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" # $ % & ' ( ) * + , - . / 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : Љ < = > ? @ A B WE š F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z [ \ ] ^ _ ` a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z { | } ~  € equired before reliance can be placed on results based on translated tests. In addition to using effective translation practices, test users also need to examine the psychometric properties of translated tests (Ellis, 1995). The adaptation of nonverbal tests for multiple cultures does not include the difficult and often very problematic test translation phase and is therefore much less complicated than the adaptation process of (partly) verbal tests. The fact that the adaptation process of nonverbal tests is much less complicated than the one needed for intelligence tests which use written or spoken language is one of the great advantages of nonverbal intelligence tests. The circumstance that nonverbal intelligence tests often do not need translation, does not automatically mean that there is no need for empirical studies on the equivalence of their applications for different cultures. Van de Vijver and Poortinga (1997) noted that when a psychological instrument developed in one society is applied in a different cultural context, invariance of psychometric properties like reliability and validity cannot be merely assumed, but has to be empirically demonstrated. The occurrence of bias can change the psychometric properties of an instrument when it is used in a different culture. Bias can appear at various levels; at test-, subtest-, or at item-level. A test, subtest, or an item is biased if it does not measure the same psychological trait across cultural groups (Van de Vijver, 1998). Three different types of bias can be differentiated, construct bias, method bias and item bias (Van de Vijver & Poortinga, 1997). A test shows construct bias if the construct measured is not identical across different cultural groups. Method bias occurs as a consequence of nuisance variables due to method-related factors. Three sorts of method bias can be distinguished: sample bias, instrument bias and administration bias. Sample bias occurs when the samples are incomparable on aspects other than the target variable. Instrument bias is related to characteristics of the instrument that are not identical for different culture groups. An example of this kind of bias is stimulus familiarity. The third type of method bias occurs when there are problems related with the administration of a test. This type of bias can occur when communication problems arise because of the insufficient knowledge of the subject of the language that the examiner uses. Item bias occurs if persons with the same amount of the trait being estimated, but belonging to different groups have different probabilities of making a specific response to the item. The probability that administration bias will occur with a nonverbal intelligence test like the SON-R is low as that the instructions are given in a nonverbal or in a verbal way, dependent on the possibilities of communication of the subject. Moreover, the providing of feedback following each item and the ‘showing how to do it’ by the examiner reduces the chance of the occurrence of administration bias. Drenth (1975) has described the SON-test as an example of culture-reduced tests, meaning that these tests only measure a limited number of culturally determined skills that they do not intend to measure. Examples of culturally determined skills are: being able to use a pencil, being capable of working with numbers, and being able to understand the instructions. Drenth has argued that it is not essential for a culture-reduced test to produce similar score distributions in different cultural groups; the only condition for a culture-reduced test is that it should not reflect skill differences determined by cultural factors. Drenth defines a culture-fair test as a culture-reduced test for the particular groups under consideration. The conception of Jensen (1980) of a culture-reduced test differs slightly from DrenthДs conception: Jensen considers a test culture-reduced when the performance on this test is only to a limited extent influenced by culturally determined familiarity with the stimulus figures and response format. Jensen has formulated the following criteria for culture-reduced tests: (a) the test has to be a performance measure, (b) instructions should be given in mime to exclude the influence of language, (3) preliminary practice items should be provided, (4) items should not depend on time, (5) items should require abstract reasoning rather than factual information and (6) problems should be designed in such a way as to ensure subjects are unable to guess from memory of similar items encountered in the past. The SON-R tests do not satisfy all of the criteria of Jensen for culture-reduced tests because with one subtest of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 (Hidden Pictures) a time limit is being used. Jensen has also stated that the use of abstract geometrical figures reduces the likelihood of cultural bias. In the SON-R tests various subtests contain concrete, meaningful pictures instead of abstract, geometrical figures. The subtests using meaningful picture materials might be culture-specific. The research finding that immigrant children in the Netherlands (mainly children from Morocco, Turkey, Suriname and the Dutch Antilles) perform better on the SON-R tests than on traditional intelligence tests like the WISC-R and RAKIT (Laros & Tellegen, 1991; Tellegen, Winkel, Wijnberg-Williams & Laros, 1998) provides a positive empirical indication of the culture-fairness of the SON-R for the immigrant groups in the Dutch population. One of the reasons why immigrant children attain lower mean scores on traditional intelligence tests than on nonverbal intelligence tests like the SON-R is the relative strong reliance of these tests on verbal abilities and specific knowledge learned in school. This is especially the case with the so-called omnibus intelligence tests like the various Wechsler scales which contain subtests like Information and Vocabulary which presuppose specific knowledge learned in school (Helms-Lorenz & Van de Vijver, 1995). The fact that minority groups show lower means on a test, however, does not necessarily mean that a test is culturally biased. Van de Vijver & Poortinga (1992) argued that the desirability of cultural loadings in measurement procedures is determined by the intention of the test in question. If a particular test is intended to test knowledge gained during a course at school it is quite likely that culture-specific knowledge is tested. In this case, cultural loadings in tests are unavoidable and even desirable. In general a distinction can be made between generalizations about achievements and about aptitudes. In the latter case, cultural loadings are undesirable (Helms-Lorenz & Van de Vijver, 1995). A second research result with positive implications for the culture-fairness of the SON-R tests for the immigrant groups in the Netherlands is the finding that there is no relation between their length of stay in the Netherlands and their IQ-scores, indicating that performance on the SON-R is not dependent on knowledge of the Dutch language (Laros & Tellegen, 1991). Notwithstanding the existence of the positive indications of the culture-fairness of the SON-R tests, also some negative indications are available, especially in reference to the subtests of the SON-R in which concrete, meaningful picture materials are used instead of abstract geometrical figures. Our expectation before the start of the cross-cultural validation studies with the SON-R tests, was to encounter some bias in the subtests that use meaningful picture materials because some of the pictures used seemed rather specific for western cultures. Before presenting the results of these studies, a short description of the SON-R tests will be given. Description of the