaluate unoccupied cells and to reduce the number of improvement cycles necessary to reach an optimal solution. When its purpose is over, EMBED Equation.3  can be removed from the transportation table. Example3: A manufacturer wants to ship 20 loads of his product as shown below. The matrix gives the kilometers from sources of supply to the destinations. SourceD1D2D3D4D5Supply S1586638S2477655S3846649Demand 44548 22 25 Shipping cost is $10 per load per km. What shipping schedule should be used to minimize total transportation cost? Solution: Since the total destination requirement of 25 units exceeds the total resource capacity of 22 by 3 units, the problem is unbalanced. The excess requirement is handled by adding a dummy plant, Sexcess with a capacity equal to 3 units. We use zero unit transportation cost to the dummy plant. The modified transportation table is shown table1. Table .1 Initial Solution D1D2D3D4D5Supply S1586 56 3 38S24 4776 155S384 4664 59Sexcess 0000 303Demand 4454825 The initial solution is obtained by using Vogels approximation as shown in Table 2. Since the solution includes 7 occupied cells, therefore, the initial solution is degenerate. In order to remove degeneracy we assign  EMBED Equation.3  to unoccupied cell (S2, D5) which has minimum cost among unoccupied cell as shown in Table 2. Table 2 D1D2D3D4D5 Supply uiS15 +38 +56  (-) 56 +23  3 (+)8U1=0S24 47 +27 -16  1 (+)5  EMBED Equation.3  (-)5U2=2S38 +54 46 -16 +14 59U3=1Sexcess 0 +20 +10  (+) -20 3 (-)0 -73U4= -4Demand 4454825vjV1= 2V2= 3V3= 6V4=4V5 = 3 Determine ui and vj for occupied cells as shown in Table 2. Since opportunity cost in the cell (Sexcess D3) is largest negative, it must enter the basis and the cell (S2, D5) must leave the basis. The new solution is shown in Table 3.Table 3 D1D2D3D4D5 Supply uiS15 +18 +56  (-) 56 03  3 (+)8U1=0S24 47 +47 +16 1 5 +25U2=2S38 +34 46 -16  (+) -14 5 (-)9U3=1Sexcess 0 +20 +30  (+)  EMBED Equation.3  0 3 (-)0 +33U4= -6Demand 4454825vjV1= 4V2= 3V3= 6V4=6V5 = 3 Repeat the procedure of testing optimality of the solution given in Table 3. The optimal solution is shown in Table 4. Table 4 D1D2D3D4D5Supply S158663 88S24 4776 155S384 46 26 349Sexcess000 3003Demand4454825 The minimum total transportation cost associated with this solution is Total cost = (3 x 8 + 4 x 4 + 6 x 1 + 4 x 4 + 6 x 2 + 6 x 3) x 10 =$ 920 Case 2: Degeneracy at Subsequent Iterations To resolve degeneracy which occurs during optimality test, the quantity may be allocated to one or more cells which have become unoccupied recently to have m + n - 1 number of occupied cells in the new solution. Example 4. Goods have to be transported from sources S1, S2 and S3 to destinations D1, D2 and D3.The transportation cost per unit, capacities of the sources and requirements of the destinations are given in the following table. S1 S2 S3 Demand D1D2D3Supply85 6120151012803910801508050Determine a transportation schedule so that cost is minimized. Solution: Using North -West Corner Method, the non- degenerate initial basic feasible solution is given in Table 1. Table1. Initial Solution D1D2D3Supply S18 12056120S215 3010 501280S339 3010 5080Demand 1508050280 To test the optimality of the solution given in Table 1., calculate ui, vi and dij as usual as shown in Table 2. Table 2. D1D2D3Supply uiS18 1205 +26 +2120U1=-7S215 (-) 3010  50 (+)12 +180U1=0S33 (+) -119 30 (-)10 5080U1=-1Demand 1508050280vjV1=15V2= 10V3=11 Since the unoccupied cell (S3, D1) has the largest negative opportunity cost of -11, therefore, ell (S3, D1) is entered into the new solution mix. The closed path for (S3, D1) is shown in Table 2. The maximum allocation to (S3, D1) is 30. However, when this amount is allocated to (S3, D1) both cells (S2, D1) and (S3, D2) become unoccupied because these tow have same allocations. Thus, the number of positive allocation became less than the required number, m + n - 1 = 3 + 3 - 1 = 5. Hence, this is a degenerate solution as shown in Table 3, Table .3 D1D2D3Supply S18 12056120S21510 801280S33 309  EMBED Equation.3 10 5080Demand 1508050280 To remove degeneracy a quantity  EMBED Equation.3  is assigned to one of the cells that have become unoccupied so that there are m + n - 1 occupied cells. Assign  EMBED Equation.3  to either (S3, D2) and proceed with the usual solution procedure. The optimal solution is given in Table 4. Table 4. D1D2D3Supply S18 7056 50120S21510 801280S33 80910 80Demand 1508050280 Alternative Optimal Solutions The existence of alternative optimal solution can be determined by an inspection of the opportunity costs, dij for the unoccupied cells. If an unoccupied cell in an optimal solution has opportunity cost of zero, an alternative optimal solution can be formed with another set of allocations without increasing the total transportation cost. Illustration: Consider optimal solution of Example 1, given in Table 3. For ready reference the table is reproduced as below. ABCDSupply uiW4 +48 768 +80 +1676U1=-16X16 024 2116 410 20 82U2= 0Y8 7216 524 +160 +877U3=-8Demand 7210241 20235vjV1= 16V2= 24V3= 16V4=0 The opportunity costs in all unoccupied cells are positive except for the cell (X, A) which has a zero opportunity cost. This means is (X, A) is entered into the basis, no change in the transportation cost would occur. To determine this alternative solution, form a closed path for cell (X, A) as shown in Table below.. ABCDSupply uiW4 +48 768 +80 +1676U1=-16X16  (+)24  21 (-)16 410 20 82U2=0Y8  (-) 7216 5 (+)24 +160 +877U3=-8Demand 721024120235vjV1= 16V2= 24V3= 16V4=0 The maximum quantity which can be allocated to cell (X, A) is 21. After this change, the new solution is shown in the Table below. Since all dij values are positive or zero, the solution given the table is optimal with a minimum total transportation cost of $2,424 which is same as in the previous solution. Initial Solution: VAM ABCDSupply uiW4 +48 768 +80 +1676U1=-16X16 2124 016 410 20 82U2=0Y8 5116 2624 +160 +877U3=-8Demand 721024120235vjV1= 16V2= 24V3= 16V4=0 Prohibited Transportation Routes Situations like road hazards (snow, flood, etc.), traffic regulations, etc., may arise and then it is not possible to transport goods from certain sources to certain destination. Such types of problems can be handled but by assigning a very large cost, say M (or EMBED Equation.3 ) to that route (or cell). Example: Consider the problem of scheduling the weekly production of certain items for the next four weeks. The production cost of the item is Birr 10 for the first two weeks and Birr 15 for last two weeks. The weekly demands are 300, 700, 900 and 800, which must be met. The plant can produce a maximum of 700 units per week. In addition, the company can use overtime during the second and third week. This increases the weekly production by an additional 200 units, but the production cost increases by Birr 5. Excess production can be stored at a unit cost of Birr 3 per week. How should the production be scheduled so as minimize the total cost? Solution: The given information is presented as a transportation problem in Table 1. The cost elements in each cell are determined by adding the production cost, the overtime cost of Birr 5 and storage cost of birr 3. Thus, in the first row, the cost of Birr 3 is added during second week onward. Since the output of any period cannot be used in a period preceding it, the cost element is written in the appropriate cells. A dummy column has been added as supply exceeds demand. Table:1 Week (Origin)Production Cost per Week (Destination)SupplyIIIIIIIVDummy R1101316190700R2-1013160700O2-1518210200R3--15180700O3--20230200R4---150700Demand 3007009008005003,200Note: R= Regular, O= overtime The problem can be solved by using MODI method for the usual transportation problem. The solution is left as an exercise for you. Degeneracy occurs at the initial stage if initial basic feasible solution is obtained by Vogels method. Degeneracy may be removed by adding  EMBED Equation.3  in the cell (R2, Dummy). Table 2 has the optimal solution Table 2: Optimal Solution IIIIIIIVDummySupplyR110 3001316 20019 1000 100700R2-10 70013  EMBED Equation.3 160700O2-1518210 200200R3--15 700180700O3--20230 200200R4---15 7000700Demand 300700 9008005003,200 The production schedule is given in Table 3. Production in Week  Units For Use in Week IIIIIIIVI 700300-200100II R2 700 O2 Nil-700--II R3 700 O3 Nil--700-IV 700---700Demand 300700900800 The total minimum cost for the optimal production schedule is: Total cost = 10 x 300 + 16 x 200 + 19 x 100 + 10 x 700 + 15 x 700 + 15 x 700 = Birr 36,100 MAXIMIZATION TRANSPORTATION PROBLEM In general, transportation model is used for cost minimization problems. However, it is also used to solve problems in which the objective is to maximize total value or benefit. That is, instead of unit cost cij, the unit profit or payoff pij associated with each route, (i,j) is given. Then, the objective function in terms of total profit or payoff is stated as follows: Maximize Z=  EMBED Equation.3  The algorithm for solving this problem is same as that for the minimization problem. However, since we are given profits instead of costs, therefore, few adjustments in Vogels approximation method (VAM) for finding initial solution and in the MODI optimality test are required. For finding initial solution by VAM, the penalties are computed as difference between the largest and next largest payoff in each row or column. In this case, row and column differences represent payoffs. Allocations are made in those cells where the payoff is largest corresponding to the highest row or column deference. Since it is a maximization problem, the criterion of optimality is the converse of the rule for minimization. The rule is: A solution is optimal if all opportunity costs dij for the unoccupied cells are zero or negative. Example: A company has four manufacturing plants and five warehouses. Each plant manufactures the same product which is sold at different prices in each warehouse area. The cost of manufacturing and cost of raw materials are different in each plant due to various factors. The capacities of the plants are also different. The data are given in the following table: PlantItem 1234Manufacturing cost (Birr ) per unit 121088Raw material cost (Birr) per unit  8775Capacity per unit time 10020012080 The company has five warehouses. The sale prices, transportation costs and demands are given in the following table: WarehouseTransportation Cost (Birr) per UnitSale PriceDemand Per unit (Birr)1234A474330 80B897832120C2761028150D107583470E25893090Formulate this problem as a transportation problem to maximize profit. Find the solution using VAM method. Test for optimality and find the optimal solution. Solution: Based on the given data, the profit matrix can be derived by using following equation and it is shown in Table 1. Profit = Sales price - Production cost- Raw material cost - Transportation cost Table 1 representing profit can be converted to an equivalent minimization of loss by subtracting all the profit values in the table from the highest profit value. As the highest profit value is 15, subtracting all cell values including itself from it, the new values are shown in Table 2. The problem now becomes the usual cost minimizing transportation problem: Table 2. Profit Matrix 1234Dummy Demand A661115080B4610120120C64760150D4101414070E8879090Supply 1002001208010510Apply Vogels method to find the initial basic feasible solution as shown in Table 3. Table 3. Initial Feasible Solution 1234Dummy DemandUiA9 +79 +54 +40 8015 +1280U1=4B11 +49 705 (-) 503  (+) -215 +7120U2=9C9 10011 408 +111 +415 10150U3=11D11 +85 01 (+) 701  EMBED Equation.3  (-)15 +1170U4=5E7 +27 908 +56 +315 +990U5=7Supply 1002001208010510vjV1= - 2V2 = 0V3= -4V4 = -4V5=-1 Since initially the number of occupied cells was 8 which is one less than the required number, m + n - 1 =9, therefore, the solution is degenerate. However, after making an allocation of  EMBED Equation.3  to the cell (D, 4), the initial solution became eligible for optimality test. Apply MODI method to evaluate each unoccupied cell in terms of opportunity cost associated with it in the usual manner as shown in Table 3. The cell (B, 4) has a negative opportunity cost (i.e.-2). Introduce it into the new solution by constructing a loop shown in Table 3. The new solution is given in Table 4 where  EMBED Equation.3  has shifted from cell (D, 4) to cell (B, 4). Table: 4 1234DummyDemandUiA9 +59 +34 +20 8015 +580U1=-5B11 +49 705 503  EMBED Equation.3  15 +2120U2=-2C9 10011 408 +111 +615 10150U3=0D11 +85 01 701 +215 +670U4=-6E7 +27 908 +56 +515 +490U5=-4Supply 1002001208010510vjV1= 9V2 = 11V3= -4V4 = 5V5=15 Since there is no negative opportunity cost in the unoccupied cells in Table 4, therefore, this solution in the optimal solution. However, the zero opportunity cost in cell (D, 2) indicates the existence of an alternative solution. The total maximization profit associated with the solution is: Total profit= 9 x 70 + 5 x 50 + 9 x 100 + 11 x 40 + 15 x 10 + 1 x 70 + 7 x 90 = Birr 4,580.  3.2. Assignment Problems In the previous section, we discussed about solution to the transportation problem. Now, we consider another type of special linear programming problem, called the assignment problem. There are many situations where the assignment of people or machines and so on, may be called for. Assignment of workers to machines, clerks to various check-out counters, salesmen to different sales areas, service crews to different districts, are typical examples of these. The assignment is a problem because people posses varying abilities for performing different jobs and, therefore, the costs of performing the jobs by different people are different. Obviously, if all persons could do a job in the same time or at the same cost then it would not matter who of them is assigned the job. Thus, in an assignment problem, the question is how should the assignments be made in order that the total cost involved is minimized (or the total value is maximized when pay-offs are given in terms of, say profits). A typical assignment problem follows: Example 3.2.1: A production supervisor is considering how he should assign the four jobs that are to be performed, to four of the workers working under him. He wants to assign the jobs to the workers such that the aggregate time to perform the jobs is the least. Based on previous experience, he has the information on the time taken by the four workers in performing these jobs, as given in Table 1. TABLE .1 Time Taken by Workers on Various Jobs (in minutes) JobWorker A B C D145405167257426355349524864441456055 Lets consider analytically the solution to this problem of the supervisor in the next sections. 3.2.1. Methods of solving assignment problems: There are four methods of solving an assignment problem: (a) complete enumeration method; (b) transportation method; (c) simplex method; and (d) Hungarian assignment method. Complete Enumeration Method: - In this method, all possible assignments are listed out and the assignment involving the minimum cost (or maximum profit if the problem is of the maximization type) is selected. It represents the optimal solution. In case there are more than one assignment patterns involving the same least cost, then they all shall represent optimal solutions- the problem has multiple optima then. For the problem given in Example 3.2.1, there are a total of 24 assignments possible. These are listed in Table 2 wherein the time involved with each assignment pattern is also given. It is clear that assignment number 20 listed in the table that involves work-job assignments 4A, 1B, 3C and 2D is the optimal one as it involves the least total time, equal to 184 minutes. TABLE 2: Worker-Job Assignments S.NoAssignment TimeS. No.AssignmentTime11A, 2B, 3C, 4D190133A, 1B, 2C, 4D20721A, 2B, 4C, 3D211143A, 1B, 4C, 2D20431A, 3B,2C, 4D215153A, 2B, 4C, 1D21841A, 3B, 4C, 2D212163A, 2B, 1C, 4D19751A, 4B, 2C, 3D217173A, 4B, 1C, 2D20061A, 4B, 3C, 2D193183A, 4B, 2C, 1D22472A, 1B, 3C, 4D200194A, 1B, 2C, 3D20882A, 1B, 4C, 3D221204A, 1B, 3C, 2D184*92A, 3B, 1C, 4D215214A, 2B, 1C, 3D198102A, 3B, 4C, 1D236224A, 2B, 3C, 1D198112A, 4B, 3C, 1D207234A, 3B, 1C, 2D199122A, 4B, 1C, 3D217244A, 3B, 2C, 1D223 It may be noted than, in general, for an n- worker n-job problem, there are n! number of ways in which the jobs can be assigned to the workers. Thus, the listing and evaluation of all the possible assignments is a simple matter when n is a small number. But, when n is even a moderately large number, this method is not very practical. For example, for a 5- person and 5- job problem, a total of 5! = 120 assignments will need to be evaluated while a problem involving 8 persons and 8 jobs will require enumeration and evaluation of as many as 8! = 40,320 assignments, and a problem with 10 workers and as many jobs, the number of possible assignments works out to be 3,628,800. Therefore, the method is not suitable for real world situations. .Transportation Method: an assignment problem can be represented as a classical transportation problem. As such, the problem is amenable to solution by applying the transportation method discussed in the previous sections. But, the solution obtained by applying this method would be severely degenerate. This is because the optimality test in the transportation method requires that there must be m + n 1 (= 2n 1, when m = n) basic variables in the solution because here n assignments are required to be made. Thus, a large number of epsilons may be required to be introduced in the solution in order to proceed with this method. (C). Simplex Method: we have seen earlier that an assignment problem can be formulated as a transportation problem which, in turn, is a special type of linear programming problem. Accordingly, an assignment problem can be formulated as a linear programming problem (with integer variables) and solved using a modified simplex method or otherwise. It may be easily visualized that it is relatively tedious to solve the problem in this format. Thus, this approach to the solution is not considered. (d). Hungarian Assignment Method (HAM): It may be observed that none of the three working methods discussed earlier to solve an assignment is efficient. A method, designed specially to handle the assignment problems in an efficient way, called the Hungarian Assignment Method, is available, which is based on the concept of opportunity cost. For a typical balanced assignment problem involving a certain number of persons and an equal number of jobs, and with an objective function of the minimization type, the method is applied as listed in the following steps: Steps: Step 1: Locate the smallest cost element in each row of the cost table. Now subtract this smallest element from each element in that row. As a result, there shall be at least one zero in each row of this new table, called the Reduced Cost Table. Step 2: In the reduced cost table obtained, consider each column and locate the smallest element in it. Subtract the smallest value from every other entry in the column. As a consequence of this action, there would be at least one zero in each of the rows and columns of the second reduced cost table. Step 3: Draw the minimum number of horizontal and vertical lines (not the diagonal ones) that are required to cover all the zero elements. If the number of lines drawn is equal to n (the number of rows/columns) the solutions is optimal, and proceed to step 6. If the number of lines drawn is smaller than n, go to step 4. Step 4: Select the smallest uncovered (by the lines) cost element. Subtract this element from all uncovered elements including it and add this element to each value located at the intersection of any two lines. The cost elements through which only one line passes remain unaltered. Step 5: Repeat step 3 and 4 until an optimal solution is obtained. Step 6: Given the optimal solution, make the job assignments as indicated by the zero elements. This is done as follows: Locate a row which contains only one zero element. Assign the job corresponding to this element to its corresponding person. Cross out the zero(s), if any, in the column corresponding to the element, which is indicative of the fact that the particular job and person are no more available. Repeat (a) for each of such rows which contain only one zero. Similarly, perform the same operation in respect of each column containing only one zero element, crossing out the zero(s), if any, in the row in which the element lies. If there is no row or column with only a single zero element left, then select a row/column arbitrarily and choose one of the jobs (or persons) and make the assignment. Now cross the remaining zeros in the column and row in respect of which the assignment is made. Repeat steps (a) through (c) until all assignments are made. Determine the total cost with reference to the original cost table. Example 3.2.2: Solve the assignment problem given in Example 3.2.1 for optimal solution using HAM. The information is reproduced in Table 3. TABLE 3: Time Taken (in minutes) by 4 workers Worker  Job ABCD145405167257426355349524864441456055 The solution to this problem is given here in a step-wise manner. Step 1: The minimum value of each row is subtracted from all elements in the row. It is shown in the reduced cost table, also called opportunity cost table, given in Table 4 TABLE 4. Reduced Cost Table 1 Worker  Job ABCD1501127215021133140164041914 Step 2: For each column of this table, the minimum value is subtracted from all the other values. Obviously, the columns that contain a zero would remain unaffected by this operation. Here only the fourth column values would change. Table 5 shows this. Table 5 Reduced Cost Table 2. Worker  Job ABCD1501114215021031403404191Step 3: Draw the minimum number of lines covering all zeros. As a general rule, we should first cover those rows/columns which contain larger number of zeros. Table 5 is reproduced in Table 6. and the lines are drawn. TABLE 6 Reduced Cost Table 3 Worker  Job ABCD1 501114215021 03 14 0 34 0419 1 Step 4: Since the number of lines drawn is equal to 4 (=n), the optimal solution is obtained. The assignments are made after scanning the rows and columns for unit zeros. Assignments made are shown with squares, as shown in Table 7. TABLE 7: Assignment of Jobs WorkerJobABCD15 1114215021  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT 314  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT 3 4 SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  4 19 1 Note that the assignments are made in the following order: Rows 1, 3, and 4 contain only one zero each. So assign 1-B, 3-C, and 4-A, Since worker 1 has been assigned job B, we cross the zero in the second column of the second row, After making these assignments is 1-B, 2-D, 3-C, and 4-A, involving a total time of 40 + 55 + 48+ 41 = 184 minutes. This is the optimal solution to the problem the same as obtained by enumeration and transportation methods. Example 3.2.3: Using the following cost matrix, determine (a) Optimal job assignment, and (b) The cost of assignments. MachinistJob12345A103328B97827C75624D35824E9109610 Iteration 1: Obtain row reductions. Reduced Cost Table 1 MachinistJob12345A81106B75605C53402D13602E34304 Iteration 2: Obtain column reductions and draw the minimum number of lines to cover all zeros. Reduced Cost Table 2  MachinistJob12345A700 0 4B6450 3C4230 0D0250 0E2320 2 Since the number of lines covering all zeros is less than the number of columns/rows, we modify the Table 2. The least of the uncovered cell values is 2. This value would be subtracted from each of the uncovered values and added to each value lying at the intersection of lines (corresponding to cells A-4, D-4, A-5 and D-5). Accordingly, the new table would appear as shown in Table 3. Iteration: 3 Reduced Cost Table 3 Machinist Job12345A7 026B423  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT 3C20 10 SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT D  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  2 5 2 2 E 0 1  0 2 The optimal assignments can be made as the least number of lines covering all zeros in Table 3 equals 5. Considering rows and column, the assignments can be made in the following order: (i).Select the second row. Assign machinist B to job 4. Cross out zeros at cells C-4 and E- 4. (ii) Consider row 4. Assign machinist D to job 1. Cancel the zero at cell E-1. Since there is a single zero in the fifth row, put machinist E to job 3 and cross out the zero at A-3. There being only a single zero left in each of the first and third rows, we assign job 2 to machinist A and job 5 to C. The total cost associated with the optimal machinist-job assignment pattern A-2, B-4, C-5, D-1 and E-3 is 3 + 2 + 4 + 3 + 9 = 21. SOME SPECIAL TOPICS Unbalanced Assignment Problems The Hungarian method of solving an assignment problem requires that the number of columns should be equal to the number of rows. When they are equal, the problem is a balanced problem, and when not, it is called an unbalanced problem. Thus, where there are 5 workers and 4 machines, or when there are 4 workers and 6 machines, for instance, we have unbalanced situations in which one-to-one match is not possible. In case the machines are in excess, the excess machine(s) would remain idle and so is the case when men are in excess-the number of excess people would not get an assignment. In such situations, dummy column(s)/row(s), whichever is smaller in number, are inserted with zeros as the cost elements. For example, when the given cost matrix is of the dimension 4 x 5, a dummy row would be included. In each column in respect of this row, a zero would be placed. After this operation of introducing dummy columns/rows, the problem is solved in the usual manner. Constrained Assignment Problems In happens sometimes that a worker cannot perform a certain job or is not to be assigned a particular job. To cope with this situation, the cost of performing that job by such person is taken to be extremely large (which is written as M). Then the solution to the assignment problem proceeds in the manner discussed earlier. The effect of assigning prohibitive cost to such person-job combinations is that they do not figure in the final solution. Example 3.2.4: You are given the information about the cost of performing different jobs by different persons. The job-person marking X indicates that the individual involved cannot perform the particular job. Using this information, state: The optimal assignment of jobs, and The cost of such assignment. PersonJobJ1J2 J3J4 J5P12718X2021P23124211217P3201720X16P42228201627 Balancing the problem and assigning a high cost to the pairings P1- J3 and P3 J4, we have the cost table, given in Table 1 TABLE 1: Cost Table PersonJobJ1J2 J3J4 J5P12718M2021P23124211217P3201720M16P42228201627 P5(Dummy)00000 Now we can derive the reduced cost table as shown in Table 2. Note that the cells with prohibited assignments continue to be shown with the cost element M, since M is defined to be extremely large so that subtraction or addition of a value does not practically affect it. To test optimality, lines are drawn to cover all zeros. Since the number of lines covering all zeros is less than n, we select the lowest uncovered cell, which equals 4. With this value, we can obtain the revised reduced cost table, shown in Table 3 Table 2: Reduced Cost Table 1 PersonJobJ1J2 J3J4 J5P190M23P21912905P3414M0P46124011 P5(Dummy)00000 TABLE 3: Reduced Cost Table 2 PersonJobJ1J2 J3J4 J5P190M6 3P215850 1P3414M 0P42800 7P5(Dummy)0004 0 The number of lines covering zeros is equal to 5(=n), hence the optimal assignment can be made. The assignment is: P1 J2, P2-J4, P3 J5, P4 J3, while job J1 would remain unassigned. This assignment pattern would cost 18 + 12 + 16 + 20 = 66 in the aggregate. Unique Vs Multiple Optimal Solutions In the process of making assignments, it was stated earlier that we select a row/column with only a single zero to make an assignment. However, as situation may arise where in the various rows and columns, where assignments are yet to be done, have all multiple zeros. In such cases, we get multiple optimal solutions to the given problem. In any of the problems discussed so far, we have not experienced such a situation. Hence, each one of them has a unique optimal solution. When a problem has a unique optimal solution, it means that no other solution to the problem exists which yields the same objective function value (cost, time, profit etc.) as the one obtained from the optimal solution derived. On the other hand, in a problem with multiple optimal solutions, there exists more than one solution which all are optimal and equally attractive. Consider the following example. Example 3.2.5: Solve the following assignment problem and obtain the minimum cost at which all the jobs can be performed. Worker Job (Cost in 00 Birrs)12345A2518322021B3425211217C2017203216D2028201627 This problem is unbalanced since number of jobs is 5 while the number of workers is 4. We first balance it by introducing a dummy worker E, as shown in Table 1. TABLE 1 Balancing the Assignment Problem WorkerJob12345A2518322021B3425211217C2017203216D2028201627E00000 Step 1: Obtain reduced cost values by subtracting the minimum value in each row from every cell in the row. This is given in Table 2. TABLE 2 Reduced Cost Table 1 WORKERJob12345A701423B2213905C414 160D4124011E00000 Since there is at lest one zero in each row and column, we test it for optimality. Accordingly, lines are drawn. All zeros are covered by 4 lines, which is less than 5 (the order of the given matrix). Hence, we proceed to improve the solution. The least uncovered value is 4. Subtracting from every uncovered value and adding it to every value lying at the intersection of lines, we get the revised values as shown in Table 3. TABLE 3. Reduced Cost Table 2 Worker Job 1 23 4 5A7 SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT 14 6 3B18 95 SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  1C4 14 20 SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT D SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  80 0 7E0 00 4 0 The solution given in Table 3 is optimal since the number of lines covering zeros matches with the order of the matrix. We can, therefore, proceed to make assignments. To begin with, since each of the columns has multiple zeros, we cannot start making assignments considering columns and have, therefore, to look through rows. The first row has a single zero. Thus, we make assignment A-2 and cross out zero at E-2 . Further, the second and the third rows have one zero each. We make assignments B-4 and C-5, and cross out zeros at D-4 and E-5. Now, both the rows left have two zero each and so have both the columns. This indicates existence of multiple optimal solutions. To obtain the solutions, we select zeros arbitrarily and proceed as discussed below. Select the zero at D-1, make assignment and cross out zeros at D-3 and E-1 (as both, worker D and job 1, are not available any more). Next, assign worker E to job 3, corresponding to the only zero left. Evidently, selecting the zero at E-3 initially would have the effect of making same assignments. Select the zero at D-3, make assignment and cross out zeros at D-1 and E-3. Next, make assignment at the only zero left at E-1. Obviously, selecting the zero at E-1 making assignment in the first place would lead to the same assignments. To conclude, the problem has two optimal solutions as given below. Solution 1  (00s Birr) Cost Solution 2 (00s Birr) Cost  Worker  Job Worker  Job A218A218B412B412C516C516D120D320Job left 3Job left 1Total 66Total 66 Maximization Case In some situations, the assignment problem may call for maximization of profit, revenue, etc., as the objective. For example, we may be faced with the problem of assignment of salesmen in different regions in which they can display different qualities in making sales (reflected in amounts of sales executed by them.) Obviously, assignment would be made in such a way that the total expected revenue is maximized. For dealing with a maximization problem, we first change it into an equivalent minimization problem. This is achieved by subtracting each of the elements of the given pay-off matrix from a constant (value) K. Thus, we may simply put a negative sign before each of the pay-off values (which is equivalent to subtracting each value from zero). Usually, the largest of all values in the given matrix is located and then each one of the values is subtract from it (the largest value is taken so as to avoid the appearance of negative signs). Then the problem is solved the same way as a minimization problem is. Example 3.2.6: A company plans to assign 5 salesman to 5 districts in which it operates. Estimates of sales revenue in thousands of birr for each salesman in different districts are given the following table. In your opinion, what should be the placement of the salesmen if the objective is to maximize the expected sales revenue? Expected Sales Data Salesman District D1D2D3D4D5S14046483648S24832362944S34935413845S43046494444S53741484347 Since it is a maximization problem, we would first subtract each of the entries in the table from the largest one, which equals 49 here. The resultant data are given in Table 1. TABLE 1: Opportunity- Loss Matrix Salesman District D1D2D3D4D5S1931131S211713205S30148114S4193055S5128162 Now we shall proceed as usual. Step 1: Subtract minimum value in each row from every value in the row. The resulting values are given in Table 2. TABLE 2: Reduced Cost Table 1 Salesman District D1D2D3D4D5S1820120S201612194S30149114S4193055S5117051Steps 2, 3: Subtract minimum value in each column in reduced cost table 1 from each value in the column. Test for optimality by drawing lines to cover zeros. These are shown in Table 3. TABLE 3. Reduced Cost Table 2 Salesman District D1D2D3D4D5S1 80070S2 01412144S3 012864S4 191005S5 115001 Since the number of lines covering all zeros is fewer than n, we select the least uncovered cell value, which equals 4. With this, we can modify the table as given Table 4. Steps 4, 5, 6: Find improved solution. Test for optimality and make assignments. TABLE 4: Reduced Cost Table 3 Salesman District D1D2D3D4D5S1   12  0 7 0S2  10 8 10 0 S3 0 8 4 2 S4 231 0 5S5 1550  1 There are more than one optimal assignment possible in this case because of the existence of multiple zeros in zeros in different rows and columns. The assignments possible are: S1 D2, S2 D5, S3 D1, S4 D3, S5 D4; or. S1 D2, S2 D1, S3 D5, S4 D3, S5 D4; or S1 D2, S2 D5, S3 D1, S4 D4, S5 D3; or S1 D2, S2 D1, S3 D5, S4 D4, S5 - D3. Each of these assignment patterns would lead to expected aggregated sales equal to 231 thousand birr. Chapter 5: Decision Theory and Decision Trees 5.1. INTRODUCTION The success or failure that an individual or organization experiences, depends to a large extent on the ability of making appropriate decisions. Making of a decision requires an enumeration of feasible and viable alternatives (courses of action or strategies), the projection of consequences associated with different alternatives and a measure of effectiveness (or an objective) by which the most preferred alternative is identified. Decision theory provides an analytical and systematic approach to the study of decision-making wherein data concerning the occurrence of different outcomes (consequences) may be evaluated to enable the decision-maker to identify suitable alternative (or course of action). Decision models useful in helping decision-makers make the best possible decisions are classified according to the degree of certainty. The scale of certainty can range from complete certainty to complete uncertainty. The region which falls between these two extreme points corresponds to the decision making under risk (probabilistic problems). DEGREE OF CERTAINTY Complete certainty --------------------------------------------------------Complete uncertainty Irrespective of the type of decision model, there are certain essential characteristics which are common to all as listed below. Decision alternatives: There are a finite number of decision alternatives available with the decision-maker at each point in time when a decision is made. The number and type of such alternatives may depend on the previous decisions made and on what has happened subsequent to those decisions. These alternatives are also called courses of action (actions, acts or strategies) and are under control and known to the decision-maker. These may be described numerically such as, stocking 100 units of a particular item, or non-numerically such as, conducting a market survey to know the likely demand of an item. State of Nature: A possible future condition (consequence or event) resulting from the choice of a decision alternative depends upon certain factors beyond the control of the decision-maker. These factors are called states of nature (future). For example, if the decision is to carry an umbrella or not, the consequence (get wet or do not) depends on what action nature takes. The states of nature are mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive with respect to any decision problem. The states of nature may be described numerically such as, demand of 100 units of an item or non-numerically such as, employees strike, etc. Payoff: A numerical value resulting from each possible combination of alternatives and states of nature is called payoff. The payoff values are always conditional values because of unknown states of nature. A tabular arrangement of these conditional outcome (payoff) values is known as payoff matrix as shown in Table 5.1.1. Table 5.1.1 General Form of Payoff Matrix Courses of Action (Alternatives)States of NatureS1S2SnN1 N2 . . . NmP11 P21 . . . Pm1P12 P22 . . . Pm2 P1n P2n . . . Pmn STEPS IN DECISION THEORY APPROACH The decision-making process involves the following steps: Identify and define the problem Listing of all possible future events, called states of nature, which can occur in the context of the decision problem. Such events are not under the control of decision-maker because these are erratic in nature. Identification of all the courses of action (alternatives or decision choices) which are available to the decision-maker. The decision-maker has control over these courses of action. Expressing the payoffs (Pij) resulting from each pair of course of action and state of nature. These payoffs are normally expressed in a monetary value. Apply an appropriate mathematical decision theory model to select best course of action from the given list on the basis of some criterion (measure of effectiveness) that results in the optimal (desired) payoff. Example .5.1: A firm manufactures three types of products. The fixed and variable costs are given below: Fixed Cost (Birr) Variable Cost per Unit (Birr) Product A : 25,000 12 Product B : 35,000 9 Product C : 53,000 7 The likely demand (units) of the products is given below: Poor demand : 3,000 Moderate demand : 7,000 High demand : 11,000 If the sale price of each type of product is birr 25, then prepare the payoff matrix. Solution: Let D1, D2 and D3 be the poor, moderate and high demand, respectively. Then payoff is given by: Payoff = Sales revenue Cost The calculation for payoff (in thousands) for each pair of alternative demand (course of action) and the types of product (state of nature) are shown below: D1 A = 3 x 25 25 3 x 12 = 14 D2 A = 7 x 25 25 7 x 12 = 66 D1 B = 3 x 25 35 3 x 19 = 13 D2 B = 7 x 25 35 7 x 9 = 77 D1 C = 3 x 25 53 3 x 7 = 1 D2 C = 7 x 25 53 7 x 7 = 73 D3 A = 11 x 25 25 11 x 12 = 118 D3 B = 11 x 25 35 11 x 9 = 141 D3 C = 11 x 25 53 11 x 7 = 145 The payoff values are shown in Table 5.1.2 (`000 Birr) Product TypeAlternative Demand AD1D2D31466118B1377141C 173145 5.3. TYPES OF DECISION MAKING ENVIRONMENTS Decisions are made based upon the data available about the occurrence of events as well as the decision situation (or environment). There are four types of decision-making environment: Certainty, uncertainty, risk and conflict. Type 1 Decision Making under Certainty In this case the decision-maker has the complete knowledge (perfect information) of consequence of every decision choice (course of action or alternative) with certainty. Obviously, he will select an alternative that yields the largest return (payoff) for the known future (state of nature). Type 2 Decision Making under Risk In this case the decision-maker has less than complete knowledge with certainty of the consequence of every decision choice (course of action). This means there is more than one state of nature (future) and for which he makes an assumption of the probability with which each states of nature will occur. For example, probability of getting head in the toss of a coin is 0.5. Type 3 Decision Making under Uncertainty In this case the decision-maker is unable to specify the probabilities with which the various states of nature (futures) will occur. Thus, decisions under uncertainty are taken with even less information than decisions under risk. For example, the probability that Mr. X will be the prime minister of the country 15 years from now is not known. 