SON-R tests The SON test was originally developed in 1943 by Snijders-Oomen for use with deaf children. She intended to measure a broad spectrum of intelligence functions without being dependent on the use of oral or written language. With subsequent revisions also norms and instructions for use with hearing subjects were developed. The latest revision comprises of separate tests for younger and older children, the SON-R 2.5.5-7 (Tellegen et al., 1998) and the SON-R 5.5.5-17 (Snijders, Tellegen & Laros, 1989). In table 1 some characteristics of the tests are presented. Table 1: Characteristics of the SON-tests in the Netherlands SON-R 2.5.5-7 SON-R 5.5.5-17 age range 2;0 – 7;11 years 5;6 – 16;11 years N sample 1124 1350 N subtests 6 7 reasoning abilities Categories Categories Situations Situations Analogies Analogies ---- Stories spatial abilities Mosaics Mosaics Patterns Patterns Puzzles ---- perceptual abilities ---- Hidden Pictures administration time 50 min. 90 min. mean reliability subtests .72 .76 reliability total score .90 .93 generalizability total score .78 .85 Most subtests are related to either reasoning abilities or spatial abilities while in the SON-R 5.5-17 also a test for perceptual abilities is included. In the subtest Categories the subject has to find the common element between three pictures and select two other pictures that belong to the same category. In Situations one or more parts are missing from a drawing and the subject has to select those parts from a number of alternatives to make the drawing a meaningful whole. In Analogies the transformation of an abstract element is shown and the subject has to perform the same transformation on another element by selecting the proper alternative. In Stories cards have to be ordered to make a meaningful story. The SON-R 2.5.5-7 The revised version of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Test (Tellegen et al., 1988) for children between the ages of 2.5 to 7 years comprises 6 subtests. In sequence of administration the subtests are: Mosaics, Categories, Puzzles, Analogies, Situations and Patterns. In the subtest Mosaics the child is asked to copy different mosaic patterns with red/white squares. In the first part of the subtest Categories the child has to sort cards based on the category they belong; in the second part two out of five pictures have to be chosen, which are missing in a certain category of pictures. In the first part of Puzzles, three pieces have to be copied in a frame to resemble an example; in the second part the child is asked to form a whole from three to six puzzle pieces. In the first part of Analogies the child is required to sort three to five forms according to form, colour, and size into two compartments. In part two of Analogies a geometric figure changes in one or more aspects to form another figure. To obtain a similar transformation with a second figure, the child is asked to choose the correct alternative. In the fist part of Situations with items showing only the upper halves of four pictures, the child is asked to find the missing halves. In the second part of Situations the task is to indicate the missing parts of drawings of concrete situations. In Patterns the child is asked to copy several patterns with a pencil. The subtests Mosaics, Puzzles and Patterns reflect spatial abilities, while the remaining subtests Categories, Analogies and Situations are more directed to abstract and concrete reasoning abilities. The administration of the SON-R 2.5-7 occurs individually; the mean administration time of the SON-R 2.5-7 amounts to 50 minutes. A very important element of the instructions exist in the ‘showing how to do it’ of the examiner of a part of the items. Another very important aspect of the test administration is the feedback that the examiner offers after each item. The feedback offered with the SON-R 2.5-7 goes beyond the feedback given with the SON-R 5.5-17; the child is not only informed whether the answer was right or wrong, but the examiner helps the child to find the correct solution. Because of this aspect the SON-R 2.5-7 has more similarities with a learning potential test than with a traditional test of intelligence (Tellegen & Laros, 1993a). The standardization of the SON-R 2.5-7 is based on a nationwide sample of 1124 children varying in age from 2 years and 3 months to 7 years and three months. The reliability (alpha stratified) of the total score of the SON-R 2.5-7 increases from .86 at 2.5 years to .92 at 7.5 years with a mean value of .90. The generalizability of the total score (alpha) increases from .71 at 2.5 years to .82 at 7.5 years with a mean value of .78. The average reliability of the subtests is .72. The test-retest correlation of the SON-R 2.5-7 with an interval of 3 months is .79. Besides a total IQ-score on the SON-R 2.5-7 also scores on the Performance Scale and Reasoning Scale are being calculated. The score on the Performance Scale is based on the three performance subtests Mosaics, Puzzles and Patterns, and the score on the Reasoning Scale is based on the three reasoning subtests Categories, Analogies and Situations. The validity of the SON-R 2.5-7 has been investigated through various validation studies in the Netherlands and in other countries like Great Britain, the USA, and Australia by comparing the results on this test with results on other intelligence- and language development tests. The results of the studies outside the Netherlands will be described in the third part of this paper. The results on the SON-R 2.5-7 have been compared in the Netherlands with the following tests: the WISC-R, the WPPSI-R, the TONI-2, the Stutsman, the Kaufman-ABC, the BOS 2-30, the LDT, the RAKIT, the TOMAL, the DTVP-2 and the Reynell and Schlichting language development tests. The sample size of the various validation studies varies from 26 to 558 subjects; the mean sample size amounts to 118 subjects. The 21 correlations of the SON-R 2.5-7 with other non-verbal (intelligence) tests vary from .45 to .83 and have a mean value of .65. The 12 correlations with general intelligence measures vary from .54 to .87 with a mean of .65. The 19 correlations of the SON-R 2.5-7 with measures for verbal ability and verbal intelligence vary from .20 to .71 and have a mean value of .48. With some of the general intelligence tests it is possible to calculate the correlation with the performance scale, the verbal scale and with the total score. In all of these cases the correlation of the SON-R 2.5-7 with the performance scale was higher than the correlation with the verbal scale. These diverse validation studies support the divergent and convergent validity of the SON-R 2.5-7, but the highly varying correlations imply that substantial differences between the scores on the SON-R 2.5-7 and on other intelligence tests can appear. Possible explanations for these highly varying correlations are: differences between the contents of the SON-R and other intelligence tests, differences in the test procedure of the SON-R and the various other tests, the very young age at which the children were tested and the great interval of time between the application of the tests. The SON-R 5.5Н-17 The revised version of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal intelligence test (Snijders, Tellegen & Laros, 1989) for children and adolescents between the ages of 5.5 to 17 years consists of 7 subtests. In sequence of administration the 7 subtests are: Categories, Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns, Situations, Analogies and Stories. In Categories a child has to choose two out of five pictures, which are missing in a certain category of pictures. The task in Mosaics consists of copying figures with red/white squares. In Hidden Pictures the task is to find a given picture that is hidden several times in a bigger drawing. In Patterns a part of a particular pattern or line is missing: the child has to draw the missing part with a pencil. The task in Situations is to indicate the missing parts of drawings of concrete situations. In Analogies geometrical figures are presented with the problem format A : B = C : D; the child has to discover the principle behind the transformation A : B and apply it to figure C to find the correct figure D out of for alternatives. In Stories the child has to order a number of cards in such a way that they form a logical story. Categories, Situations and Analogies are multiple choice tests, while Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Stories are so-called ‘action’ tests. In action tests the solution has to be sought in an active manner which makes observation of behaviour possible. The SON-R 5.5-17 can be divided into four types of tests according to their contents: abstract reasoning tests (Categories & Analogies), concrete reasoning tests (Situations & Stories), spatial tests (Mosaics & Patterns) and perceptual tests (Hidden Pictures). Principal components analysis (PCA) has been performed on the subtest correlations to obtain empirical confirmation of the theoretical dimensions of the test. Although for the youngest age groups the four theoretical dimensions were supported by the loadings on the first four varimax rotated components, across all age groups the two component solution with a ‘reasoning’ and a ‘spatial’ component provided more consistent results. The SON-R 5.5-17 is administered individually; the average administration time amounts to 90 minutes. The role of time scoring is kept to a minimum; only with the subtest Hidden Pictures an effective time is being used. For the other subtests sufficient time is allowed for the answering of each item. In the following two important aspects the administration procedure of the SON-R shows differences with the procedure used in traditional intelligence tests: (1) the providing of feedback following each item, and (2) the use of an adaptive procedure. The feedback given during the application of the SON-R 5.5-17 is restricted to informing the examinee whether the answer was right or wrong. The feedback clarifies the instructions and gives the child the opportunity to learn from his own errors and successes and to adjust his problem solving strategy. With the used test procedure of the SON-R each item becomes an opportunity to learn and adjust (Tellegen & Laros, 1993). The adaptive procedure is made possible by dividing the subtests in two or three parallel series of about 10 items; every child starts with the easiest item of the first series. Each series is broken off after two errors; the starting point for the next series is determined by the score on the preceding series. In this way, the administration of items is determined by the subjectДs individual performance and the presentation is limited to the most relevant items for each subject. On the average the number of items presented with the adaptive procedure is 50% of the total number of items in the subtests while the maximum number to presented amounts to about 60%. The standardization of the SON-R 5.5-17 is based on a nationwide sample of 1350 children and adolescents varying in age from 6 to 14 years. The reliability coefficient (alpha stratified) of the total score of the test increases from .90 at six years to .94 at fourteen years with a mean value of .93. The generalizability of the total score (alpha) increases from .81 at six years to .88 at fourteen years with a mean value of .85. The average reliability of the subtests is .76. The validity of the SON-R 5.5-17 is evident from the clear relationship with different indicators of school career such as school type, class repetition and school report marks. The mean multiple correlation of the SON-R with these indicators of school career amounts to .59. For children in the age group of 7 to 9 years the multiple correlation is .54, for children in the age group 10-11 years .60, and for children in the age group 13-14 years the multiple correlation increases to .63. Cross-cultural studies with the SON-R 2.5-7 Research in Australia The validity study with the SON-R 2.5-7 in Australia was executed in 1996 in Victoria under supervision of Jo Jenkinson of the Deakin University in co-operation with the University of Groningen (Jenkinson, Roberts, Dennehy & Tellegen, 1996; Tellegen, 1997). The study is based on 155 subjects, 72 boys and 83 girls, with a mean age of 4 years and 5 months (standard deviation 10 months). Within the group of 155 children three groups can be differentiated: children without specific handicaps (N=59); hearing impaired children (N=59), and children with a developmental retardation (N=37). In this research both the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence – Revised (WPPSI-R) and the SON-R 2.5-7 were administrated in changing order; the mean interval between applications was 20 days. The SON-R 2.5-7 was administered according to the standard test procedure by psychology students from the University of Groningen, while the WPSSI-R was administrated by Australian psychologists. The hearing impaired children and the children with a developmental retardation only did the performance scale of the WPPSI-R. Results The correlation of the SON-R 2.5-7 with the WPPSI-R in the total Australian sample amounts to .78. Within the three different groups the correlation between the performance scale of the WPSS-R and the SON-R 2.5-7 was .74, .74 and .75. Within the non-handicapped group the correlation of the SON-R 2.5-7 with the verbal scale (.54) is lower than the correlation with the performance scale (.74) of the WPPSI-R. The scores on the SON-R 2.5-7 are on average 5 points lower than the scores on the WPSSI-R. Table 2: Characteristics of the research with the SON-R outside The Netherlands _________________________________________________________________ SON-R 2.5-7 Australia Great-Britain United States ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ N of subjects 155 58 75/31/26/29/47 Age 4;5 (0;10) 6;3 (0;3) 5;1/4;7/4;7/5;6/4;7 Correlation with criterion test .78 (WPPSI-R PIQ) .87 (BAS 6 subt.) .59 (WPPSI-R FSIQ) .66 (K-ABC) .61 (MSCA) .47 (PPVT-R) .61 (PLS-3) _________________________________________________________________ SON-R 5.5Н-17 China Peru Brazil ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ N of subjects 302 160 82 Age 11;6 9;4 10;5 Correlation with criterion test - .77 (WISC-R FSIQ) .60 (school marks) Items with problems: Categories 6 3 10 Situations 3 2 4 Stories 0 0 0 _________________________________________________________________ Research in the USA The validation study executed in the USA (West Virginia) supervised by Stephen OДKeefe of the West-Virginia Graduate College implied the application of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 and five other cognitive tests. The tests that were applied were the following: the WPPSI-R, the Kaufman-ABC, the McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities (MSCA), the Peabody Picture and Vocabulary Test - Revised (PPVT-R) and the Preschool Language Scale-3 (PLS-3). The SON-R 2.5-7 was partly administrated by psychology students from the University of Groningen, partly by psychologists from West Virginia. The amount of time between the administration of the SON-R 2.5-7 and the other tests generally was very short; in the majority of the cases the other test was applied on the same day. The PLS-3 was not administrated during this study; the test scores on the PLS-3 were collected on another occasion and could be used in this research. The number of children that both made the SON-R 2.5-7 and another test varied from 26 (in case of the MSCA) to 75 (in case of the WPPSI-R). Results The SON-R 2.5-7 had a correlation of .59 with the total score on the WPPSI-R; the correlations with the performance and verbal scales were .60 and .43 respectively. The average age of the 75 children that did both tests was 5.1 years. The mean total score on the SON-R 2.5-7 was more than two points lower than the total score on the WPPSI-R (94.5 versus 96.8) and nearly four points lower than the performance scale of the WPPSI-R (94.5 versus 98.3). The SON-R 2.5-7 showed a correlation