5.4. DECISION MAKING UNDER UNCERTAINTY In the absence of knowledge about the probability of any state of nature (future) occurring, the decision-maker must arrive at a decision only on the actual conditional payoff values, together with a policy (attitude). There are several different criteria of decision-making in this situation. The criteria that we will discuss in this section include: Maximax or Minimum (iv) Criterion of realism( Hurwicz). Maximin or Minimax (v) Criterion of regret Equally likely (Laplace) 5.4.1. Criterion of Optimism (Maximax or Minimin) In this criterion the decision-maker ensures that he should not miss the opportunity to achieve the largest possible profit (maximax) or lowest possible cost (minimin). Thus, he selects the alternative (decision choice or course of action) that represents the maximum of the maxima (or minimum of the minima) payoffs (consequences or outcomes). The working method is summarized as follows: Locate the maximum (or minimum) payoff corresponding to each alternative (or course of action), then Select an alternative with best anticipated payoff value (maximum for profit and minimum for cost). Since in this criterion the decision-maker selects an alternative with largest (or lowest) possible payoff value, it is also called an optimistic decision criterion. Criterion of Pessimism (Maximin or Minimax) In this criterion the decision-maker ensures that he would earn no less (or pay no more) than some specified amount. Thus, he selects the alternative that represents the maximum of the minima (or minimum of the maxima in case of loss) payoff in case of profits. The working method is summarized as follows: Locate the minimum (or maximum in case of profit) payoff value in case of loss (or cost) data corresponding to each alternative, then Select an alternative with the best anticipated payoff value (maximum for profit and minimum for loss or cost). Since in this criterion the decision-maker is conservative about the future and always anticipates worst possible outcome (minimum for profit and maximum for cost or loss), it is called a pessimistic decision criterion. 5.4.3. Equally Likely Decision (Laplace) Criterion Since the probabilities of states of nature are not known, it is assumed that all states of nature will occur with equal probability, i.e. each state of nature is assigned an equal probability. As states of nature are mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive, so the probability of each of these must be 1/ (number of states of nature). The working method is summarized as follows: assign equal probability value to each state of nature using the formula: 1 EMBED Equation.3  (number of states of nature). Compute the expected (or average) payoff for each alternative (course of action) by adding all the payoffs and dividing by the number of possible states of nature or by applying the formula: (Probability of state of nature j) x (payoff value for the combination of alternative, i and state of nature j) ( c) Select the best expected payoff value (maximum for profit and minimum for cost ). This criterion is also known as the criterion of insufficient reason because, except in a few cases, some information of the likelihood of occurrence of states of nature is available. 5.4.4.Criterion of Realism (Hurwicz Criterion) This criterion suggests that a rational decision-maker should be neither completely optimistic nor pessimistic and, therefore, must display a mixture of both. Hurwicz, who suggested this criterion, introduced the idea of a coefficient of optimism (denoted by EMBED Equation.3 ) to measure the decision-makers degree of optimism. This coefficient lies between 0 and 1, where 0 represents a complete pessimistic attitude about the future and 1 a complete optimistic attitude about the future. Thus, if  EMBED Equation.3 is the coefficient of optimism, then (1- EMBED Equation.3 ) will represent the coefficient of pessimism. The Hurwicz approach suggests that the decision maker must select an alternative that maximizes H (Criterion of realism) =  EMBED Equation.3 (Maximum in column) + (1- EMBED Equation.3 ) (Minimum in column) The working method is summarized as follows; Decide the coefficient of optimism  EMBED Equation.3 (alpha) and then coefficient of pessimism (1- EMBED Equation.3 ). For each alternative select the largest and lowest payoff value and multiply these with  EMBED Equation.3  and (1- EMBED Equation.3 ) values, respectively. Then, calculate the weighted average, H by using the above formula. Select an alternative with best anticipated weighted average payoff value. 5.4.5.Criterion of Regret (savage Criterion) This criterion is also known as opportunity loss decision criterion or minimax regret decision criterion because- the decision maker feels regret after adopting a wrong course of action (or alternative) resulting in an opportunity loss of payoff. Thus, s/he always intends to minimize this regret. The working method is summarized as follows: From the given payoff matrix, develop an opportunity-loss (or regret) matrix as follows: Find the best payoff corresponding to each state of nature, and Subtract all other entries (payoff values) in that row from this value. For each course of action (strategy or alternative) identify the worst or maximum regret value. Record this number in a new row. Select the course of action (alternative) with the smallest anticipated opportunity-loss value. Example 5. 2. A food products company is contemplating the introduction of a revolutionary new product with new packaging or replace the existing product at much higher price (S1) or a moderate change in the composition of the existing product with a new packaging at a small increase in price (S2) or a small change in the composition of the existing product except the word New with a negligible increase in price (S3). The three possible states of nature or events are: (i) high increase in sales (N1), (ii) no change in sales (N2) and (iii) decrease in sales (N3). The marketing department of the company worked out the payoffs in terms of yearly net profits for each of the strategies of three events (expected sales). This is represented in the following table: States of NatureStrategiesN1N2N3S1 S2 S3700,000 500,000 300,000300,000 450,000 300,000150,000 0 300,000 Which strategy should the concerned executive choose on the basis of Maximin Criterion (ii). Maximax criterion Minimax regret criterion (iv). Laplace criterion? Solution: the payoff matrix is rewritten as follows: Maximin Criterion: Strategies States of NatureS1S2S3N1 N2 N3 Column minimum700,000 300,000 150,000 150,000500,000 450,000 0 0150,000 300,000 300,000 300,000  EMBED Equation.3 Maximin  The maximum of column minima is 300,000. Hence, the company should adopt strategy S3. Maximax Criterion Strategies States of NatureS1S2S3N1 N2 N3 Column minimum700,000 300,000 150,000 700,000  EMBED Equation.3 Maximax500,000 450,000 0 500,000 150,000 300,000 300,000 300,000 The maximum of column maxima is 700,000. Hence, the company should adopt strategy S1. Minimax Regret Criterion. Opportunity loss table is shown below: StrategiesStates of Nature S1 S2 S3N1 N2 N3 Column maximum 700,000 700,000 = 0 450,000 300,000 = 150,000 300,000 150,000 = 150,000 150,000  EMBED Equation.3 Minimax regret 700,000 500,000 = 200,000 450,000 450,000 = 0 300,000 0 = 300,000 300,000700,000, - 300,000 = 400,000 450,000 300,000 =150,000 300,000 300,000 = 0 400,000  Hence the company should adopt minimum opportunity loss strategy, S1 Laplace Criterion: since we do not know the probabilities of states of nature, assume that they are equal. For this example, we would assume that each state of nature has a probability 1/3 of occurrence. Thus, StrategyExpected Return (Br.)S1 S2 S3(700,000 + 300,000 + 150,000)/3 = 383,333.33 (500,000 + 450,000 + 0)/3 = 316,666.66 (300,000 + 300,000 + 300,000)/3 = 300,000 Since the largest expected return is from strategy S1, the executive must select strategy S1. Example 5.3: A manufacturer makes a product, of which the principal ingredient is a chemical X. At the moment, the manufacturer spends Br. 1,000 per year on supply of X, but there is a possibility that the price may soon increase to four times its present figure because of a worldwide shortage of the chemical. There is another chemical Y, which the manufacturer could use in conjunction with a third chemical, Z in order to give the same effect as chemical X. Chemicals Y and Z would together cost the manufacturer Br. 3000 per year, but their prices are unlikely to rise. What action should the manufacturer take? Apply the maximin and minimax criteria for decision-making and give two sets of solutions. If the coefficient of optimism is 0.4, find the course of action that minimizes the cost. Solution: The data of the problem is summarized in the following table (negative figures in the table represents profit). States of Nature Courses of Action S1 (use Y and Z) S2 (use X) N1 (Price of X increases) N2 (Price of X does not increase - 3,000 - 3,000- 4,000 - 1,000(i) Maximin Criterion States of Nature Courses of Action S1 S2 N1 N2 Column minimum - 3,000 - 3,000 - 3,000  EMBED Equation.3 maximin- 4,000 - 1,000 - 4,000 Maximum of column minima = - 3,000. Hence, the manufacturer should adopt action S1. (ii) Minimax (or opportunity loss) Criterion States of Nature Courses of Action S1 S2 N1 N2 Maximum Opportunity - 3,000- (-3,000) = 0 - 1,000 (-3,000) = 2,000 2,000- 3,000 (-4,000) = 1,000 - 1,000 (-1,000) = 0 1,000 EMBED Equation.3  Minimax Hence, manufacturer should adopt minimum opportunity loss course of action S2. Hurwicz Criterion. Given the coefficient of optimism equal to 0.4, the coefficient of pessimism will be 1 0.4 = 0.6. Then according to Hurwicz, select course of action that optimizes (maximum for profit and minimum for cost) the payoff value H =  EMBED Equation.3  (Best payoff) + (1- EMBED Equation.3 ) (worst payoff) =  EMBED Equation.3  (Maximum in column) + (1- EMBED Equation.3 ) (Minimum in column) Course of ActionBest PayoffWorst PayoffHS1 S2-3,000 -1,000-3,000 -4,000-3,000 -2,800 Since course of action S2 has the least cost (maximum profit) = 0.4(1,000) + 0.6 (4,000) = Br 2,800, the manufacturer should adopt it. 5.5. DECISION MAKING UNDER RISK Decision making under risk is a probabilistic decision situation, in which more than one state of nature exists and the decision-maker has sufficient information to assign probability values to the likely occurrence of each of these states. Knowing the probability distribution of the sates of nature, the best decision is to select that course of action which has the largest expected payoff value. The most widely used criterion for evaluating various courses of action (alternatives) under risk is the Expected Monetary Value (EMV) or Expected Utility. Expected Monetary Value (EMV) The expected monetary value (EMV) for a given course of action is the weighted average payoff, which is the sum of the payoffs for each course of action multiplied by the probabilities associated with each state of nature. Mathematically EMV is stated as follows: EMV (Course of action, Sj) =  EMBED Equation.3  Where m = number of possible states of nature Pi = probability of occurrence of state of nature i Pij = Payoff associated with state of nature Ni and course of action, Sj. Steps for calculating EMV: The various steps involved in the calculation of EMV are as follows: Construct a payoff matrix listing all possible courses of action and states of nature. Enter the conditional payoff values associated with each possible combination of course of action and state of nature along with the probabilities of the occurrence of each state of nature. Calculate the EMV for each course of action by multiplying the conditional payoff by the associated probabilities and add these weighted values for each course of action. Select the course of action that yields the optimal EMV. Example 5.4: Mr. Gamna quite often flies from town A to town B. He can use the airport bus which costs Birr 25 but if he takes it, there is a 0.08 chance that he will miss the flight. The stay in a hotel costs birr 270 with a 0.96 chance of being on time for the flight. For Birr 350 he can use a taxi which will make 99 per cent chance of being on time for the flight. If Mr. Gamna catches the plane on time, he will conclude a business transaction which will produce a profit of Br 10,000, otherwise he will lose it. Which mode of transport should Mr. Gamna use? Answer on the basis of the EMV criterion. Solution: Computation of EMV of various courses of action is shown in Table 5.3. Courses of ActionStates of NatureBusStay in HotelTaxiCostProb.Expected ValueCostProb.Expected ValueCostProbExpected ValueCatches the flight10,000 -25 = 9,9750.929,17710,000-270 = 9,7300.969,340.8010,000 350 =9,6500.999,553.50Miss the flight-250.08-2.0-2700.04-10.80-3500.01-3.50Expected monetary 9,175 9,330 9, 550 Value (EMV) Comparing the EMV associated with each course of action indicates that course of action Taxi is the logical alternative because it has the highest EMV. Example 5.5: The manager of a Flower Shop promises its customers delivery within four hours on all flower orders. All flowers are purchased on the previous day and delivered to Parker by 8.00 AM the next morning. The daily demand for roses is as follows: Dozens of roses : 70 80 90 100 Probability : 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.3 The manager purchases roses for Br 10 per dozen and sells them for Br 30. All unsold roses are donated to a local hospital. How many dozens of roses should Parker order each evening to maximize its profits? What is the optimum expected profit? Solution: Since number of roses (in dozen) purchased is under control of decision maker, purchase per day is considered as course of action (decision choice) and the daily demand of the flowers is uncertain and only known with probability, therefore, it is considered as a state of nature (event). From the data, it is clear that the flower shop must not purchase less than 7 or more than 10 dozen roses per day. Also each dozen roses sold within a day yields a profit of Br (30 10) = Br 20 and otherwise it is a loss of Br 10. Thus Marginal profit (MP) = Selling price Cost = 30 10 = BR 20 Marginal loss (ML) = Loss on unsold roses = BR 10 Using the information given in the problem, the various conditional profit (payoff) values for each combination of decision choice-event are given by: Conditional profit = MP x Roses Sold ML x Roses not sold  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  Where D denotes the number of roses sold within a day and S the number of roses stocked. The resulting conditional profit values and corresponding expected payoffs are computed in Table 5.4. Table 5.4 conditional Profit Values (Payoffs) States of nature (Demand per Day)ProbabilityConditional Profit (Br)due to Courses of Action (Purchase Per Day)Expected Payoff (Br) due to Courses of Action (Purchase per Day) (1)70 (2)80 (3)90 (4)100 (5)70 (1) x (2)80 (1) x (3)90 (1) x (4)100 (1) x (5)70 80 90 1000.1 0.2 0.4 0.3140 140 140 140130 160 160 160120 150 180 180110 140 170 20014 28 56 4213 32 64 4812 30 72 5411 28 68 60Expected monetary value (EMV) 140 157 168 167 Since the highest EMV of Br 168 is corresponding to course of action 90, the flower shop should purchase nine dozen roses everyday. Example 5.6 A retailer purchases cherries every morning at Br 50 a case and sells them for Br 80 a case. Any case remaining unsold at the end of the day can be disposed of next day at a salvage value of Br 20 per case (thereafter they have no value). Past sales have ranged from 15 to 18 cases per day. The following is the record of sales for the past 120 days. Cases Sold : 15 16 17 18 Number of days : 12 24 48 36 Find how many cases the retailer should purchase per day to maximize his profit. Solution Let Ni (I = 1, 2, 3, 4) be the possible states of nature (daily likely demand) and Sj (j= 1, 2, 3, 4) be all possible courses of action (number of cases of cherries to be purchased). Marginal profit (MP) = Selling price Cost = Br (80 50) = Br 30 Marginal Loss (ML) = Loss on unsold cases = Br (50 20) = Br 30 The conditional profit (payoff) values for each act-event combination are given by Conditional profit = MP x Cases sold ML x Cases unsold) = (80 50) (cases sold) (50 20) (Cases unsold)  EMBED Equation.3  The resulting conditional profit values and corresponding expected payoffs are computed in Table 5.5. Table 5.5 conditional Profit Values (payoffs) States of nature (Demand per Week)ProbabilityConditional Profit (Br) due to Courses of Action (Purchase Per Day)Expected Payoff (Br) due to Courses of Action (Purchase per Day)(1)15 (2)16 (3)17 (4)18 (5)15 (1) x (2)16 (1) x (3)17 (1) x (4)18 (1) x (5)15 16 17 180.1 0.2 0.4 0.3450 450 450 450420 480 480 480390 450 510 510360 420 480 54045 90 180 13542 96 192 14439 90 204 15336 84 192 162Expected monetary value (EMV) 450 474 486 474 Since the highest EMV of Br 486 is corresponding to course of action 17, the retailer must purchase 17 cases of cherries every morning. Example 5.7: The probability of the demand for Lorries for hiring on any day in a given district is as follows: No. of Lorries demanded : 0 1 2 3 4 Probability : 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 Lorries have a fixed cost of BR 90 each day of to keep the daily charges (net of variable costs of running) BR 200. If the lorry-hire company owns 4 Lorries, what