of .66 with the Kaufman-ABC. The correlation with the simultaneous scale was much higher than with the scale for sequential processing (.58 versus .29). The correlation with the nonverbal scale of the Kaufman-ABC amounted to .61. The average age of the 31 children that did both the Kaufman-ABC and the SON-R 2.5-7 was 4.6 years. With the general cognitive index of the MSCA the SON-R 2.5-7 showed a correlation of .61; the correlation with the verbal scale was .48; while the correlation with the perceptual performance scale amounted to .61. The average age of the 26 children that did both tests was 4.6 years. The correlation of the SON-R 2.5-7 with the PPVT-R was .47; the average age of the 29 children that did both tests was 5.5 years. With the total language score of the PLS-3 the SON-R 2.5-7 showed a correlation of .61; with the Auditory Comprehension Scale the correlation was .59, while the correlation with the Expressive Communication Scale amounted to .56. The average age of the 47 children who did both tests was 4.6 years. Research in Great Britain During this validation research in Great Britain which took place in 1996 and that was supervised by Julie Dockrell of the University of London, the SON-R 2.5-7 and the British Ability Scales (BAS) were both administrated. The BAS was administrated by psychology students from the University of London, and the SON-R was applied by psychology students from the University of Groningen. Both tests were applied in changing order to 58 children, 34 boys and 24 girls, from the first year of primary school. The mean age of the children was 6;3 years (standard deviation 3 months). The interval between test administrations varied from some days to some weeks. Within the total sample three groups of children can be distinguished: a group without specific handicaps (N=20), a group for which English is the second language (N=22), and a group with learning disabilities (N=16). Six subtests of the BAS were applied, the four subtests of the short version (Naming Vocabulary, Digit Recall, Similarities, and Matrices) and two extra nonverbal subtests (Block Design and Visual Recognition). Results The correlation of the SON-R 2.5-7 with the short version of the BAS is .80. When the two nonverbal subtests are included the correlation augments to .87. The correlation with the verbal part (three verbal subtests) of the shortened version of the BAS was .71, while the correlation with the performance part (three nonverbal subtests) amounted to .78. The correlations in the group of children without any handicaps are considerably lower than in the other two groups (.56 versus .76 and .78). In the total English sample the SON-R IQ-scores are 7 points lower than on the short form of the BAS. The difference in IQ-scores between the group of normal children and children with learning disabilities for the SON-R 2.5-7 is 40.8 points and for the short form of the BAS 42.8 points. Conclusions of the studies in Australia, the USA, and Great Britain In the three cross-cultural studies the correlations of the SON-R 2.5-7 with the performance scales of a number of criterion tests could be compared to the correlations with the verbal scales. In all three studies the correlation of the SON-R 2.5-7 with the performance scale of the criterion test was clearly stronger than with the verbal scale. In the Australian study the SON-R 2.5-7 showed correlations with the performance and verbal scales of the WPPSI-R of .74 and .54 respectively; in the study in the USA these correlations were .60 and .43. In the same study the SON-R 2.5Н-7 showed a correlation of .61 with the perceptual performance scale of the MSCA, and a correlation of .48 with the verbal scale of the MSCA. In the research in Great Britain the SON-R 2.5Н-7 showed a correlation with the performance part of the BAS of .78 and a correlation of .71 with the verbal part of the BAS. These correlations obtained in Australia, the USA and Great Britain support the convergent and the divergent validity of the SON-R 2.5Н-7. Cross-cultural Studies with the SON-R 5.5Н-17 Research in China Chinese psychology students in collaboration with Milly Judistera, a Dutch psychologist, executed the research with the SON-R 5.5Н-17 in China, which took place in 1996. The study was supervised in China by Professor Zhang Hou Can of the Beijing Normal University. This study was a pilot study as a preparation of the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 for China. All 7 subtests of the SON-R 5.5Н-7 were administrated according to the standard test procedure by Chinese psychology students to a sample of 302 Chinese children, consisting of 165 boys and 137 girls. To make the administration of the test possible, the instructions of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 were translated into the Chinese language. The Chinese students were trained in the administration of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 by Milly Judistira with help of an English speaking Chinese psychology student as an interpreter. The Chinese subjects were tested in the following age groups: 6Н-year-olds (103), 11Н-year-olds (94), and 14Н-year-olds (105). The children came from Beijing (23), Tianjin (81), Miyun (77) and Guangrao (121). The sampling procedure used was not a random procedure; the schools were chosen on basis of existing contacts with the University of Beijing, and within the schools children were chosen by the teachers. Although the teachers claimed to have chosen the children in a random manner, there is no guarantee that this really was the case. The research results therefore have to be interpreted with some caution. Psychometric characteristics The generalizabilty coefficient (alpha) of the total score of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 in the Chinese sample increases from .76 at 6Н years to .82 at 14Н years with a mean value of .80. These values are lower than the ones found for the Dutch standardization sample; here the generalizability of the total score increased from .81 at 6Н years to .88 at 14Н years with a mean value of .85. The generalizability coefficient is computed by the usual coefficient alpha in which the subtests are the unit of analysis; the number of subtests and the mean correlation between the subtests determine this coefficient. The mean correlation between the 7 subtests of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 was lower for the three Chinese age groups than for the comparable age groups of the Dutch sample (.31, .40, and .42 versus .37, .50 and .51). The mean of the standardized total score obtained by the Chinese children was quite close to the mean standardized total score of the Dutch norm group (98.9 versus 100). The mean scores of the Chinese children on Categories, Situations and Stories, all subtests that use meaningful picture materials, were lower in comparison with the Dutch norm group (respectively 93.6, 91.6, and 95.3 versus 100). The mean of these three subtests amounts to 93.5. The mean scores of the Chinese children on Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies, all subtests using non-meaningful picture material such as geometrical forms, were 96.9, 101.9, 104.2 and 108.1. The mean of these four subtests amounts to 102.8 and is higher in comparison to the mean score of the four subtests in the Dutch norm group (100). The difference found in the Chinese sample between the mean score of the subtests with meaningful picture material (93.5) and the mean score of the subtests with non-meaningful picture material (102.8) is significant at the 5% level. This result is an indication that the Chinese children had more difficulties with the subtests that use meaningful picture materials than with the subtests using non-meaningful picture materials. The relative low scores of the Chinese children on Categories, Situations and Stories were conform to expectations beforehand; the meaningful pictures used in these subtests were not expected to be familiar to cultures very different from the Dutch culture. In one of the items of the subtest Categories, for instance, people leaving a church is shown; such a situation did appear not to be very familiar to Chinese children. The lower mean score on Mosaics (96.9 versus 100) does not correspond with earlier expectations since the item material of this subtest consist of abstract geometrical figures which according to Jensen (1980) reduces the probability of cultural bias. The Chinese children did not show any problems with the other two subtests containing abstract geometrical figures; on these subtests, Patterns and Analogies, they even showed higher mean scores than their Dutch colleagues (104.2 and 108.1 versus 100). The lower score on Mosaics might be a result of the fact that the majority of the Chinese children were not tested with the original version of the subtest Mosaics. Due to financial restrictions there was only one original SON-R 5.5Н-17 test available for the research in China; in order to be able to test various children in the same period of time a number of copies of the test were made. The squares of the copied version of Mosaics did not fit very well in the frame in which the mosaic patterns had to be copied. Probably, the use of test material, which was not standardized, has caused the lower score of the Chinese children on Mosaics. Factor analysis failed to show a clear similarity between the factor structure of the 7 subtests of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 in the Chinese sample and in the Dutch standardization sample. In the Dutch sample Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with varimax rotation resulted in two clear factors: a ‘reasoning’ and a ‘spatial’ factor. Although in the youngest age groups four factors appeared (‘spatial’, ‘concrete reasoning’, ‘abstract reasoning’, and ‘perception’) the two factor solution offered better and more consistent results across all different age groups. In the Chinese sample PCA with varimax rotation did not provide the same results as in the Netherlands. In the Dutch research the two spatial subtests showed high loadings on the second factor (the ‘spatial’ factor) while in the Chinese study this only seems to be the case for the youngest group. Moreover, in the Dutch research Categories showed high loadings on the first factor (the ‘reasoning’ factor); but this was not the case for the eldest group of the Chinese sample. The results of the factor analysis suggest a lack of test equivalence of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 in the Chinese and the Dutch culture. These results, however, have to be interpreted with some caution because reservations can be made about the appropriateness of factor analysis as a method for assessing equivalence of test applications in different cultures. Hambleton & Bollwark, (1991) note in this respect that the disadvantage of factor analysis is that the results are sample dependent, since it is based on classical item statistics. Their conclusion also applies to other often used classical statistical methods to detect a possible cultural loading of a test that are sample dependent, like the comparison of p-values and the comparison of total test scores. All these methods presuppose the use of equal ability groups. Even in the case of non-equal ability groups researchers must still check that the ordering of item difficulties is the same in the two different cultures (Hambleton & Kanjee, 1995). Following the recommendation of Hambleton & Kanjee, the correlation coefficients between the ordering of the item difficulties in the two cultures have been calculated. The SpearmanДs rho correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the six subtests of the SON-R (one subtest, Hidden Pictures, does not consist of independent items so no correlations could be computed) obtained in the Chinese sample and in the Dutch sample are the following: .98 (Categories), .99 (Mosaics), .99 (Patterns), .98 (Situations), .99 (Analogies) & .98 (Stories). Although the correlations between the item difficulties in the two cultures are all very high, Categories, Situations, and Stories show a slightly lower correlation than the remaining subtests. This might be an indication of cultural bias of these subtests. The above-described psychometric characteristics of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 in this study with 302 Chinese children suggest that the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories might have a cultural bias. A next step in this study was an attempt to identify the sources of this possible cultural bias of the three subtests. Results of the judgmental procedure According to Hambleton (1993) both judgmental and statistical methods should be used in studies to determine the equivalence of a test in multiple languages or cultures. In this study the judgmental procedure consisted of the reviewing on the aspect of possible cultural bias of the test instructions, the testing format, the examples, and all the items of Categories, Situations and Stories for the Chinese population of children from 6 to 17 years of age. The reviewing took place during a group discussion with the Chinese psychology students. The test instructions, the testing format and the examples used in the SON-R 5.5Н-17 were judged by them as containing no cultural bias. The only aspect of the testing procedure that caused some problems for the Chinese administrators of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 was the providing of feedback after each item. Some students reported that they felt uncomfortable giving feedback because they believed that this might influence the emotions of the children. Possibly the problems with the provision of feedback is related to the fact that in the Chinese culture communication often occurs in an indirect manner. The results of the judgmental procedure with respect to the items of the three subtests are the following: 6 items of Categories (items 2b, 3b, 4b, 6a, 7a, and 9b) and 3 items of Situations (2b, 2c and 10b) were identified as being possibly culture specific. For the subtest Stories no culture specific items were identified. For these culture specific items new items have been developed that are adapted to the Chinese culture. A Chinese student of the art academy has drawn the adapted items. In the future standardization and validation research of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 in China, items that were identified as being culture specific will be replaced by adapted items. Research in Peru The validation study with the SON-R 5.5Н-17 in Peru took place in 1996 and was executed by two psychology students from the University of Groningen, and by Peruvian psychologists. The research was supervised in Peru by Veronica Bisso Cajas, from the Consortium of Catholic Centres of Education in Lima. This study served as a preparation of the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 for Peru. All 7 subtests of the SON-R 5.5Н-7 were administrated according to the standard test procedure by the two Dutch psychology students and by ten Peruvian psychologists. To make the administration of the test possible, the instructions of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 were translated into Spanish. The Peruvian psychologists were trained in the administration procedure of the SON-R 5.5Н-17. The test was administrated to a sample of 160 Peruvian children, consisting of 79 boys and 81 girls. The age of the children varied from 6 years to 15 years with a mean of 9;4 years. All the subjects of the Peruvian sample lived in the city of Lima, the capital of Peru; 50% of the children came from State schools and 50% private schools. The State schools in Peru are fully supported by the government; children who visit these schools generally come from families with a low SES-level and often live in very poor circumstances. The private schools are partly financed by religious congregations and private persons; children who frequent these schools generally come from families with a high or moderately high SES-level. The