is its daily expectation? If the company is about to go into business and currently has no Lorries, how many Lorries should it buy? Solution: It is given that BR 90 is the fixed cost and BR 200 is variable cost. Now the payoff values with 4 Lorries at the disposal of decision-maker are calculated as under: No of Lorries demanded : 0 1 2 3 4 Payoff : 0 90 x 4 200 90 x 4 400-90 x 4 600-90 x 4 800-90 x 4 (with 4 lorries) = -360 = -160 = 40 = 240 = 440 Thus daily expectation is obtained by multiplying the payoff values with the given corresponding probabilities of demand: Daily Expectation = (-360) (0.1) + (240(0.2) + (440 (0.2) = BR 80 The conditional payoffs and expected payoffs for each course of action are shown in tables 5.6 and 5.7. Table 5.6 Conditional Payoff Values Demand of LorriesProbabilityConditional Payoff (BR) due to Decision to purchase Lorries (course of Action)012340 1 2 3 40.1 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.20 0 0 0 0-90 110 110 110 110-180 20 220 220 220-270 -70 130 330 330-360 -160 40 240 440 Table 5.7 Expected payoffs and EMV Demand of LorriesProbabilityConditional Payoff (Br) due to Decision to purchase Lorries (course of Action)012340 1 2 3 40.1 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.20 0 0 0 0-9 22 33 22 22-18 4 66 44 44-27 -14 39 66 66-36 -32 12 48 88EMV09014013080 Since EMV Br 140 for the course of action 2 is highest, the company should buy 2 Lorries. Expected Opportunity Loss (EOL) An alternative approach to maximizing expected monetary value (EMV) is to minimize the expected opportunity loss (EOL), also called expected value of regret. The EOL is defined as the difference between the highest profit (or payoff) for a state of nature and the actual profit obtained for the particular course of action taken. In other words, EOL is the amount of payoff that is lost by not selecting the course of action that has the greatest payoff for the state of nature that actually occur. The course of action due to which EOL is minimum is recommended. Since EOL is an alternative decision criterion for decision-making under risk, therefore, the results will always be the same as those obtained by EMV criterion discussed earlier. Thus, only one of the two methods should be applied to reach a decision. Mathematically, it is stated as follows: EOL (State of nature, Ni) =  EMBED Equation.3  Where lij = opportunity loss due to state of nature, Ni and course of action, Sj Pi = probability of occurrence of state of nature, Ni Steps for Calculating EOL: Various steps involved in the calculation of EOL are as follows: Prepare a conditional profit table for each course of action and state of nature combination along with the associated probabilities. For each state of nature calculate the conditional opportunity loss (COL) values by subtracting each payoff from the maximum payoff for that outcome. Calculate EOL for each course of action by multiplying the probability of each state of nature with the COL value and then adding the values. Select a course of action for which the EOL value is minimum. Example 5.8 a company manufactures goods for a market in which the technology of the product is changing rapidly. The research and development department has produced a new product which appears to have potential for commercial exploitation. A further Br 60,000 is required for development testing. The company has 100 customers and each customers and each customer might purchase at the most one unit of the product. Market research suggests that a selling price of Br 6,000 for each unit with total variable costs of manufacturing and selling estimate are Br 2,000 for each unit. From previous experience, it has been possible to derive a probability distribution relating to the proportion of customers who will buy the product as follows: Proportion of customers : 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 Probability : 0.10 0.10 0.20 0.40 0. 20 Determine the expected opportunity losses, given no other information than that stated above, and state whether or not the company should develop the product. Solution: If P is the proportion of customers who purchase the new product, the conditional profit is: (6,000 2,000) x 100 p 60,000 = Br (400,000 p 60,000) Let Ni (I = 1, 2, , 5) be the possible states of nature, i.e. proportion of the customers who will buy the new product and S1 (develop the product) and S2 (do not develop the product) be the two courses of action. The conditional profit values (payoffs) for each pair of Nis and Sjs are shown in Table 5.8. Table 5.8 Conditional Profit Values (Payoffs) State of Nature (proportion of Customers, p)Conditional Profit = Br(400,000 p 60,000)Course of ActionS1 (Develop)S2 (Do not Develop)0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20-44,000 -28,000 -12,000 4,000 20,0000 0 0 0 0 Table 5.9. Opportunity Loss Values State of Nature ProbabilityConditional Profit (Br) Opportunity Loss (Br) S1S2S1S20.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.200.1 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.2-44,000 -28,000 -12,000 4,000 20,0000 0 0 0 044,000 28,000 12,000 0 00 0 0 4,000 20,000 Using the given estimates of probabilities associated with each state of nature, the expected opportunity loss (EOL) for each course of action is given below: EOL (S1) = 0.1 (44,000) + 0.1 (28,000) + 0.2 (12,000) + 0.4 (0) + 0.2 (0) = Br 9,600 EOL (S2) = 0.1 (0) + 0.1 (0) + 0.2 (0) + 0.4 (4,000) + 0.2 (20,000) = Br 5,600 Since the company seeks to minimize the expected opportunity loss, the company should select courses of action S2 (do not develop the product) with minimum EOL. Expected Value of Perfect Information (EVPI) In decision-making under risk each state of nature is associated with the probability of its occurrence. However, If the decision-maker can acquire perfect (complete and accurate) information about the occurrence of various states of nature, then he will be able to select a course of action that yields the desired payoff for whatever state of nature that actually occurs. We have seen that the EMV or EOL criterion helps the decision-maker select a particular course of action that optimizes the expected payoff without any additional information. Expected value of perfect information (EVPI) represents the maximum amount of money the decision-maker has to pay to get this additional information about the occurrence of various states of nature before a decision has to be made. Mathematically it is stated as EVPI = Expected profit (or value) with perfect information under certainty Expected profit without perfect information  EMBED Equation.3  Where Pij = best payoff for state of nature, Ni Pi= Probability of state of nature, Ni EMV* = maximum expected monetary value Example 5.9 A company needs to increase its production beyond its existing capacity. It has narrowed the alternatives to two approaches to increase the production capacity: (a) expansion, at a cost of Br 8 million, or (b) modernization at a cost of Br 5 million. Both approaches would require the same amount of time for implementation. Management believes that over the required payback period, demand will either be high or moderate. Since high demand is considered to be somewhat less likely than moderate demand, the probability of high demand has been set at 0.35. If the demand is high, expansion would gross an estimated additional Br 12 million but modernization only an additional Br 6 million, due to lower maximum production capability. On the other hand, if the demand is moderate, the comparable figures would be Br 7 million for expansion and Br 5 million for modernization. Calculate the conditional profit in relation to various action-and outcome combinations and states of nature. If the company wishes to maximize its expected monetary value (EMV), should it modernize or expand? Calculate the EVPI. Construct the conditional opportunity loss table and also calculate EOL. Solution: (a) Defining the states of nature: High demand and Moderate demand (over which the company has no control) and courses of action (companys possible decisions): Expand and Modernize. Since the probability that the demand is high estimated at 0.35, the probability of moderate demand must be (0-.035) = 0.65. The calculations for conditional profit values are shown in Table 5.10. Table 5.10 Conditional Profit Table States of Nature (Demand) Conditional Profit (million Br) due to Course of Action Expand (S1)Modernize (S2)High demand (N1) Moderate demand (N2)12 8 = 4 7 - 8= -16 5 =1 5 5 = 0 The payoff table (Table 5.10) can be rewritten as follows along with the given probabilities of states of nature. Table 5.11. Payoff Table State of Nature (Demand)ProbabilityConditional Profit (million br) due to Course of ActionExpandModernizeHigh demand Moderate demand0.35 0.654 -11 0 The calculation of EMV for each course of action S1 and S2 is given below: EMV (S1) = 0.35(4) + 0.65 (-1) = Br 0.75 million EMV (S2) = 0.35(1) + 0.65(o) = Br 0.35 million Thus to maximize EMV, the company must choose course of action S1 (expand). The EMV of the optimal course of action is generally denoted by EMV*. Therefore, EMV* = EMV (S1) = Br 0.75 million (c) To calculate EVPI, we shall first calculate EPPI. For calculating EPPI, we choose optimal course of action for each state of nature, multiply its conditional profit by the given probability to get weighted profit, and then sum these weights as shown in Table 5.12. Table 5.12 State of Nature (Demand)ProbabilityOptimal Course of ActionProfit from Optimal Course of Action (Br million)Conditional ProfitWeight Profit High demand Moderate demand 0.35 0.65S1 S24 04 x 0.35 = 1.40 0 x 0.65 = 0 EPPI = 1.40 The optimal EMV* is Br 0.75 million corresponding to the course of action S1. Then EVPI = EPPI EMV(S1) = 1.40 0.75 = Br 0.65 million. In other words, if the company could get a perfect information (or forecast) of demand (high or moderate), it should consider paying up to Br. 0.65 million for an information. (d) The opportunity loss values are shown in Table 5.13. Table 5.13 Conditional Opportunity Loss Table State of Nature (Demand) ProbabilityConditional Profit (Br million) due to Course of Action Conditional Opportunity Loss (Br million) due to Course of Action S1S2S1S2High demand (N1) Moderate demand (N2)0.35 0.654 -11 00 13 0 The conditional opportunity loss values may be explained as follows: If high demand (N1) occurred, then the maximum profit of Br 4 million would be achieved by selecting course of action S1. Therefore, the selection of S1 would result in zero opportunity loss, as it is the best decision that can be made if N1 occurs. If course of action S2 was chosen with a payoff of one million, then this would result in an opportunity loss of 4 1 = Br 3 million. If moderate demand (N2) occurred, then the best course of action would be S2 with Rs zero million profit. Thus, opportunity loss would be associated with the selection of s2 but if S1 was selected, then the opportunity loss would be 0 (-1) = Br 1 million. That is, the company would have been Br 1 million worse off if it had chosen course of action S2. Using the given estimates of probabilities associated with each state of nature, i.e. P (N1) = 0.35 and P (N2) = 0.65, the expected opportunity losses for the two courses of action are: EOL (S1) = 0.35(0) + 0.65(1) = Br 0.65 million EOL (S2) = 0.35(3) + 0.65(0) = Br 1.05 million Since decision-maker seeks to minimize the expected opportunity loss, he must select course of action S1 as it produces the smallest expected opportunity loss. POSTERIOR PROBABILITIES AND BAYESIAN ANALYSIS The search and evaluation of decision alternatives often reveal new information. If such information is regarding the identification of alternatives, it requires revision and expansion of the test of alternatives. But if it is regarding the effects of alternatives, consequences are restated. When the uncontrollable factors are involved, either the states of nature themselves are reconsidered or their likelihoods are revised. The value of new information is evaluated in terms of its impact on the expected payoff. The expected value and the cost of the new information are compared to determine whether it is worth acquiring. An initial probability statement to evaluate expected payoff is called a prior probability distribution. The one which has been revised in the light of new information is called a posterior probability distribution. It will be evident that what is a posterior to one sequence of state of nature becomes the prior to others which are yet to happen. This section will be concerned with the method of computing posterior probabilities from prior probabilities using a mathematical formula called Bayes theorem. A further analysis of problems using these probabilities with respect to new expected payoffs with additional information is called prior-posterior analysis. The Bayes theorem in general terms can be stated as follows: Let A1, A2, , An be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive outcomes. Their probabilities P(A1), P(A2), , P(An) are known. There is an experimental outcome B for which the conditional probabilities P(B|A1), P(B|A2),, P(B| An) are also known. Given the information that outcome B has occurred, the revised conditional probabilities of outcomes Ai, i.e. P(Ai | B), i = 1, 2, , n are determined by using following conditional probability relationship:  EMBED Equation.3  Since each joint probability can be expressed as the product of a known marginal (prior) and conditional probability,  EMBED Equation.3  Example 5.10: A company is considering the introduction of a new product to its existing product range. It has defined two levels of sales as high and low on which to base its decision and has estimated the changes that each market level will occur, together with their costs and consequent profits or losses. The information is summarized below: States of NatureProbabilityCourses of ActionMarket the Product (Br 000)Do not Market the Product (Br 000)High sales Low sales 0.3 0.7150 -400 0 The companys marketing manager suggests that a market research survey may be undertaken to provide further information on which to base the decision. On past experience with a certain market research organization, the marketing manager assesses its ability to give good information in the light of subsequent actual sales achievements as follows: Market Research (Survey outcome)Actual SalesMarket highMarket lowHigh sales forecast Indecisive survey report Low sales forecast 0.5 0.3 0.20.1 0.4 0.1 The market research survey will cost Br 20,000, state whether or not there is a case for employing the market research organization. Solution The expected monetary value (EMV) for each course of action is shown in Table5.6 1 Table 5.6.1 States of NatureProbabilityCourses of ActionExpected Profit (Br 1,000)MarketDo not MarketMarketDo not MarketHigh sales Low sales0.3 0.7150 -400 045 -28 EMV = 170 0 = 0With no additional information, the company should choose course of action market the product. However, if the company had the perfect information about the low sales then it would not go ahead as the expected value is Br 28,000. Thus, the value of perfect information is the expected value of low sales. Let us define the outcomes of the research survey as: high sales (S1), indecisive report (S2) and low sales (S3) and states of nature as: high market (N1) and low market (N2) The calculations for prior probabilities of forecast are given in Table 5.6.2 Table 5.6.2 OutcomeSales PredictionHigh Market (N1)Low Market (N2)High sales (S1) Indecisive report (S2) Low sales (S3)P(S1| N1) = 0.5 P(S2| N1) = 0.3 P(S3 | N1) = 0.2P(S1| N2) = 0.1 P(S2| N2) = 0.4 P(S3 | N2) = 0.5 With this additional information, the company can now revise the prior probabilities outcomes to get posterior probabilities. These can be used to recalculate the EMV and determine the optimal course of action given the additional information. Table 5.6.3 shows the calculation of the revise probabilities given the sales forecast. Table 5.6.3 Revised Probabilities States of NaturePrior Probability P(Ni)Conditional Probability P(Si |Ni)Joint Probability  EMBED Equation.3 High Sales (N1)0.3P(S1 |N1) = 0.5 P(S2 |N1) = 0.3 P(S3 |N1) = 0.20.15 - -- 0.09 -- - 0.06Low sales (N2)0.7P(S1 |N2) = 0.1 P(S2 |N2) = 0.4 P(S3 |N2) = 0.50.07 - -- 0.28 -- - 0.35Marginal Probability 0.220.370.41The posterior probabilities of actual sales given the sales forecast are: Outcome (Si)Probability P(Si)States of Nature (Ni)Posterior Probability  EMBED Equation.3 S10.22N1 N20.15/0.22 = 0.681 0.07/0.22 = 0.318 S20.37N1 N20.09/0.37 = 0.243 0.28/0.37 = 0.756 S30.41N1 N20.06/0.41 = 0.146 0.35/0.41 = 0.853 For each out come, the revised probabilities are now used to calculate the net expected value (EV) given the additional information supplied by that outcome as shown in Table 5.6.4. Sales ForecastStates of Nature Revised Conditional Profit (Br) High IndecisiveLowProb.EV (Br)Prob.EV (Br)Prob.EV (Br)High sales Low sales130 -600.681 0.31888.53 -19.080.243 0.75631.59 -45.360.146 0.85318.89 -51.18Expected value of sales Probability of occurrence Net expected value (Expected Value x Probability) 69.45 0.220 15.279-13.77 0.37 -5.095-32.20 0.41 13.202 DECISION TREE ANALYSIS Decision- making problems discussed so far are referred to as single stage decision problems, because the payoffs, states of nature, courses of action and probabilities associated with the occurrence of states of nature are not subject to change. However, situations may arise when a decision-maker needs to revise his previous decisions on getting new information and make a sequence of other decisions. Thus, the problem becomes a multi-stage decision problem because the consequence of one decision affects future decisions. For example, in the process of marketing a new product, the first decision is often test marketing and the alternative courses of action might be either intensive testing or gradual testing. Given various possible consequences-good, fair, or poor, the decision-maker may be required to decide between redesigning the product, an aggressive advertising campaign or complete withdrawal of product, etc. Given that decision, there will be an outcome which leads to another decision and so on. Decision tree analysis involves construction of a diagram showing all the possible courses of action, states of nature and the probabilities associated with the states of nature. The decision diagram looks very much like a drawing of a tree, therefore also called decision-tree. A decision tree consists of nodes, branches, probability estimates, and payoffs. There are two types of nodes: decision nodes and chance nodes. A decision node is usually represented by a square and indicates places where a decision-maker must make a decision. Each branch leading away from a decision node represents one of the several possible courses of action available to the decision maker. The chance node is represented by a circle and indicates a point, at which the decision-maker will discover the response to his decision, i.e. different possible outcomes occurred from a chosen course of action. Branches emanate from and connect various nodes and are either decisions or states of nature. There are two types of branches: decision branches and chance branches. Each branch leading away from a decision node represents a course of action or strategy that can be chosen at a decision point, whereas a branch leading away from a chance node represents the state of nature of a set of chance factors. Associated probabilities are indicated along side of respective chance branch.  