sampling procedure used was only partially a random procedure; the schools were chosen on basis of existing contacts with the Consortium of Catholic Centres of Education, but within the schools children were selected at random. In this research there is an over-representation of children with moderate and high SES levels. The Peruvian sample cannot be considered as representative for Peru, nor for Lima. The results of this study, therefore, cannot simply be generalised to all of Peru and have to be interpreted with caution. Psychometric characteristics The results of this study show that the Peruvian children obtained a lower mean score on the SON-R 5.5Н-17 than the children of the Dutch norm group (94.0 versus 100). The mean scores of the Peruvian children on Categories, Situations and Stories, the subtests which use meaningful picture material, were 97.1, 91.7 and 93.1. The mean of these three subtests amounts to 93.9. The mean scores of the Peruvian children on Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies, all subtests using non-meaningful picture materials, were 91.6, 92.2, 101.4, and 98.1. The mean of these four subtests amounts to 95.8. The difference between the mean score of the subtests with meaningful picture material (93.9) and the mean score of the subtests with non-meaningful picture material (95.8) is significant at the 5% level. This finding is in accordance with expectations beforehand; Peruvian children, like the Chinese children, showed more problems with the subtests containing meaningful pictures than with the subtests containing non-meaningful pictures. To check whether the ordering of item difficulties was the same in the Peruvian sample and the Dutch sample Spearman’s rho correlation coefficients were calculated. The correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Peruvian sample and in the Dutch norm sample are .97, .98, and .97. These correlations are based on 48 children from the total sample of Peruvian children. Note that the correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Peruvian and in the Dutch sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations between the item difficulties found in the Chinese and the Dutch sample. In addition to the SON-R 5.5Н-17 also a Spanish version of the WISC-R was administered to all 160 children of the Peruvian sample in order to obtain information about the validity of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 in Peru. Since there were no Peruvian norms available for the WISC-R, norm scores were used that are based on the standardization sample of the USA (Wechsler, 1974). The correlation of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 with the full scale of the WISC-R was .77, with the performance scale .74 and with the verbal scale .69. These correlations are slightly lower compared to those found in a study in the Netherlands with 35 children from an outdoor psychiatric university clinic (Tellegen & Laros, 1993b). In this study the correlation of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 with the full scale of the WISC-R was .80, with the performance scale .80 and with the verbal scale .66. The mean IQ-score of the Peruvian sample on the WISC-R was 96.7; the mean score on the verbal scale 94.3 and the mean score on the performance scale 100.2 These scores cannot simply be compared to the mean IQ-score on the SON-R 5.5Н-17 because the tests have been standardized in different years; the WISC-R was standardized in 1974 and the SON-R 5.5Н-17 in 1988. As Flynn (1987) has observed, norms on intelligence tests are becoming stricter during the years. In a recent study (Sattler, 1992) comparing the norms of the WISC-R with those of the most recent version of the Wechsler test for children, the WISC-III (Wechsler, 1991), the norm scores on the WISC-III appeared to be lower than the norm scores on the WISC-R. In the 17 years between the two standardizations (1974-1991) the norm scores for the full scale decreased 5.3 points, for the verbal scale 2.4 points, and for the performance scale 7.4 points. Based on the differences found between the norms of the WISC-R and the WISC-III one can correct the obtained scores for the differences in years of standardization of the WISC-R and the SON-R 5.5Н-17. After correction, the mean norm score on the WISC-R of the Peruvian sample becomes 92.3 for the full scale, 94.1 for the performance scale and 92.3 for the verbal scale. The Peruvian children obtain, after correction, a higher score on the SON-R 5.5Н-17 than on the WISC-R. Results of the judgmental procedure To identify culture specific items of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories a judgmental procedure was used. With the remaining subtests (Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns, Analogies) no judgmental procedure was used, because these subtests are less likely to be culture specific. When a child responded incorrectly on an item of Categories, Situations or Stories the examiner checked, after testing, whether the pictures used in the item were understood by the child. This procedure, however, has not been followed in a systematic way; not all the children, who responded incorrectly to an item, were asked if the pictures used in that particular were familiar to them. The difference with the judgmental procedure used in the Chinese study is that there the examiners (psychology students) were asked to judge the cultural loading of the items; in this study the examinees (children) were asked to give their judgement. The results of the judgmental procedure with respect to the items of the three subtests are the following: 3 items of Categories (items 1a, 2b, and 4a) and 2 items and one example of Situations (example A, and items 2c and 4b) were identified as being possibly culture specific. Research in Brazil The research in Brazil, which took place in 1996, was executed under the supervision of Jaap Laros of the University of Brasilia, one of the authors of the SON-R tests. Six psychology students of the above-mentioned university did the actual test administration at schools. To make the administration of the test possible, the test instructions of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 were translated into Portuguese. The Brazilian psychology students were trained in the administration of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 by their supervisor. The study was a preparation for the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 for Brazil. In this Brazilian study the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 were administered individually to a sample of 82 Brazilian children, consisting of 41 girls and 41 boys. The age of the children varied from 7 to 14 years with a mean of 10,4 years. All children came from 2 state schools from Brasilia, the capital of Brazil. The two schools differed in respect to the SES-level of their pupils; the 36 children from the first school generally came from families with a moderate SES-level, while the 46 children from the second school principally came from families with a low SES-level. The sampling procedure used was not a totally random procedure; the schools were selected on the basis of existing contacts with the University of Brasilia, but within the schools the children were selected at random, using only their age as a selection criterion. The Brazilian sample cannot be considered to be representative for Brazil, nor for Brasilia. The results of this study should therefore be interpreted with some caution. To gain additional information on possible cultural bias, the three subtests of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 have been administered in a nonstandard fashion. Van de Vijver & Poortinga (1997) stress the importance of nonstandard administration of tests in cross-cultural studies to evaluate the adequacy of stimulus and response formats, and of the test administration procedure. In such a nonstandard test procedure it usually is very informative to ask examinees to motivate their responses. In