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  These probabilities are the likelihood that the chance outcome will assume the value assigned to the particular branch. Any branch that makes the end of the decision tree, i. e., it is not followed by either a decision or chance node, is called a terminal branch. A terminal branch can represent either a course of action or a chance outcome. The terminal points of a decision tree are said to be mutually exclusive points so that exactly one course of action will be chosen. The payoff can be positive (i.e., revenue or sales) or negative (i.e. expenditure or cost) and they can be associated either with decision or change branches. An illustration of a decision tree is shown in Fig. 5.1. It is possible for a decision tree to be deterministic or probabilistic and it can further be divided into single stage (a decision under condition of certainty) and a multistage (a sequence of decisions). The optimal sequence of decisions in a tree is found by starting at the right-hand side and rolling backward. The aim of this operation is to maximize the return from the decision situation. At each node, an expected return is calculated (called position value). If the node is a chance node, then the position value is calculated as the sum of the products of the probabilities or the branches emanating from the chance node and their respective position values. If the node is a decision node, then the expected return is calculated for each of its branches and the highest return is selected. The procedure continues until the initial node is reached. The position values for this node correspond to the maximum expected return obtainable from the decision sequence. Note: Notice the difference between decision trees versus probability trees. Decision trees are basically an extension of probability trees. However, there are several basic differences: The decision tree utilizes the concept of rollback to solve a problem. This means starting at the right-hand terminus with the highest expected value of the tree and working back to the current or beginning decision point to determine the decision or decisions that should be made. Most decisions require trees with numerous branches and more than one decision point. It is the multiplicity of decision points that make the rollback process necessary. The probability tree is primarily concerned with calculating the correct probabilities, whereas the decision tree utilizes probability factors as a means of arriving at a final answer. A most important feature of the decision tree, not found in probability trees, is that it takes time differences of future earnings into account. At any stage of the decision tree, it may be necessary to weigh differences in immediate cost or revenue against differences in value at the next stage. Example 5.11. You are given the following estimates concerning a Research and Development programme: Decision DiProbability of Decision Di Given Research R P(Di | R)Outcome NumberProbability of Outcome Xi Given Di P (Xi| Di)Payoff Value of Outcome, xi (Br 000)Develop0.51 2 30.6 0.3 0.1600 -100 0Do not develop0.51 2 30.0 0.0 1.0600 -100 0 Construct and evaluate the decision tree diagram for the above data. Show your workings for evaluation. Solution: the decision tree of the given problem along with necessary calculations is shown in fig. 5.2.   SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  Fig 5.2 Decision Tree Example 5.12 A glass factory specializing in crystal is developing a substantial backlog and the firms management is considering tree courses of action: arrange for sub-contracting (S1), begin overtime production (S2), and construct new facilities (S3). The correct choice depends largely upon future demand which may be low, medium, or high. By consensus, management ranks the respective probabilities as 0.10, 0.50 and 0.40. A cost analysis reveals effect upon the profits that is shown in the table below: DemandProbabilityCourse of ActionS1 (Subcontracting)S2 (Begin Overtime)S3 (Construct Facilities)Low (L) Medium (M) High (H)0.10 0.50 0.4010 50 50-20 60 100-150 20 200 Show this decision situation in the form of a decision tree and indicate the most preferred decision and corresponding expected value. Solution: A decision tree which represents possible courses of action and sates of nature are shown in fig. 5.3. In order to analyze the tree, we start working backward from the end branches. The most preferred decision at the decision node 0 is found by calculating expected value of each decision branch and selecting the path (course of action) with high value. Expected payoff (000s Br)   L, (p = 0.10) 0.1x10= 1 M, (P=0.50)  0.5x50 = 25 H, (p= 0.40) EMV = 46  0.4 x 50 = 20 46 S1: subcontracting   0.1 x -20= -20 S2: begin overtime L, (p= 0.10)  M, (p = 0.50)  0.5 x 60 = 30 H, (P = 0.40) EMV = 68  S3: construct facilities 0.4x 100= 40 68  0.1x -150 =-15   L, ( p= 0.10) M, ( P=0.50) 0.5x20 = 10 EMV = 75 H, ( P=0.40) 0.4 x 200 = 80 75 Since node 3 has the highest EMV, therefore, the decision at node 0 will be to choose the course of action S3, i.e. construct new facilities. CHAPTER 6 QUEING (WAITING LINES) THEORY 6.1: INTRDUCTION In many operations, waiting lines for service are formed, as when customers wait in a checkout lane at a grocery store, machines wait to be repaired in a factory, or airplanes wait to land at an airport. The common characteristic of these apparently diverse examples is that a number of physical entities (the arrivals) are attempting to receive service from limited facilities (the servers). As a consequence, the arrivals must sometimes wait in line for their turn to be served. Waiting-line situations are also called queuing problems, after the British term queue. A tremendous number of queuing problems occur in operations, including the design of facility layouts, staffing decisions, and physical capacity problems. Queuing theory is useful in analyzing many of the problems associated with process design. A queuing problem may be solved by either analytic formulas or simulation methods. The usefulness of analytic formulas, however, is limited by the mathematical assumptions which must be made to derive the formulas. As a result, analytic queuing models sometimes do not closely match the real situation of interest, although they do have the advantage of being simpler and less costly than simulation methods. Analytic queuing models may be used to obtain a first approximation to a queuing problem or to make a low-cost analysis. The simulation method is used to solve queuing problems that are more complex and require a more precise solution. In this chapter, general ideas about queuing problems and analytic solution methods are developed. Simulation methods for solving queuing problems are described in a separate technical chapter. 6.2: QUEUING CHARACTERISTICS Every queuing problem can be described in terms of three characteristics: the arrival, the queue, and the server. 1. The Arrival. The arrivals are described by their statistical arrival distribution, which can be specified in two ways: by arrivals per unit of time or by the interarrival time distribution. If the arrival distribution is specified in the first way, the number of arrivals that can occur in any given period of time must be described. For example, one might describe the number of arrivals in 1 hour. When arrivals occur at random, the information of interest is the probability of n arrivals in a given time period, where n = 0, 1, 2, . . . . If the arrivals are assumed to occur at a constant average rate and are independent of each other, then they occur according to the Poisson probability distribution. In this case the probability of n arrivals in time T is given by the formula: P(n, T) =  EMBED Equation.2  n = 0, 1, 2, . . . where ( = mean arrival rate per unit of time T = time period n = number of arrivals in time T P(n, T) = probability of n arrivals in time T Three typical Poisson probability distributions are shown in Figure T1.1. Notice that for the value of (T = . 5, there is a high probability   of zero arrivals in the time interval T, and that most of the probability is concentrated on 0, 1, 2 arrivals. As the value of (T increases, the shape of the distribution changes dramatically to a more symmetrical (``normal'') form and the probability of a larger number of arrivals increases. It has been found that Poisson distributions can be used in practice to approximate many actual arrival patterns. The second method of arrival specification is the time between arrivals. In this case one specifies the probability distribution of a continuous random variable which measures the time from one arrival to the next. If the arrivals follow a Poisson distribution, it can be shown mathematically that the interarrival time will be distributed according to the exponential distribution.  EMBED Equation.3  The exponential probability distribution is shown in Figure T1.2. Notice that as the time t increases, the probability that an arrival has occurred approaches 1. The Poisson and exponential distributions are entirely equivalent in their underlying assumptions about arrivals. Therefore, either can be used to specify arrivals, depending on whether the time between arrivals or the number of arrivals in a given time is desired. Which of these specifications is used depends strongly on the form of arrival data available.   There are other distributions which can be used to specify arrivals. One of the most common is the Erlang distribution. The Erlang provides more flexibility than the Poisson distribution, but it is also more complicated. [See Saaty (1961) for details.] A factor which affects the choice of arrival distribution is the size of the calling population. For example, if a repairer is tending six machines, the calling population is limited to the six machines. In this case it is unlikely that the arrival distribution will be Poisson in nature because the failure rate is not constant. If five machines have already failed, the arrival rate is lower than when all machines are operating. 2. The Queue. The nature of the queue also affects the type of queuing model formulated. For example, a queue discipline must be specified to describe how the arrivals are served. One queue discipline is the well-known first-come--first-served rule. Another queue discipline is one where certain arrivals have a priority and move to the head of the line. When the queue is described, the length of the line must also be specified. A common mathematical assumption is that the waiting line can reach an infinite length. In some cases this assumption causes no practical problems. In other cases, a definite line-length limit may cause arrivals to leave when the limit is reached. For example, when more than a certain number of aircraft are in the holding pattern at an airport, new arrivals are diverted to another field. Finally, customer behavior in the queue must be defined. How long will the customers wait for service before they leave the line? Some customers may not even join the line if they observe a congested situation when they arrive. The customer behavior assumed in simple queuing models is that customers wait until they are served. For analytic purposes, the most common queuing assumptions are that there is a first-come--first-served discipline, that the line length can be infinite, and that all arrivals wait in line until served. These assumptions lead to mathematically tractable models. When the assumptions are changed, however, the mathematics of the queuing model quickly becomes complex. 3. The Server. There are also several server characteristics which affect the queuing problem. One of these characteristics is the distribution of service time. Just like the arrival time, the service time may vary from one customer to the next. A common assumption for the distribution of service time is the exponential distribution. In this case, the service time will vary as shown in Figure T1.2. Other distributions of service times also used in queuing problems are a constant service time, normal service times, and uniform service times. The second characteristic of the server which should be specified is the number of servers. There may be a single server or multiple servers, depending on the amount of capacity needed. Each server is sometimes called a channel. The service may also be rendered in one phase or in multiple phases. A multiple- phase situation is one where the customer must go through two or more servers in sequence to complete the service. An example of multiphase service is where each patient sees a nurse and then a doctor before leaving a clinic. The combination of multiple servers and multiple phases gives rise to the four queuing problems shown in Figure T1.3. In addition to these problems, the multiple-channel queues can also have more than one line. As a result, a great variety of queuing problems are possible. 6.3: FORMULATING QUEUING PROBLES Given assumptions about arrivals, the queue, and the servers, we wish to predict the performance of a specific queuing system. The predicted performance of the system may be described, for example, by the average number of arrivals in the queue, the average waiting time of an arrival, and the percentage of idle time of the servers. These performance measures can be used to decide on the number of servers which should be provided, changes which might be made in the service rate, or other changes in the queuing system. When queuing performance measures are being evaluated, total costs should be determined whenever possible. This is done by adding the cost of the arrival waiting time and the cost of the servers. In cases such as the repair of machines, the machine waiting time can be equated to the cost of lost production. In cases where the arrivals are customers, however, it is very difficult to estimate the cost of waiting time. As a result, total costs of queuing systems cannot always be determined, and surrogate objectives are used instead. One surrogate objective, for example, is that customers should not wait more than an average of 5 minutes to get service. With this service objective, a required number of servers can be determined without reference to the cost of waiting time. SINGLE CHANNEL, SINGLE PHASE  Queue Arrivals   SINGLE CHANNEL, MULTIPLE PHASE  Queue  Arrivals   MULTIPLE CHANNELS, SINGLE PHASE   Arrivals MULTIPLE CHANNEL, MULTIPLE PHASE    Arrivals   Performance measures and parameters for queuing models are specified by the following notation:  EMBED Equation.2 mean arrival rate (the number of arrivals per unit time) EMBED Equation.2 mean time between arrivals EMBED Equation.2 mean service rate (the number of units served per unit time when the server is busy) EMBED Equation.2 mean time required for service EMBED Equation.2 server utilization factor (the proportion of the time the server is busy) EMBED Equation.2 probability that n units (arrivals) are in the system EMBED Equation.2 mean number of units in the queue (average length of the queue) EMBED Equation.2 mean number of units in the system EMBED Equation.2 mean waiting time in the queue EMBED Equation.2 mean waiting time in the system In the above notation, in the system refers to units that may be in the queue or in service. Thus Wq refers to waiting time of a unit in the queue before service starts and Ws refers to the total waiting time in the queue plus the time spent being served. Queuing model formulas are derived for the last six variables specified above, given input values of l and m. These formulas are derived for steady-state conditions, which represent the long-run equilibrium state of the queuing system. In steady state, initial starting conditions do not affect the performance measures. The steady state will be achieved, however, only when m > l; the service rate must be greater than the arrival rate for steady state to occur. Whenever m  EMBED Equation.3  l, the queuing system is unstable and the line can potentially build up to an infinite length because the units are arriving faster than they can be served. We will thus assume that m > l for the remainder of this chapter. Simple Queuing Model The simplest queuing model which has been defined in the literature is based on the following assumptions: 1. Single server and single phase 2. Poisson arrival distribution with l = mean arrival rate 3. Exponential service time with m = mean service rate 4. First-come--first-served queue discipline, all arrivals wait in line until served, and infinite line length possible From these assumptions, the following performance statistics can be derived:  EMBED Equation.2  Example. Suppose a bank teller can serve customers at an average rate of 10 customers per hour (m = 10). Also, assume that the customers arrive at the teller's window at an average rate of 7 per hour (l = 7). Arrivals are believed to follow the Poisson distribution and service time follows the exponential distribution. In the steady state, the queuing system will have the following performance characteristics:  EMBED Equation.3  If customers walk away from the teller whenever there are three or more customers ahead of them in the system, the proportion of customers lost is 1 - (P0 + P1 + P2 + P3) = 1 - (.3 + .21 + .147 + .1029) = .2401 In this case, 24 percent of the customers will be lost because the wait is too long. The performance of the queuing system can now be evaluated. The manager will have to consider the idle time of the server (30 percent), the time the customer waits (.233 hour), and the length of the line which forms (1.63 customers). If this performance is unacceptable, a second server might be added or other changes in arrival, queue, or server characteristics can be made. Multiple Servers The simple model with Poisson arrivals and exponential service times can be extended to multiple servers without too much difficulty. If we let s equal the number of servers, the performance measures of the multiple-server queuing system are  EMBED Equation.2  These formulas are for the steady-state conditions and assume Poisson arrivals, exponential service time, first-come--first-served queue discipline, all arrivals wait in line until served, and infinite line length. Example. Suppose we add a second bank teller to the example described above. How much will service be improved? The performance calculations for s = 2 are as follows:  EMBED Equation.2  etc.  EMBED Equation.2  With two servers, the customer statistics have improved dramatically. Now an average of only .0977 customer is in line, and the average customer waits for only .0139 hour for service (less than a minute). The price for this good service is that the servers are busy only 35 percent of the time. Unless extraordinarily good service is desired, the bank would probably not want to incur the cost of the second teller. Other approaches, such as cutting the average service time or reducing services offered during peak hours, might be considered. In queuing terms, the distribution of service time might be changed by eliminating the long service times. Comments on Queuing Models One use of queuing models is to study the relationship between capacity and customer service. In Figure T1.4, for example, customer service is measured on the y axis by waiting time or length of the queue. On the x axis is r, the  server-utilization factor. The value of r is a measure of relative capacity, since it is a ratio of average arrival rate to average service rate. As Figure T1.4 indicates, waiting time increases rapidly as the service- utilization factor r approaches 1. For example, in Figure T1.4, utilization above 70 to 80 percent will have an adverse effect on waiting time and queue length. It is important to recognize the nonlinear effect of the service- utilization factor on customer service. As the facility becomes saturated (r approaches 1), customer service rapidly deteriorates. For good customer service, it is therefore prudent to operate at somewhat less than full capacity. If the cost of customer waiting time and the cost of servers can be estimated, an optimal decision can be made regarding the amount of capacity provided. If these costs are not available, the curve in Figure T1.4 can still be used to examine the tradeoff between customer service and capacity provided. From Figure T1.4, capacity utilization objectives which are related to customer service levels can also be established. Although we have treated only the simplest cases of queuing models in this chapter, many more elaborate models are available in the literature. See, for example, Saaty (1961) or Hillier and Lieberman (1974) for additional models. More elaborate queuing situations will also be discussed in technical chapter three where simulation is covered. QUESTIONS 1. What are the two major costs in any queuing study? 2. What are the three basic elements of any queuing system? 3. What is meant by ``steady-state conditions''? 4. What characteristics of the arrivals, the queue, and the server must be specified in a queuing problem? 5. Define the term ``queue discipline.'' 6. What is the difference between waiting time in the system and waiting time in the queue? 7. How are the Poisson and exponential distributions related for arrivals? 8. Why must we have m > l for queuing problems? 9. Describe the queuing characteristics of a barbershop. 10. In which of the following situations would you expect service times to be exponentially distributed? Explain. a. Service by a teller at a bank b. A ride on the ferris wheel at a carnival c. Purchasing a hot dog from a service counter at a football game d. Riding the bus to work each day 11. In which of the cases in question 10 would you expect the arrival times to be exponentially distributed? Explain. CHAPTER 6 QUEING (WAITING LINES) THEORY 6.1: INTRDUCTION In many operations, waiting lines for service are formed, as when customers wait in a checkout lane at a grocery store, machines wait to be repaired in a factory, or airplanes wait to land at an airport. The common characteristic of these apparently diverse examples is that a number of physical entities (the arrivals) are attempting to receive service from limited facilities (the servers). As a consequence, the arrivals must sometimes wait in line for their turn to be served. Waiting-line situations are also called queuing problems, after the British term queue. A tremendous number of queuing problems occur in operations, including the design of facility layouts, staffing decisions, and physical capacity problems. Queuing theory is useful in analyzing many of the problems associated with process design. A queuing problem may be solved by either analytic formulas or simulation methods. The usefulness of analytic formulas, however, is limited by the mathematical assumptions which must be made to derive the formulas. As a result, analytic queuing models sometimes do not closely match the real situation of interest, although they do have the advantage of being simpler and less costly than simulation methods. Analytic queuing models may be used to obtain a first approximation to a queuing problem or to make a low-cost analysis. The simulation method is used to solve queuing problems that are more complex and require a more precise solution. In this chapter, general ideas about queuing problems and analytic solution methods are developed. Simulation methods for solving queuing problems are described in a separate technical chapter. 6.2: QUEUING CHARACTERISTICS Every queuing problem can be described in terms of three characteristics: the arrival, the queue, and the server. 1. The Arrival: The arrivals are described by their statistical arrival distribution, which can be specified in two ways: by arrivals per unit of time or by the inter-arrival time distribution. If the arrival distribution is specified in the first way, the number of arrivals that can occur in any given period of time must be described. For example, one might describe the number of arrivals in 1 hour. When arrivals occur at random, the information of interest is the probability of n arrivals in a given time period, where n = 0, 1, 2, . . . . If the arrivals are assumed to occur at a constant average rate and are independent of each other, then they occur according to the Poisson probability distribution. In this case the probability of n arrivals in time T is given by the formula: P(n, T) =  EMBED Equation.2  n = 0, 1, 2, . . . Where ( = mean arrival rate per unit of time T = time period n = number of arrivals in time T P(n, T) = probability of n arrivals in time T   Three typical Poisson probability distributions are shown in Figure T1.1. Notice that for the value of (T = 0.5, there is a high probability of zero arrivals in the time interval T, and that most of the probability is concentrated on 0, 1, 2 arrivals. As the value of (T increases, the shape of the distribution changes dramatically to a more symmetrical (``normal'') form and the probability of a larger number of arrivals increases. It has been found that Poisson distributions can be used in practice to approximate many actual arrival patterns. The second method of arrival specification is the time between arrivals. In this case one specifies the probability distribution of a continuous random variable which measures the time from one arrival to the next. If the arrivals follow a Poisson distribution, it can be shown mathematically that the inter-arrival time will be distributed according to the exponential distribution.  EMBED Equation.3  The exponential probability distribution is shown in Figure T1.2. Notice that as the time t increases, the probability that an arrival has occurred approaches 1. The Poisson and exponential distributions are entirely equivalent in their underlying assumptions about arrivals. Therefore, either can be used to specify arrivals, depending on whether the time between arrivals or the number of arrivals in a given time is desired. Which of these specifications is used depends strongly on the form of arrival data available.   There are other distributions which can be used to specify arrivals. One of the most common is the Erlang distribution. The Erlang provides more flexibility than the Poisson distribution, but it is also more complicated. [See Saaty (1961) for details.] A factor which affects the choice of arrival distribution is the size of the calling population. For example, if a repairer is tending six machines, the calling population is limited to the six machines. In this case it is unlikely that the arrival distribution will be Poisson in nature because the failure rate is not constant. If five machines have already failed, the arrival rate is lower than when all machines are operating. 2. The Queue. The nature of the queue also affects the type of queuing model formulated. For example, a queue discipline must be specified to describe how the arrivals are served. One queue discipline is the well-known first-come--first-served rule. Another queue discipline is one where certain arrivals have a priority and move to the head of the line. When the queue is described, the length of the line must also be specified. A common mathematical assumption is that the waiting line can reach an infinite length. In some cases this assumption causes no practical problems. In other cases, a definite line-length limit may cause arrivals to leave when the limit is reached. For example, when more than a certain number of aircraft are in the holding pattern at an airport, new arrivals are diverted to another field. Finally, customer behavior in the queue must be defined. How long will the customers wait for service before they leave the line? Some customers may not even join the line if they observe a congested situation when they arrive. The customer behavior assumed in simple queuing models is that customers wait until they are served. For analytic purposes, the most common queuing assumptions are that there is a first-come--first-served discipline, that the line length can be infinite, and that all arrivals wait in line until served. These assumptions lead to mathematically tractable models. When the assumptions are changed, however, the mathematics of the queuing model quickly becomes complex. 3. The Server. There are also several server characteristics which affect the queuing problem. One of these characteristics is the distribution of service time. Just like the arrival time, the service time may vary from one customer to the next. A common assumption for the distribution of service time is the exponential distribution. In this case, the service time will vary as shown in Figure T1.2. Other distributions of service times also used in queuing problems are a constant service time, normal service times, and uniform service times. The second characteristic of the server which should be specified is the number of servers. There may be a single server or multiple servers, depending on the amount of capacity needed. Each server is sometimes called a channel. The service may also be rendered in one phase or in multiple phases. A multiple- phase situation is one where the customer must go through two or more servers in sequence to complete the service. An example of multiphase service is where each patient sees a nurse and then a doctor before leaving a clinic. The combination of multiple servers and multiple phases gives rise to the four queuing problems shown in Figure T1.3. In addition to these problems, the multiple-channel queues can also have more than one line. As a result, a great variety of queuing problems are possible. 6.3: FORMULATING QUEUING PROBLES Given assumptions about arrivals, the queue, and the servers, we wish to predict the performance of a specific queuing system. The predicted performance of the system may be described, for example, by the average number of arrivals in the queue, the average waiting time of an arrival, and the percentage of idle time of the servers. These performance measures can be used to decide on the number of servers which should be provided, changes which might be made in the service rate, or other changes in the queuing system. When queuing performance measures are being evaluated, total costs should be determined whenever possible. This is done by adding the cost of the arrival waiting time and the cost of the servers. In cases such as the repair of machines, the machine waiting time can be equated to the cost of lost production. In cases where the arrivals are customers, however, it is very difficult to estimate the cost of waiting time. As a result, total costs of queuing systems cannot always be determined, and surrogate objectives are used instead. One surrogate objective, for example, is that customers should not wait more than an average of 5 minutes to get service. With this service objective, a required number of servers can be determined without reference to the cost of waiting time. SINGLE CHANNEL, SINGLE PHASE  Queue Arrivals   SINGLE CHANNEL, MULTIPLE PHASE  Queue  Arrivals   MULTIPLE CHANNELS, SINGLE PHASE   Arrivals MULTIPLE CHANNEL, MULTIPLE PHASE    Arrivals   Performance measures and parameters for queuing models are specified by the following notation:  EMBED Equation.2 mean arrival rate (the number of arrivals per unit time) EMBED Equation.2 mean time between arrivals EMBED Equation.2 mean service rate (the number of units served per unit time when the server is busy) EMBED Equation.2 mean time required for service EMBED Equation.2 server utilization factor (the proportion of the time the server is busy) EMBED Equation.2 probability that n units (arrivals) are in the system EMBED Equation.2 mean number of units in the queue (average length of the queue) EMBED Equation.2 mean number of units in the system EMBED Equation.2 mean waiting time in the queue EMBED Equation.2 mean waiting time in the system In the above notation, in the system refers to units that may be in the queue or in service. Thus Wq refers to waiting time of a unit in the queue before service starts and Ws refers to the total waiting time in the queue plus the time spent being served. Queuing model formulas are derived for the last six variables specified above, given input values of l and m. These formulas are derived for steady-state conditions, which represent the long-run equilibrium state of the queuing system. In steady state, initial starting conditions do not affect the performance measures. The steady state will be achieved, however, only when m > l; the service rate must be greater than the arrival rate for steady state to occur. Whenever m  EMBED Equation.3  l, the queuing system is unstable and the line can potentially build up to an infinite length because the units are arriving faster than they can be served. We will thus assume that m > l for the remainder of this chapter. Simple Queuing Model The simplest queuing model which has been defined in the literature is based on the following assumptions: 1. Single server and single phase 2. Poisson arrival distribution with l = mean arrival rate 3. Exponential service time with m = mean service rate 4. First-come--first-served queue discipline, all arrivals wait in line until served and infinite line length possible From these assumptions, the following performance statistics can be derived:  EMBED Equation.2  Example. Suppose a bank teller can serve customers at an average rate of 10 customers per hour (m = 10). Also, assume that the customers arrive at the teller's window at an average rate of 7 per hour (l = 7). Arrivals are believed to follow the Poisson distribution and service time follows the exponential distribution. In the steady state, the queuing system will have the following performance characteristics:  EMBED Equation.3  If customers walk away from the teller whenever there are three or more customers ahead of them in the system, the proportion of customers lost is 1 - (P0 + P1 + P2 + P3) = 1 - (.3 + .21 + .147 + .1029) = .2401 In this case, 24 percent of the customers will be lost because the wait is too long. The performance of the queuing system can now be evaluated. The manager will have to consider the idle time of the server (30 percent), the time the customer waits (.233 hour), and the length of the line which forms (1.63 customers). If this performance is unacceptable, a second server might be added or other changes in arrival, queue, or server characteristics can be made. Multiple Servers The simple model with Poisson arrivals and exponential service times can be extended to multiple servers without too much difficulty. If we let s equal the number of servers, the performance measures of the multiple-server queuing system are  EMBED Equation.3  These formulas are for the steady-state conditions and assume Poisson arrivals, exponential service time, first-come--first-served queue discipline, all arrivals wait in line until served, and infinite line length. Example: Suppose we add a second bank teller to the example described above. How much will service be improved? The performance calculations for s = 2 are as follows: EMBED Equation.3  etc.  EMBED Equation.3  With two servers, the customer statistics have improved dramatically. Now an average of only 0.0977 customers is in line, and the average customer waits for only .0139 hour for service (less than a minute). The price for this good service is that the servers are busy only 35 percent of the time. Unless extraordinarily good service is desired, the bank would probably not want to incur the cost of the second teller. Other approaches, such as cutting the average service time or reducing services offered during peak hours, might be considered. In queuing terms, the distribution of service time might be changed by eliminating the long service times. Comments on Queuing Models One use of queuing models is to study the relationship between capacity and customer service. In Figure T1.4, for example, customer service is measured on the y axis by waiting time or length of the queue. On the x axis is r, the   server-utilization factor. The value of r is a measure of relative capacity, since it is a ratio of average arrival rate to average service rate. As Figure T1.4 indicates, waiting time increases rapidly as the service- utilization factor r approaches 1. For example, in Figure T1.4, utilization above 70 to 80 percent will have an adverse effect on waiting time and queue length. It is important to recognize the nonlinear effect of the service- utilization factor on customer service. As the facility becomes saturated (r approaches 1), customer service rapidly deteriorates. For good customer service, it is therefore prudent to operate at somewhat less than full capacity. If the cost of customer waiting time and the cost of servers can be estimated, an optimal decision can be made regarding the amount of capacity provided. If these costs are not available, the curve in Figure T1.4 can still be used to examine the tradeoff between customer service and capacity provided. From Figure T1.4, capacity utilization objectives which are related to customer service levels can also be established. Although we have treated only the simplest cases of queuing models in this chapter, many more elaborate models are available in the literature. See, for example, Saaty (1961) or Hillier and Lieberman (1974) for additional models. More elaborate queuing situations will also be discussed in technical chapter three where simulation is covered. DECISION MAKING UNDER UNCERTAINTY The Problem of Decision Making Under Uncertainty: The problem of decision making under uncertainty is to choose an action (or decision) among many different available actions which gives (possibly) maximum expected profit or maximum expected revenue or minimum expected losses or minimum expected costs as the case may be, under uncertain situations. Suppose, we have some information with which we can associate certain Monetary Value (to be denoted by MV and measured in terms of dollars)) or Utility (to be measured in terms of Utiles). There may be some uncertainty involved with this information. We associate probabilities with this uncertainty. We can always find the Expected Value of the MV and call it Expected Monetary Value Under Uncertainty or Expected Pay-off Under Bayes Criterion. Denote it by EMV. EXPERIMENT: To increase (or IMPROVE) the expected pay-off we obtain ADDITIONAL INFORMATION (Under Uncertain Conditions). To do so we may have to conduct some sort of Experiment (Sample Survey or Hire Some Expert). The question then arises: Q. Should we or should we not conduct the Experiment? Answer: If the expenses on the experiment are more than the increase in the expected pay-off then we do not conduct the experiment otherwise we conduct it. We shall now explain the concepts involved through by considering the following NEW PRODUCT Example. NEW PRODUCT Example. A firm is considering a final GO decision on a new product. If the product is introduced and it is successful, the