the standard procedure of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 the subtests are divided into two or three parallel series of about 10 items; each child starts with the easiest item of the first series, but with which item of the second or third series is started, depends on the performance of the child on the previous series. In the nonstandard procedure used in this study the items were offered in order of increasing difficulty; the subtests Categories and Situations with 27 and 33 items were broken off after twelve errors, while the subtest Stories with 20 items was broken off after 8 errors. With the use of this nonstandard test procedure the children responded to much more items than would have been the case if the standard adaptive procedure had used. The average number of items administrated with the adaptive procedure is 50% of the total number of items; with the nonstandard procedure this number amounts to about 90% of the total number of items. Psychometric characteristics The reliability coefficients (alpha) for the three subtests in the Brazilian sample were as follows: .85 for Categories, .87 for Situations and .82 for Stories. When corrected for the influence of age, the corrected reliability coefficients are: .76 for Categories, .82 for Situations and .76 for Stories. These values of the reliability coefficients are quite similar to the values found in a Dutch sample of 415 subjects when the three subtests were administrated without an adaptive procedure (Laros & Tellegen, 1991, page 33). The results from this research indicate further that the Brazilian children obtained a lower mean total score on the SON-R 5.5Н-17 (based on the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories) in comparison to the Dutch norm group (96.2 versus 100). The mean scores of the Brazilian children for Categories (94.8) and Situations (95,0) are relatively low in comparison with the Dutch norm group (100); the mean score of the Brazilian sample on Stories (97.5) comes close to the mean score of their Dutch colleagues. The children of the school with a comparatively low SES-level seemed to have more difficulties with Categories and Situations than the children of the school with a higher SES-level. The mean score of the low SES-group (N=46) on the three subtests was 94.8 while the mean scores on the three subtests were as follows: Categories 92.9, Situations 92.5 and Stories 97.0. It can be concluded that Brazilian children had more problems with Categories and Situations than with Stories. This trend seems to get stronger for Brazilian children with a low SES-level. The Spearman’s rho correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Brazilian sample and in the Dutch norm sample are .97, .92, and .96. The relative low correlation coefficient for the subtest Situations might be an indication of item bias in this subtest, but might also reflect the different test administration procedures that were used in the Dutch and the Brazilian research. If the latter were the case, the use of the non-standard administration procedure would have had more effect on the item difficulties of Situations than on the item difficulties of the other two subtests. In addition to the administration of the three subtests of the SON-R 5.5Н-17, other data of the 82 Brazilian children were gathered in order to obtain information about the validity of the subtests. School marks on mathematics, science, and Portuguese were collected for every child of the Brazilian sample. The school marks give an indication of the school achievement of the children. The children were also evaluated on their motivation, cooperation and concentration by their schoolteachers and by the psychology students that administrated (a part of) the SON-R 5.5Н-17. Of the three subtests, the report marks showed the highest correlations with the subtest Categories: science (.61); mathematics (.59), and Portuguese (.38); they showed the lowest correlations with the subtest Stories: science (.26); mathematics (.36), and Portuguese (.29). The correlations of the report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5.5Н-17 are as following: science (.52); mathematics (.49), and Portuguese (.38). The multiple correlation of the report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5.5Н-17 amounts to .60. The correlations of report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5.5Н-17 in the Dutch norm sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations found in the Brazilian sample. Considering the fact that in the Brazilian study the total score on the SON-R 5.5Н-17 was based on only three instead of all seven subtests, the correlations in this study are quite high. The judgment of the teachers on motivation, cooperation and concentration of their pupils correlated higher with the total score on the SON-R 5.5Н-17 than the judgment of the psychology students. When the judgment scores of the teachers and the psychology students were combined into a mean score, these scores showed a higher correlation with the total score on the SON-R 5.5Н-17 than the scores based on the judgment of the teachers alone. The correlation of the total score on the SON-R 5.5Н-17 with the mean score on motivation is .40, with the mean score on cooperation .45, and with the mean score on concentration .19. The multiple correlation of the total score on the SON-R 5.5Н-17 with the mean scores on motivation, cooperation and concentration is .50. Results of the judgmental procedure The judgmental procedure used in this research consisted of the following: when a child responded incorrectly on an example or an item the examiner checked, immediately after the incorrect answer, whether the child understood the pictures that were used in the item. This procedure was followed in a systematic way, and formed the basis on which conclusions were made regarding the cultural specificity of the items. For the subtest Categories the judgmental procedure implied that after each incorrectly answered item the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with eight figures. [Each item of the subtest Categories is build up out of eight figures; three figures define the category, and five figures are the alternatives from which the child has to choose two that pertain to the category]. In case of the subtest Situations the procedure implied that after each incorrectly answered item, the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with five to fourteen figures. The procedure implied for the subtest Stories that the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with four to seven figures for every incorrectly answered item. As a consequence of this time consuming test procedure the amount of time needed to administer the three subtests of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 came close to an hour. The results obtained with this judgmental procedure indicate that the Brazilian children had no problems understanding the subtest instructions of the SON-R 5.5Н-17. On the basis of the answers that the children provided with respect to their (un)familiarity with the figures used in the items, 14 items were identified as being possibly culture-specific; 10 items of Categories (items 2b, 2c, 3a, 4a, 4b, 5c, 6a, 8a, 8c and 9c) and 4 items of Situations (items 2b, 3c, 4a, and 10b). The criterion which was used to classify an item as being possibly culture specific was the following: when one of the figures that form an item was indicated by more than 5% of the Brazilian sample as being unfamiliar an item was classified as being possibly culture specific. Maybe this criterion might be a little too strict, considering the large amount of items of the subtest Categories that were classified as possibly culture specific. In case of the subtest Categories twice as many figures used in the alternatives were unfamiliar to the Brazilian children than the figures that defined the category. With the subtest Situations, however, twice as many ‘main’ figures were identified as unfamiliar than the figures