profit is $500,000 and if it is unsuccessful the loss is $300,000. There is no profit or loss if the product is not introduced. The management believes that there is a 0.20 probability (the odds are 2 to 8) that the product will be successful. Based on the above information and under a variety of other criteria (like maxmin, minmax etc), should the firm introduce the product? A consulting firm specializing in new product introduction has offered its services to firm. Its betting average in similar situations is as follows. (i) When advice was given (either by client firm or by others in the market place) on products that later proved to be successful, then firm gave GO advice eight times out of ten. (ii) When advice was given (either by client firm or by others in the market place) on products that later proved to be unsuccessful, then firm gave STOP advice fifteen times out of twenty. The Firm charges $5,000 as consulting fee to give advice. Should the firm be hired in order to maximize the expected profit? PAY-OFF TABLE-1 EVENTS OR STATES OF NATUREACTIONS Successful Unsuccessful GO $500 -300 STOP $0 0 Prior Probs. .2 .8  DIFFERENT DECISION MAKING CRITERIA without using Probability (6 in all) Maxi-max Criterion (Optimistic View): In the maximax criterion the decision maker selects the decision that will result in the maximum of maximum payoffs; an optimistic criterion. For each action choose max. profit. Choose the action which has the max. of these max. profits. PAY-OFF TABLE-2 EVENTS OR STATES OF NATUREACTIONS Successful Unsuccessful MV GO $500 -300 $500 ( STOP $0 0 $ 0 Answer: Max-max Action = Go, Optimal Profit = $500,000For Go Max payoff is $500 For Stop max payoff is $0 Maximum of these above mentioned maximum values is $500 so choice is GO decision 2. Min-max Criterion (Pessimists View): Always expecting the worst, the decision makers judgement work as follows: For each action choose min. profit. Choose the action which has the max. of these min. profits. PAY-OFF TABLE-3 EVENTS OR STATES OF NATUREACTIONS Successful Unsuccessful MV GO $500 -300 $500STOP $0 0 $ 0 (Answer: Max-max Action = Stop, Optimal Profit = $0For Go Max payoff is $500 For Stop max payoff is $0 Minimum of these above mentioned maximum values is $0 so choice is Stop decision 3. Maxi-min Criterion (Optimistic View): In the maximin criterion the decision maker selects the decision that will reflect the maximum of the minimum payoffs; a pessimistic criterion. For each action choose min. profit. Choose the action which has the max. of these min .profits. PAY-OFF TABLE-4 EVENTS OR STATES OF NATUREACTIONS Successful Unsuccessful MV GO $500 -300 $-300STOP $0 0 $ 0 (Answer: Max-min Action = Stop, Optimal Profit = $0For Go Min payoff is - $300 For Stop min payoff is $0 Maximum of these above mentioned maximum values is $0 so choice is Stop decision Mini Max regret criterion: Regret is the difference between the payoff from the best decision and all other decision payoffs. The decision maker attempts to avoid regret by selecting the decision alternative that minimizes the maximum regret. Payoff table 5 EVENTS OR STATES OF NATUREACTIONS Successful Unsuccessful GO $500 -300 STOP $0 0  Regret table EVENTS OR STATES OF NATUREACTIONS Successful Unsuccessful GO $500- $500 =0 $0 - -300 = $300 STOP $500 - $0 = $500 $0 -$ 0 = $0 Maximum Regret for Go decision is $300 Maximum regret for stop decision is $500 so We minimize the maximum regret and choose Go The equal likelihood ( or Laplace) criterion multiplies the decision payoff for each state of nature by an equal weight, thus assuming that the states of nature are equally likely to occur. Decision Values Go $500(.5) - 300(.5) = 100 Stop $0(.5) + 0$(.5) = 0 The Hurwicz criterion is a compromise between the maximax and maximin criterion. A coefficient of optimism, (, is a measure of the decision makers optimism. The Hurwicz criterion multiplies the best payoff by ( and the worst payoff by 1- (., for each decision, and the best result is selected. For alpha value of 0.4 calculations are performed here. Decision Values Go $500(.4) - 300(.6) = $20 Stop $0(.4) - 0(.6) = $0 Practice Problem.  SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT  Find the optimal act using Maxi-Max criteria Find the optimal act using Mini-Max criteria Find the optimal act using Maxi-Min criteria Find the optimal act using Min-Max regret table The equal likelihood ( or Laplace) criterion The Hurwicz criterion with alpha value of 0.4 Solution to practice problem Criterion Decision (Purchase) Maximax (100000) Office building Maximin (30000) Apartment building Minimax regret (50000) Apartment building Hurwicz (38000) Apartment building Equal likelihood (40000) Apartment building MATHEMATICAL EXPECTATION OR EXPECTED Back to 1st Problem E(X) = p1x1 + p2x2 + .+ pnxn Bayes Criterion: In this kind of analysis, probabilities are assigned to the events about which uncertainties exist. The probabilities may be assigned subjectively, or if the data is available then according to the past occurrences. The probabilities are known as Prior Probabilities. In this example, the management believes that there is a .20 probability (the odds are 2 to 8) that the product will be successful. Therefore using the Bayes Criterion we calculate the EMV (Expected Monetary Value) for each action as follows: PAY-OFF TABLES-6 EVENTS OR STATES OF NATUREACTIONS Successful Unsuccessful Exp. MVA1 = GO $500 -300 $-140A2= STOP $0 0 $ 0 (Prior Probs. .2 .8  EMV go = 500 *.2 + -300*.8 = -140 EMV stop = 0 *.2 + 0* .8 = 0 Hence, according to Bayes Criterion: Optimal Act = A2, EMV* = $ 0 OPPORTUNITY LOSS CRITERIA: (A Manager always worries about missing a good deal.).Thus in this case in place of preparing a pay-off table we prepare an opportunity loss table and apply the criteria considered earlier (including Bayes Criterion) on this opportunity loss table. TO PREPARE OPPORTUNITY LOSS (REGRET) TABLE. (i) In Col. 1 of pay off table identity the highest element (ii) Obtain Col. 1 of opportunity loss table by subtracting each element (including itself) of Col. 1 of pay-off from this highest element. (iii) Obtain other columns of opportunity loss table on similar lines. OPPORTUNITY LOSS (REGRET) TABLE. PAY-OFF TABLE-7 EVENTS OR STATES OF NATUREACTIONS Successful Unsuccessful Exp. MVA1 = GO $ 0 $300 $240A2= STOP $ 500 0 $100 (Prior Probs. .2 .8  For Opportunity Loss we choose the least opportunity lost as the preferred decision. DECISION NAKING WITH EXPERIMENTATION (Additional Information) : The above decision making analysis assumed that the decision maker has to make his (her) decisions without Experimentation (without obtaining additional information or without updating his prior information). Additional Information: If the decision maker wants to obtain some additional information (to update his knowledge of the prior situation0, he may conduct some sort of an experiment (physical or statistical like Samples Survey or hire an Expert / Consultant etc.) and obtain some additional information. This additional information can be of TWO types. 1. Perfect 2. Imperfect Questions: (i) Should the decision maker at all go for additional information? (ii) How much should the decision maker spend to obtain such additional information? Perfect Information: Information under which an uncertain (a stochastic) event becomes deterministic. Expected Value of Perfect Information: Suppose the FIRM knows (has perfect information) that (I) the product is going to be successful (I.e. the event successful is going to occur), then looking at the pay-off table, the action is evidently A1, with profit $ 500,000 ; p = .2 (ii) the product is going to be unsuccessful (i.e. the event unsuccessful is going to occur,) then looking at the pay-off table, the action is evidently A2, with profit $0 ; p = .8 that is we have, PAY - OFF TABLE EVENTS OR STATES OF NATUREACTIONS Successful Unsuccessful A1 = GO $500 A2= STOP $ 0 Prior Probs. .2 .8  Therefore, E (Profit Under Perfect Information)..E (Value Under Perfect Information) i.e. EVUPI = 500 (.20) + 0 (.8) = 100 The Exp. Value of Perfect Information (EVPI) = $100 -$ 0 = $100 Interpretation : The maximum amount the company should be willing to pay to obtain perfect information (additional information) is $100,000. The expected value of perfect information (EVPI) is the maximum amount a decision maker would pay for additional information. EVPI equals the expected value given perfect information minus the expected value without perfect information. EVPI equals the expected opportunity loss (EOL) for the best decision. Now the PAY - OFF TABLE-6 is EVENTS OR STATES OF NATUREACTIONS Successful Unsuccessful Exp. MVA1 = GO $500 -300 $-140A2= STOP $0 0 $ 0 (Prior Probs. .2 .8  IMPERFECT INFORMATION : Perfect information may be either impossible or very expensive. Under such circumstances it may be worthwhile to obtain some additional information, may not be perfect. Such an information (Imperfect) may be obtained, say, through statistical sampling or through an expert opinion etc. (Therefore, it is also called Sampling Information.) Suppose, for the Firm it is possible to obtain Additional Imperfect Information through then services of a Consulting Firm at a cost of $ 5,000. Then Cost of Sampling or Cost of the Experiment = $5,000 CATEGORIZATION or Classification: We classify the Additional Imperfect Information obtained through Sampling/Experimentation (Expert/Consultants Advice) of Consulting Firm into the following Two Categories/Classifications. Assume that the betting average of the Consulting Firm in similar situations is as follows. When advice was given on products that later proved to be successful (either by the client firm or by others in the marketplace), the firm gave GO advice eight times out of ten. When advice was given on products that later proved to be unsuccessful (either by the client firm or by others in the marketplace), then firm gave STOP advice fifteen times out of twenty. X1 = When advice was given on products that later proved to be successful, the Consulting Firm gave GO, X2 = When advice was given on products that later proved to be successful, the Consulting Firm gave STOP. Base upon the above imperfect information the above data can be interpreted as conditional probabilities (imperfect additional information) as follows. (Consulting Firm gave GO, Xi/ a state of nature E is given), etc. i.e. P(X=Xi/E=Ei) Conditional Probabilities P(X/E) EVENTS OR STATES OF NATUREACTS Successful UnsuccessfulX1= GO .8 .25 sum of the row is not 1X2= STOP .2 .75Sum of the Columns 1 1Prior Probs. .2 .8 Now in above we have both Prior Probabilities and Conditional Probabilities. With the help of these probabilities we shall REVISE our PRIOR INFORMATION. To do so we obtain, Join Probabilities, and from there we obtain, Marginal and Revised (Posterior) Probabilities Joint Probabilities Table P(X and E) = P(E) P (X/E) Joint Probabilities P(X/E) EVENTS OR STATES OF NATUREACTS Successful Unsuccessful Marginal Prob.X1= GO .2*.8 = .16 .8* .25= .2 .16 + .2 = .36X2= STOP .2 *.2 = .04 .8*.75=.6 .04 +.6=.64Prior Probs. .2 .8 sum 1.00 POSTERIOR or REVISED PROBABILITIES P(E/X) = P(X and E)/P(X) P(X/E) EVENTS OR STATES OF NATUREACTS Successful Unsuccessful Marginal Prob.X1= GO .16/.36 = .4444 .2/.36 = .5556 .16 + .2 = .36X2= STOP .04/.64 = .0625 .6/.64 = .9375 .04 +.6=.64Prior Probs. .2 .8 sum 1.00 Interpretation of Revised Probabilities MZz}    % & ' 3 5 ɾ垖}ungcghZL^ hGh4 hGh;LhGh45hGhKh5CJ hG5CJhT>Bh)H5hT>Bh|5hT>BhKh5hT>Bhb5hT>Bh5a)5h2CJaJhT>BhT>BCJaJhT>BhJ5 hT>B5 h"5 h5 hJ5hT>BhT>B5hT>BhT>B5\hT>Bh}Y5&2M$dd\$a$gdT>B$ X pd^p`a$gdT>B$d7$8$H$a$gdT>B' M 1|qX & F%dhd\$^`%gd}L $dha$gdQ?a$ & 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ayt'uuuu?qrEx*+ & Fp1$5$7$8$H$^`gd' & Fo1$5$7$8$H$^`gd' & Fn1$5$7$8$H$^`gd'gdCRow in front of X1: If the Consulting Firms advice was X1 (i.e. GO) then the revised probability of, (i) Successful is .4444, (ii) Unsuccessful is .5556 2. Row in front o f X2: If the Consulting Firms advice was X2 (i.e. STOP) then the revised probability of, (i) Successful is .0625 (ii) Unsuccessful is .9375 Once we have computed the Posterior (Revised) Probabilities, we replace in Pay - Off Table - 6 The Prior Probabilities [i.e. P(E)s ] row by these revised probabilities rows (computed above in front of X1, X2) , and Compute the revised optimal EMVs for X1, and X2 respectively. Once we have done that, then using: These revised optimal EMVs and The Marginal Probabilities P(X1), and P(X2), we compute the final Revised EMV. PAY - OFF TABLE-6 EVENTS OR STATES OF NATUREACTIONS Successful Unsuccessful Exp. MVA1 = GO $500 -300 $55.556(A2= STOP $0 0 $ 0 P(E/X1) .4444 .5556 P(X1) = .36 Optimal Act A = A1, EMV1* =$55,5556, and P(X1) = .36 PAY - OFF TABLE-6 EVENTS OR STATES OF NATUREACTIONS Successful Unsuccessful Exp. MVA1 = GO $500 -300 $-250A2= STOP $0 0 $ 0 (P(E/X2) .0625 .9375 P(X2) = .64 Optimal Act A = A2, EMV2*=$0 and P(X2) = .64 Thus we have now ADVICEOptimal Action ProbabilityEMV*XA*P(X)Exp. ProfitX1A1P(X1) = .36 V*1 = $ 55,556X2A2P(X2) = .64V*2 = $ 0 Therefore, EMV Under Imperfect Information (Or EMV Under Sampling Information) = 55,556 (.36) +0 (.64) = $ 20, 000.16 Total Expected Profit under Imperfect Information = Total Expected Profit under Sampling Information = (EMV Under Imperfect Information) - (Cost of Obtaining Imperfect Information) Total Expected Profit under Imperfect Information = $ 20, 000.16 - $ 5, 0000 = $ 15,000.16 Total Expected Profit under Sampling Information = $ 15,000.16 Expected Value of Sampling Information (EVSI) = (EMV Under Imperfect Information) - (Prior EMV*) = $20,000.16 -$ 0 = $ 20, 000.16 Expected Net Gain Under Sampling (ENGS) = EVSI - Cost of Sampling = $ 20, 000.16 -$ 5,000 = $ 15, 000.16 Question : Should we obtain the additional information or not? Answer: As the ENGS is Positive, therefore, the additional information should be obtained. Question: Suppose the cost of sampling increases from $ 5, 000 to $ 22, and 000.16. Should we obtain the additional information or not? Answer: ENGS = $ 20, 000.16 - $22, 000.16 = -$ 2000 < 0. This yields the additional information should not be obtained. Efficiency of Sampling Information = (EVSI)/(EVPI) = (20, 000.16)/(100,000) = .20 = 20% EXAMPLE. Mike Dirr, vice-president of marketing for Super-Cola, is considering which of two advertising plans to use for a new caffeine-free cola. Plan I will cost $500,000 while a more conservative approach, Plan II, will cost only $100,000. Table shows the projected gross (before advertising) profits on the new cola for each advertising plan under two possible states-of-nature -complete acceptance of the new cola and limited acceptance. Both the scenarios are equally likely. Table 1: Gross Profits State-of-NatuAdvertising LimitedCompletePlanAcceptanceAcceptancePlan I$400,000$1,000,000Plan II$500,000$500,000 Mike estimates that there equal chances of complete and limited acceptance of the new cola. Set up a net profit payoff matrix. Find the optimal act using Maxi-Max criteria Find the optimal act using Mini-Max criteria Find the optimal act using Maxi-Min criteria Find the optimal act using Min-Max regret table The equal likelihood ( or Laplace) criterion The Hurwicz criterion with alpha value of 0.4 Use Mikes subjective probability estimates to choose an advertising plan based on EMV. What is the value of perfect information in this situation? A survey costing $50,000 can be run to test -market the product. In past uses, this survey has been shown to predict complete acceptance in 60% of the cases where there was acceptance and predicted limited acceptance 70% of the time when there was limited acceptance. Use this information to determine whether this survey should be used to help decide on an advertising plan. Use a decision tree to show your analysis. Solution for Super Cola problem MEMORIZE THE BOLD PORTION EMV = expected monetary value EOL is expected opportunity loss EOL* and EMV* will always result in the same decision EOL* =EVPI EVPI is Expected value of Perfect information = Expected value under perfect information EMV* with prior probabilities EVSI is Expected value of Sampling information = EMV* (with posterior and marginal probabilities) - EMV* with prior probabilities ENGS (Expected net gain under sampling = EVSI Cost of sampling information Efficiency of sampling = EVSI/EVPI *100 Net Profit table for super cola problem STATE OF NATUREACTIONSLimited acceptanceComplete acceptanceEMVPlan 1400000 500000 = -100000 1000000 500000 = 500000-100000* 0.5 + 500000 * 0.5 = 200000Plan 2500000 100000 = 400000500000 100000 = 400000400000* 0.5 + 400000 * 0.5 = 400000 **Prior Probabilities0.50.5 Expected monetary value of plan 1 = -100000* 0.5 + 500000 * 0.5 = 200000 Expected monetary value of plan 2 =400000* 0.5 + 400000 * 0.5 = 400000 ** Plan 2 is the optimal plan according to the Bayes Criteria (EMV criteria) Opportunity loss table ( Take the highest profit (highest cell value) of each column (state of nature) and subtract individual cell value with the highest cell value (HCV) of the column) Opportunity loss table or regret table STATE OF NATUREACTIONSLimited acceptance HCV = 400000Complete acceptance HCV = 500000EOLPlan 1400000 (-100000) = 500000 5000000 500000 = 0500000* 0.5 + 0 * 0.5 = 250000Plan 2400000 400000 = 0500000 400000 = 1000000* 0.5 + 100000 * 0.5 = 50000 *Prior Probabilities0.50.5 The optimal value of opportunity lost is the lowest value so according to the Opportunity loss criteria Plan 2 is the optimal decision as it provides the least opportunity loss. Perfect Information: In case we will have perfect information we will be able to predict the state of limited acceptance and complete acceptance with 100% accuracy. In case of Limited acceptance the best decision is Plan 2 as it gives a profit of $400000 which is greater than the Plan 1 profit (loss) of - $100000 In case of complete acceptance the best decision is plan 1 as it gives a profit of $500000 which is greater than the Plan 1 profit of $400000 Payoff table under perfect information STATE OF NATUREACTIONSLimited acceptanceComplete acceptancePlan 1500000Plan 2400000Prior Probabilities0.50.5 Expected monetary value under perfect information is 400000* 0.5 + 500000 * 0.5 = 450000 EVPI = 450000 EMV* = 450000 400000 =50000 which is the same as EOL* In other words the manager should be willing to spend a sum of $50000 or less for perfect information. In real life it is very difficult to predict the future with 100% accuracy thus the perfect information may not be possible to receive. The next best thing is to get experimental or sampling or expert information The cost of sampling information = 50000 No the question is whether it is worth while to pay this much amount for the new information First we find conditional probabilities and then Joint Probabilities Then Posterior Probabilities Conditional Probabilities table P(X/E) ( Probability of X when E is the case (E is the state of nature) STATE OF NATUREACTIONSLimited acceptanceComplete acceptanceX1 = predict complete acceptance1- 0.7 = 0.30.6X2 = predict Limited acceptance0.71 0.6 = 0.4Sum total of probabilities X1 +X2 = 111 Joint probability table (conditional probability * prior probability) STATE OF NATUREACTIONSLimited acceptanceComplete acceptanceMarginal ProbabilitiesX1 = predict complete acceptance0.3 * 0.5 = 0.150.6 * 0.5 = 0.30.15+ 0.3 = 0.45X2 = predict Limited acceptance0.7 * 0.5 = 0.350.4 * 0.5 = 0.20.35 + 0.2 = 0.55Prior Probabilities0.50.5Sum = 0.45 + 0.55 = 1 Posterior probability table (Joint probability/ marginal probability) STATE OF NATUREACTIONSLimited acceptanceComplete acceptanceMarginal ProbabilitiesX1 = predict complete acceptance0.15/0.45 = 0.3333330.3/0.45 = 0.66666670.45X2 = predict Limited acceptance0.35/ 0.55 = 0.6363630.2/0.55 = 0.3636370.55Prior Probabilities0.50.5Sum = 1 Payoff table for the revised EMV using Posterior probabilities Payoff table 1 for the revised EMV using Posterior probabilities of X1 STATE OF NATUREACTIONSLimited acceptanceComplete acceptanceEMVPlan 1-100000 500000-100000* 0.333333 + 500000 * 0.666667 = 300000Plan 2400000400000400000* 0.33333 + 400000 * 0.666667 = 400000 **Posterior Probabilities for X10.3333330.666667 Payoff table 1 for the revised EMV using Posterior probabilities of X1 STATE OF NATUREACTIONSLimited acceptanceComplete acceptanceEMVPlan 1-100000 500000-100000* 0.636363+ 500000 * 0.363637= 118182.2Plan 2400000400000400000* 0.636363+ 400000 * 0.363637= 400000 **Posterior Probabilities for X20.6363630.363637 EMV using the marginal probabilities is EMV* table 1 of posterior prob X 1 * 0.45 + EMV* table 2 of posterior prob X2 * 0.55 400000 *0.45 +400000 *0.55 = $400000 EVSI = New EMV* with marginal probabilities - EMV* with prior probabilities EVSI = 400000 400000 = $ 0 Thus we should not spend any thing on this additional imperfect information. ENGS = EVSI - cost = 0 50000 = -50000 ( LOSS) Efficiency of Sampling = EVSI/ EVPI *100% = 0 % Final conclusion do not get the additional information Oil Company Problem Oil company Problem An oil company has some land that is reported to possibly contain oil. The company classifies such land into four categories by the total number of barrels that are expected to be obtained from the well, i.e. a 500,000 barrel well, 200,000 barrel well, 50,000 barrel well, and a dry well. The company is faced with deciding whether to drill for oil, to unconditionally lease the land or to conditionally lease the land at a rate depending upon oil strike. The cost of drilling the well is $100,000; if it is a producing well and the cost of drilling is $75,000 if it is a dry well. For producing well, the profit per barrel of oil is $1.50, ( after deduction of processing and all other costs except drilling costs). Under the unconditional lease agreement, the company receives $45,000 for the land whereas for the conditional lease agreement the company receives 50 cents for each barrel of oil extracted if it is a 500,000 or 200,000 barrel oil strike and nothing if otherwise. The probability for striking a500,000 barrel well is 0.1, probability for striking a 200,000 barrel well is 0.15, probability for striking a50,000 barrel well is 0.25, and probability for a dry well is 0.5. Make a profit payoff table for the oil company Find the optimal act using Maxi-Max criteria Find the optimal act using Mini-Max criteria Find the optimal act using Maxi-Min criteria Find the optimal act using Min-Max regret table The equal likelihood ( or Laplace) criterion The Hurwicz criterion with alpha value of 0.4 Find the optimal act using Bayes criteria Find the optimal act according to Expected opportunity loss criteria Find the EVPI Profit Payoff Table States of NatureDecision500,000 Bar200,000 Bar50,000 BarDryDrill750 - 100 = 650200*1.5 -100 =20050*1.5 -100 = -25- 75Unconditional45454545Conditional500 *.5 = 250100000.10.150.250.5 EMV Drill 650,000 * 0.1 + 200,000 * 0.15 + (-25,000 * 0.25) + (-75,000 * 0.5) = $51,250 EMV Unconditional Lease 45,000 * 0.1 + 45,000 * 0.15 + 45,000 * 0.25 + 45,000 * 0.5 = $45,000 EMV Conditional Lease 250,000 * 0.1 + 100,000 * 0.15 + 0 * 0.25 + 0 * 0.5 = $40,000 EMV* = $51,250 So action chosen is drill Opportunity Loss Table States of NatureHV = 650,000HV = 200,000HV = 45,000HV = 45,000Decision500,000 Bar200,000 Bar50,000 BarDryDrill650 - 650 = 0200 - 200 = 045 - (-25) = 7045 - (-75) = 120Unconditional650 - 45 = 605200 - 45 = 15545 - 45 = 045 - 45 =0Conditional650 - 250 = 400200 - 100 = 10045 - 0 = 4545 - 0 = 450.10.150.250.5 Perfect information table States of NatureDecision500,000 Bar200,000 Bar50,000 BarDryDrill 650200Unconditional4545Conditional0.10.150.250.5 Safeway Juice Problem Safeway Pembina highway location must decide how many cases of Juice to stock each week to meet demand. The probability distribution of demand during a week is shown as follows. Demand (Cases)Probability15.216.2517.418.15 Each case cost the grocer $10 and sells for $12. Unsold cases are sold to a local farmer for $2 per case. If there is a shortage, the grocer considers the cost of customer ill will and lost profit to be $4 per case. The grocer must decide how many cases of Juice to order each week. construct the payoff table for this decision situation Find the best decision according to EMV criteria (Find EMV*) Construct an Opportunity loss table and find EOL* Find EVPI  SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Cooper, Robert B.: Introduction to Queuing Theory, New York: Macmillan, 1972. Gross, Donald, and Carl M. Harris: Fundamentals of Queuing Theory, New York: Wiley, 1974. Hillier, Frederick S., and Gerald J. Lieberman: Operations Research, 2d ed., San Francisco: Holden-Day, 1974. Morse, Phillip M.: Queues, Inventories, and Maintenance, New York: Wiley, 1958. Panico, J. A.: Queuing Theory, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1969. Saaty, T. L.: Elements of Queuing Theory, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961. Wagner, Harvey: Principles of Operations Research, 2d ed., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1975.      PAGE   PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 68 Real world problem System Choosing a particular aspect of reality which needs attention Model Building Establish relationship among variables and parameters of the system Define objective (s) to be achieved and limitations on resources Solve the Model Apply suitable OR technique to get solution in terms of decision variables Testing the Model and Its Solution Put values of decision variables in the model under consideration See whether solution is valid or not Modify the model Implementation and Control Interpret solution values Put the knowledge (result) gained from the solution to work through organizational policies Monitor changes and exercise control No. of units of product B. -20- Start Convert LP model into standard form by adding either slack variables, surplus variables and/ or artificial variables Decide coefficient of these variables in the objective function Setup initial simplex table to obtain initial solution Compute Zj and Cj - Zj values Is LP problem of Max or Min type? This Solution is optimal Do cj -Zj Negative values exist? Do cj- zj positive Values exist? Select key column with largest positive cj-zj value Select key column with largest negative cj -zj value - Select key row with Min {xBi/aij; aij>0}. - If all aij  EMBED Equation.3  0, then current solution is unbounded and stop the procedure Identity key element at the intersection of key row and key column Update the entries in the Simplex table by first obtaining key row values, and apply elementary row operations Maximization Minimization NO NO Yes yes 7 1/7 13 4 5 1/4 and  EMBED Equation.3   EMBED Equation.3  Shipping routes Destinations Sources D2 D3 S4 S3 D1 S1 S2 DAIGRAM: Transportation from three sources to three Destinations THE # OF ROUTES = 8 X1112 X1212 X1n X2112 X2212 X2n Xmn Xm1 Xm212 2 5 6 3 4 14 77 87 77 2 3 83 77 583 25883 75883 25883 85883 105883 6 1 5 3 2 6 1 1 4 3 2 1 5 1 6 3 1 Express data in Table form Is it balanced problem? Add dummy row or column to make it balanced Is it maximization problem? Convert it into a minimization problem by subtracting each element of the table form its highest element Find an initial basic feasible solution Is it degenerate? Remove degenerating by assigning to appropriate cell (s) Revise the solution and check rim conditions Calculate ui and vj by using uj + vj =cij for occupied cells and then opportunity cost dij=cij-(uj +vj), for unoccupied cells - Select cell having largest negative value of dij for revising the current solution - construct loop and adjust allocations Is dij< 0 Terminate the procedure NO YES YES NO YES NO NO YES 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20D, if D EMBED Equation.3  S 20D 10(S D) = 30D 10S, if D < S = S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S Decision node Decision branch Chance node Chance branch A3 R A4 P (State of nature) Q (State of nature) A3 A4 A3 A4 P A2 (Course of action) A4 A3 Q Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Fig. 5.1 Decision Tree A1 (Course of action) 0 1 3 4 5 0.5 x 0.6 0.5 x 0.3 0.5 x 0.1 2 P(X1 |D1) = 0.6 P(X2 |D1) = 0.3 6 7 8 0.5 x 0 0.5 x 0 0.5 x 1.0 Probability Payoff (in Br 1000) Expected Payoff (in Br 000) 600 180 -100 -15 0 0 600 -100 0 0 0 0 0 165 P(X3 |D1) = 0.1 P(X1| D2 P(X2|D2)=0 P(X3 \ D2)=0.1 P(X1 |D1) = 0.6 3 4 5 1 6 7 1 8 2 9 12 10 11 FIGURE T1.1 Poisson probability distribution. FIGURE T1.2 Exponential Distribution Figure T1-3 Different queuing situations Service Completed Service Facility Service Service Completed Service Facility 2 Facility 1 Service Queue Facility 1 Completed Service Facility 2 Service Service Service Queue Facility 2 Facility 1 Completed Service Service Facility 4 Facility 3 Service FIGURE T1-3 Different queuing situations. Figure T1.4 Capacity and customer service FIGURE T1.1 Poisson probability distribution. FIGURE T1.2 Exponential Distribution Figure T1-3 Different queuing situations Service Completed Service Facility Service Service Completed Service Facility 2 Facility 1 Service Queue Facility 1 Completed Service Facility 2 Service Service Service Queue Facility 2 Facility 1 Completed Service Service Facility 4 Facility 3 Service FIGURE T1-3 Different queuing situations. 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Symbol |w|wgw  -2 /:(ySymbol |w|wgw -2 /: )yv7v7 Symbol |w|wgw - 2 @ry_ 2 /ly_ 2 myo 2 {ly_ 2 9myo 2 ly_ 2 myo 2 ly_ 2 D myo 2 D vmyo 2 D ly_ 2 ]%`ly_ 2 (myo 2 ("ly_ 2 -ly_ 2 g15myo 2 g1myo 2 g1; ly_ 2 :myo 2 :O ly_Symbol |w|wgw - 2 =y_ 2 A =y_ 2 A -y_ 2 =y_ 2 y 2 ly 2 y 2 4 y 2 l4 y 2 4 y 2 L=y_ 2 D E -y_ 2 &=y_ 2 (}-y_ 2 o/e=y_ 2 g1 -y_ 2 8/=y_ 2 :-y_Times New Roman|wgw ! - 2 A ZPy 2 ZPy 2 Py 2 LZLyc 2 &ZLyc 2 o/ Wy 2 8 WyTimes New Roman|wgw - 2 oy 2 'ny 2 'oy 2 7 ny 2 qy 2 'sy| 2 0qy 2 8sy|Times New Roman|wgw " - 2 A k1y@ 2 61y@Times New Roman|wgw - 2 N 2y & "SystemwxfM  - FMicrosoft Equation 2.0 DS Equation Equation.29qCompObj79fObjInfo:Equation Native _986206646G=F Q0QPМYh  r=lmP o =1-lmP n =P o lm() n L q =l 2 mm-l()L s =lm-lW q =lmm-l()W s =1m-l()Ole CompObj<>fObjInfo?Equation Native  H FMicrosoft Equation 3.0 DS Equation Equation.39q5 L =710; the server will be busy 70 percent of the timeP o =1"710=.3; 30 percent of the time there will be no customers in the system (in line or being served)P n =.3710() n ; a formula for finding the probability of n customers in the system at any time;         n=1,2,3,...;P 1 =.21;P 2 =.147;P 3 =.1029; etc.L q =7 2 1010"7()=1.63; on average, 1.63 customers will be in the queueL s =710"7()=2.33; on average, 2.33 customers will be in the system (queue and server)W q =71010"7()=.233; the customer spends an average of .233 hour waiting in the queueW s =110"7=.333; the customer spends an average of .333 hour in the system (queue and service)Lm:F !(fe_984925315NBF0Q0QOle PIC ADLMETA  FMicrosoft Equation 3.0 DS Equation Equation.39q t =sP o =1/() n /n! n=0s"1 " []+/() m:F W  .1  @5&4? & MathType- 8 Symbol -|w|wgw - -2 x (y!Symbolf |w|wgwf -2 x)ySymbol .|w|wgw . -2 |(y!Symbolf |w|wgwf -2 |%)y-W'6-e0-_ _ 4Symbol /|w|wgw / -2 Z (y!Symbolf |w|wgwf -2 S)yb Symbol 0|w|wgw 0 -2 * (y!Symbolf |w|wgwf  -2 *)y'b '1Symbol 1|w|wgw 1 -2 0 (y!Symbolf |w|wgwf  -2 0)ySymbol 2|w|wgw 2 -2 5 (y!Symbolf |w|wgwf  -2 5j)y1 11%1'; ;^ ;;Symbol 3|w|wgw 3 - 2 |ry 2 ly 2 Tmy 2 H ly 2 Hmy 2 L&ly 2 L$#my 2 l-ly 2 .my 2 k ly 2 imy 2 % ly 2 %my 2 0) ly 2 0'my 2 0ry 2 5ry 2 0%ly 2 4%my 2 ?ly 2 ?mySymbolf |w|wgwf  - 2 |=y 2  =y 2 %)y' 2 u)y' 2 )y' 2 %y' 2 uy' 2 y' 2 H+y 2 H*-y 2 t'y' 2 'y' 2 'y' 2 ty0y' 2 y0y' 2 y0y' 2 =y 2  y' 2  y' 2  y' 2  y' 2 y' 2  y' 2 y' 2 y' 2 y 2  y 2 '=y 2 % y' 2 + y' 2 ' y' 2 * y' 2 %_y' 2 +_y' 2 '_y' 2 *_y' 2 'y 2 2=y 2 5C -y 2 20=y 2 2z#+y 2 <=y 2 <=y 2 ?@ABCDEFGHJMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`adfghijklmnopqrsux{~)() 2 2!1"2() "1 =11+710()+710() 2 21"720() "1 =.4814 (the probability that no customers are in the system)P 1 =.3369 (the probability that one customer is in the system)P 2 =.1179 (the probability that two customers are in the system)P 3 =.0413 (the probability that three customers are in the system)P 4 =.0145 (the probability that four customers are in the system)L=?##YY=? h .1  @9 8&78 & MathType -zPIC ORLMETA  CompObjQSIfObjInfoTKKSymbol |w|wgw  -2 (y!Symbol |w|wgw -2  )ySymbol |w|wgw  -2 N (y!Symbol |w|wgw -2 )y->fp fAn1 n1Times New Roman|wgw  - 2 Ly 2 &+Ly 2 &ZLy 2 & Wy 2 &ZLy 2 .2zWy 2 .2WyTimes New Roman|wgw - 2 I Xqy@ 2 sy 2 qy@ 2 'Xqy@ 2 'qy@ 2 2sy 2 2V qy@Symbol |w|wgw  - 2 =y 2 " y' 2  y' 2  y' 2 "_y' 2 _y' 2 _y' 2 -y 2 L=y 2 &=y 2 &+ +y 2 &=y 2 &=y 2 &=y 2 .2=y 2 .2 +y 2 .2w=yTimes New Roman|wgw - 2 B.y 2 .y 2 !y 2 ;.y 2 L.y 2 &.y 2 &2 /y 2 &.y 2 .24.y 2 4814 2 17y 2 c10 2 N35 2 25 2 :15 2 35 2 L*0977 2 L'75 2 tY 10 2 &7977 2 & 70 2 &<0139 2 T010 2 |4 10 2 .21139Times New Roman|wgw  - 2 G 20@ 2  20@Times New Roman|wgw -2 LJ (an averaUUUU2 L  ge of .097U2 L6% 7 customerU+WU2 Lz2 will(2  be in lineUU 2 )02 & (an averaUUUU2 &w% ge of .797U 2 &1702 @" customer wU+WU(2 @" ill be in U2 @"q the systemU++UW 2 @"6*)02 &\ (the custUU+2 &`" omer spendWU+U 2 &M0s an+U2 + average ofUUUU2 +* .0139 hou2 + r in the qU2 +)ueue)UU2 .2 (the custUU+2 .2$ omer spendWU+U 2 .22s0+2 H8 an averageUUUUU2 H8~ of .1139 2 H8 hour in th2 H8) e system).U++UW & "Systemwft  - FMicrosoft Equation 3.0 DS Equation Equation.39q Xt L q =.4814710() 2 .35()2!1".35() 2 =.0977 (Equation Native Lt_1649304618;\WF~Q~QOle bPIC VYcLan average of .0977 customer will be in line)L s =L q +710=.7977 (an average of .7977 customer will be in the system)W q =L q /7=.0139 (the customer spends an average of .0139 hour in the queue)W s =W q +110=.1139 (the customer spends an average of .1139 hour in the system).LFCV  .1   & & MathType-=@=~u\_| Zс^!6>Zz"=Owj3g:W֓Qe |y̖QlSܒ0Qg7jRg4 +4/Zkԕ7Bbp'm?;?a T[?_uBH">~x}VͤqZ*LI${5MM{Hpy"Lě\_zLFEie1?< S-YjD?x=oXdu\R|TcN `޴\,-V7#eJ )'1r1WYm+A3 I" F)vE8Mx.B4A> GsQ!/B DL81=L*GEc[!GnF Eivijd9$GV~ű@ MB"0CMhǀFh$#4g1A#H!J`h\/@ChB6LBY0$Pжp 8!t qc,RXQ R$j $I0xhP0F1"(a` BDaA0C!Syq@Aϲ!` `&0#rBD@8 F!yNQ $I2fbe4"T11zoc=[o[{m~aQu12K k:Jcd!4;G&&թzZl;w0H}5<BIHj8.$>>u)VRHj5;=؋ Bqp()JXB&JH$v CIwdvvˮFTLmxݔ0q0zT[n!p9>I 2h0ףaP|L;sZmj.]3`A8 iz@1J at2T'dia"m\RwAHb3gG~ ~q:zdkVd|zҽ}1yNOvӠs~#&>v[NjBlT2Rܪ<'b:Dk'i O jBl׆q,:)k"nr~]̰BNBӿ* 2\>*QZizw鱵KwWi6|zקf=_~u}ۺ.a9qsvV[?F6<'do TKg5vh8n%[yA;i6K+>?&wݓ]žګjyrSL Clx#8Dq$`pSDbIw0vMe6}l<߿OB7j4prY_|}yu8S7]HMRϿŷ/ |V6~͗j~)~z8~`+WbsB`s>l]`JI Vz(P[Zݿ w~lڪ,fF8*h/* Q̀Rz|1> 'wՑ*ϽlAЗܛo~eo&Th'Fr.!= T3_2W(֨,RWuD-B?y}S+j60-֒8bsN%Mb\m!P\80 k "%aKU7 ( 6_sDBB܈&,/`߱H (t  `qbb>Ⱥ{a8x^Gl aXb~a1wٗiBX2銪\?u?R%YVP;hrz.UJ,L):C1B !J 63H g;*|Nox!KPBe6rL&CWKv=QZL pTO1bf\\P5Undp~j]kzvzq62u\hǃ|1%Rǧl>o29|+*PH BPvrr>٤:p$~-T[@D!-NzWiGT}xj9n\}{W2OOJfij+rWjGS|?Da5$YqVǁG0q4iU뚦-WkaxLM$`QvdhY|q2MU@\z77gWMztJj_6cdͯ/j:a"PUώ/W. bЬ ҤmTѶqF@CD󮩡AQ 9QD'ڞISY͐aRv>/Wl"N&Ty:y|6S&_>yQL79>.] Gdp$SJ{W) ,tTsty{}bŋs='͢VȒ{QUB!oobBOFdI I`EVRٌK"˳F,GI98}?q7 (/z)muk]/zfհ{KCْ8'dçѵ"cfrwz^~9P5UtV2+Pҕz28M RΗ,O☥4ZGIP`Fq.  #0Т-d RxJqљ>$p|m\h&t2{6 C72΋xJ3l26&aQ3oAFh!9Dbq bRmt;ulx:wT%+e(p۝OGx"}uu_A~rrͿsJ̯OTd뵟g\-;tW٥cHE$ e5/WlGoëSy`[x~xF"PK v`#o\On/dEU/}P bWVf%*,AxI.D~8I>^(BQ&-)&p~+k^n&tօ4՗4D^?t=DcZuc9vy^yW? 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Symbol |w|wgw  -2 /:(ySymbol |w|wgw -2 /: )yv7v7 Symbol |w|wgw - 2 @ry_ 2 /ly_ 2 myo 2 {ly_ 2 9myo 2 ly_ 2 myo 2 ly_ 2 D myo 2 D vmyo 2 D ly_ 2 ]%`ly_ 2 (myo 2 ("ly_ 2 -ly_ 2 g15myo 2 g1myo 2 g1; ly_ 2 :myo 2 :O ly_Symbol |w|wgw - 2 =y_ 2 A =y_ 2 A -y_ 2 =y_ 2 y 2 ly 2 y 2 4 y 2 l4 y 2 4 y 2 L=y_ 2 D E -y_ 2 &=y_ 2 (}-y_ 2 o/e=y_ 2 g1 -y_ 2 8/=y_ 2 :-y_Times New Roman|wgw ! - 2 A ZPy 2 ZPy 2 Py 2 LZLyc 2 &ZLyc 2 o/ Wy 2 8 WyTimes New Roman|wgw - 2 oy 2 'ny 2 'oy 2 7 ny 2 qy 2 'sy| 2 0qy 2 8sy|Times New Roman|wgw " - 2 A k1y@ 2 61y@Times New Roman|wgw - 2 N 2y & "SystemwxfM  -CompObjPfObjInfoREquation Native S_1649304632F BQ BQ FMicrosoft Equation 2.0 DS Equation Equation.29qPМYh  r=lmP o =1-lmP n =P o lm() n L q =l 2 mm-l()L s =lm-lW q =lmm-l()W s =1m-l() FMicrosoft Equation 3.0 DS Equation Equation.39q5 L =710; the server wiOle ZCompObj[fObjInfo]Equation Native ^  ll be busy 70 percent of the timeP o =1"710=.3; 30 percent of the time there will be no customers in the system (in line or being served)P n =.3710() n ; a formula for finding the probability of n customers in the system at any time;         n=1,2,3,...;P 1 =.21;P 2 =.147;P 3 =.1029; etc.L q =7 2 1010"7()=1.63; on average, 1.63 customers will be in the queueL s =710"7()=2.33; on average, 2.33 customers will be in the system (queue and server)W q =71010"7()=.233; the customer spends an average of .233 hour waiting in the queueW s =110"7=.333; the customer spends an average of .333 hour in the system (queue and service)Lm:F !(fe FMicrosoft Equation 3.0 DS Equation Equation.39q t =s_1649304633F BQ BQOle PIC LMETA Em:F W  .1  @5&4? & MathType- 8 Symbol -|w|wgw - -2 x (y!Symbolf |w|wgwf -2 x)ySymbol .|w|wgw . -2 |(y!Symbolf |w|wgwf -2 |%)y-W'6-e0-_ _ 4Symbol /|w|wgw / -2 Z (y!Symbolf |w|wgwf -2 S)yb Symbol 0|w|wgw 0 -2 * (y!Symbolf |w|wgwf  -2 *)y'b '1Symbol 1|w|wgw 1 -2 0 (y!Symbolf |w|wgwf  -2 0)ySymbol 2|w|wgw 2 -2 5 (y!Symbolf |w|wgwf  -2 5j)y1 11%1'; ;^ ;;Symbol 3|w|wgw 3 - 2 |ry 2 ly 2 Tmy 2 H ly 2 Hmy 2 L&ly 2 L$#my 2 l-ly 2 .my 2 k ly 2 imy 2 % ly 2 %my 2 0) ly 2 0'my 2 0ry 2 5ry 2 0%ly 2 4%my 2 ?ly 2 ?mySymbolf |w|wgwf  - 2 |=y 2  =y 2 %)y' 2 u)y' 2 )y' 2 %y' 2 uy' 2 y' 2 H+y 2 H*-y 2 t'y' 2 'y' 2 'y' 2 ty0y' 2 y0y' 2 y0y' 2 =y 2  y' 2  y' 2  y' 2  y' 2 y' 2  y' 2 y' 2 y' 2 y 2  y 2 '=y 2 % y' 2 + y' 2 ' y' 2 * y' 2 %_y' 2 +_y' 2 '_y' 2 *_y' 2 'y 2 2=y 2 5C -y 2 20=y 2 2z#+y 2 <=y 2 <=y 2 fp fAn1 n1Times New Roman|wgw  - 2 Ly 2 &+Ly 2 &ZLy 2 & Wy 2 &ZLy 2 .2zWy 2 .2WyTimes New Roman|wgw - 2 I Xqy@ 2 sy 2 qy@ 2 'Xqy@ 2 'qy@ 2 2sy 2 2V qy@Symbol |w|wgw  - 2 =y 2 " y' 2  y' 2  y' 2 "_y' 2 _y' 2 _y' 2 -y 2 L=y 2 &=y 2 &+ +y 2 &=y 2 &=y 2 &=y 2 .2=y 2 .2 +y 2 .2w=yTimes New Roman|wgw - 2 B.y 2 .y 2 !y 2 ;.y 2 L.y 2 &.y 2 &2 /y 2 &.y 2 .24.y 2 4814 2 17y 2 c10 2 N35 2 25 2 :15 2 35 2 L*0977 2 L'75 2 tY 10 2 &7977 2 & 70 2 &<0139 2 T010 2 |4 10 2 .21139Times New Roman|wgw  - 2 G 20@ 2  20@Times New Roman|wgw -2 LJ (an averaUUUU2 L  ge of .097U2 L6% 7 customerU+WU2 Lz2 will(2  be in lineUU 2 )02 & (an averaUUUU2 &w% ge of .797U 2 &1702 @" customer wU+WU(2 @" ill be in U2 @"q the systemU++UW 2 @"6*)02 &\ (the custUU+2 &`" omer spendWU+U 2 &M0s an+U2 + average ofUUUU2 +* .0139 hou2 + r in the qU2 +)ueue)UU2 .2 (the custUU+2 .2$ omer spendWU+U 2 .22s0+2 H8 an averageUUUUU2 H8~ of .1139 2 H8 hour in th2 H8) e system).U++UW & "Systemwft  - FMicrosoft Equation 3.0 DS Equation Equation.39qXP4<2 L q =Equation Native t_1186318683FPQPQOle  CompObj f                  " % ( , - . / 0 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 : .4814710() 2 .35()2!1".35() 2 =.0977 (an average of .0977 customer will be in line)L s =L q +710=.7977 (an average of .7977 customer will be in the system)W q =L q /7=.0139 (the customer spends an average of .0139 hour in the queue)W s =W q +110=.1139 (the customer spends an average of .1139 hour in the system). 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