used in the alternatives. For the subtest Stories no adaptations for the Brazilian culture were found to be necessary. Conclusions of the studies in China, Peru and Brazil. In the cross-cultural validation studies in China and Peru, where all seven subtests of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 were administrated, the average of the mean scores on the three subtests with meaningful picture materials (Categories, Situations and Stories) was significantly lower at 5% level than the average of the mean scores on the four remaining subtests that contain non-meaningful picture materials (Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies). This research finding is in accordance with our expectations beforehand that were partially based on the theoretical considerations of Jensen (1980) about culture-fair tests. This result indicates a possible cultural bias in the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories. Another indication of possible bias is given by the correlation between the item difficulties in the Dutch norm group and the item difficulties in different cultures. The correlation coeffcients give an indication of the extent in which the ordering of item difficulties is the same in the two different cultures. A different ordering of the items might indicate that the items do not have the same meaning for two different cultural groups. The Spearman’s rho correlation coefficients for the subtests Mosaics, Patterns, and Analogies in the Chinese study were all .99. The correlation coefficients for Categories in the Chinese, Peruvian, and Brazilian study are respectively .98, .97, and .97; for Situations .98, .98, and .92; for Stories .98, .97, and .96. Although all the correlation coefficients are quite high, the correlations for the three subtests Categories, Situations and Stories in which meaningful picture materials are used, are somewhat lower which might indicate possible bias in these subtests. The lowest correlations were found in the Brazilian sample, but there the nonstandard test procedure makes a straightforward comparison with the item difficulties in the Dutch sample problematic. The reliability coefficients of the subtests in the three studies are comparable with the coefficients found in the Dutch sample, although the values in the Dutch sample are somewhat higher. In the Chinese study, the only study where a factor analysis was performed, the resulting factor structure failed to show a clear similarity with the factor structure in the Dutch sample. This might be an indication of the cultural loading of some of the subtests. In the Peruvian and Brazilian study clear indications of the validity of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 were found. The SON-R 5.5Н-17 showed a relatively high correlation with the WISC-R (.77) in the Peruvian study. In the Brazilian study the standardized total score based on three subtests of the SON-R showed satisfactory correlations with school marks on science (.52); mathematics (.49), and Portuguese (.38). The correlations of report marks with the total score on the SON-R based on 7 subtests in the Dutch sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations found in the Brazilian sample. In the Brazilian study the total score on the SON-R, based on three subtests, correlated .40 with motivation, .45 with cooperation and .19 with concentration. In all three studies a judgmental procedure was used for the identification of item bias in the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories. In the Chinese study the Chinese psychology students who applied the SON-R 5.5Н-17 reviewed the items on the aspect of possible cultural bias. In the Peruvian and Brazilian study the children who responded incorrectly to an item were asked if the pictures that were used in that item were understood by them. As a result of this procedure 14 of the 33 items (42%) of the subtest Categories have been identified as possibly culture specific. One of these items has been identified as culture specific in all three studies (item 2b), 3 items were identified as biased in two studies (items 4a, 4b and 6a) and 9 items were identified as biased in just one study (items 1a, 2c, 3a, 3b, 5c, 7a, 8a, 8c, and 9c). For the subtest Situations 6 of the 33 items (18%) and one example were identified as possibly culture specific. Three of the items were identified in two different studies (items 2b, 2c, and 10b); the remaining 3 items were identified as biased in just one study (items 3c, 4a, 4b). The example that was identified as culture specific (example A) was identified in only one study. General Conclusions The research results obtained in various countries for both the SON-R 2.5Н-7 and the SON-R 5.5Н-17 indicate that both tests can be used in cultures that are different from the Dutch culture. The validity-coefficients of both SON-R tests encountered in various countries are comparable to the validity-coefficients found in the Dutch norm sample. For the SON-R 5.5Н-17, however, some adaptations will have to be made in the subtests Categories and Situations. For the subtest Categories 42% of the items will have be adapted, while for the subtest Situations 18% of the items and one example will have to be adapted. For the other subtests of the SON-R 5.5Н-17 no adaptations have to be made. Although no specific research have been done to item bias of the SON-R 2.5Н-7, adaptations of this test seems to be less necessary. For this young age group the test uses only very simple pictures. In the construction phase of this test special attention was paid to possible item bias. 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АЦA!АR"АR# $ %АА А 8в$џџџџџџџџџ "the""Table 1""....SON-R 2""Н-7...SON-R 5" "Н-17""Puzzles"" min."" min."""ests..72.....76"&"generaRoot Entryџџџџџџџџ РF< +–Т<WordDocumentџџџџ>Y1TableџџџџRуMSummaryInformation(џџџџџџџџј‚ƒ„…†‡ˆ‰Š‹ŒŽ‘’“”•–—˜™š›œžŸ ЁЂЃЄЅІЇЈЉЊЋЌ­ЎЏАБВГДЕЖЗИЙНќ§џџџ§џџџОПРСТУФХЦЧШЩЪЫЬЭЮЯабвгдежзийклмнопрстуфхцчшщъыьэюя№ёђѓєѕіїјљњўўџџџўџџџ§џџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџ  !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~€lizability "2" total score..78.....85"*" in the Netherlands" "----""...----" "----""Table 2""---------"&"-----------------""SON-R 2" "Н-7"R"Australia..Great-Britain..United States" " ""... "" " " ""N subjects" "of "$"Correlation with"" "" "".."" ""...155" "....4;5 (0;10)"*"...78 (WPPSI-R PIQ)"" "" ""...58""..6;3 (0;3)"&"..87 (6 subtests)"&"...75/31/26/29/47"" "".."*" 5;1/4;7/4;7""5;6/4;7" " "" "" "" " ".. " " " " " " " " "" "" "" " "BAS "(" .59 (WPPSI-R FSIQ" " "" "". ""......."0" .66 (K-ABC)"*"..........61 (MSCA)""........ ""........ "0" .61 (PLS-3)""......" "criterion test"".."" ""wa" "with""wa""e.g. "*"of the SON-R tests ">" of the verbal test meterials""language ""often ","there is no need for"" empiri""ir" "for""a ""as""by" "do ""which"*"performance on the "^"s because some of the pictures used seemed ra"^" Before presenting the results of these studi"R"The SON test was originally developped "&"by Snijders-Oomen""in 1943 "^" for use with deaf children. She intended to ""the use of "^"nguage. With subsequent revisions also norms "^" tests for younger and older children, the SO"Z"Н-7 (Tellegen et al., 1998) and the SON-R 5""Н-17 "^"(Snijders, Tellegen & Laros, 1989). 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ф˜фх’хцŒцч†чш€шщzщx%(џџџџџџ(ў˜29&џџџџ~~џџџџ€~~џџџџ)~~€~~џџџџ~~x%(џџџџџџ(ў˜29&џџџџ~~џџџџ€~~џџџџ)~~€~~џџџџ~~x%(џџџџџџ(ў˜29&џџџџ~~џџџџ€~~џџџџ)~~€~~џџџџ~~x(Xџџџџџџ˜29&џџџџ.s~џџџџ€~~џџџџВВ~~€џџџџ~‚,PXџџџџџџ˜29&џџџџvuўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџ~xh…(>џџџџџџ(ўфB9fџџџџЙКџџџџ€ЙЙџџџџЙЙ€ККџџџџККxh…(Xџџџџџџ(ўхB9fџџџџЙЙџџџџ€ККџџџџКК€ЙЙџџџџЙЙx(XџџџџџџхB9fџџџџДЕџџџџ€ДДџџџџДД€ЕЕџџџџЕД‚,PXџџџџџџхB9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ЕЕџџџџЕДxh…(>џџџџџџ(ўхB9fџџџџЕЖџџџџ€ЕЕџџџџЕД€ЖЖџџџџЖЖx(XџџџџџџхB9fџџџџ:sЖшџџџџ€ЖЖџџџџЖЖ€шшџџџџшЖ‚,PXџџџџџџхB9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€шшџџџџшЖxh…(ƒџџџџџџ(ўхB9fџџџџ*Опџџџџ€шшџџџџшЖ€ппџџџџпЖx(XџџџџџџцB9fџџџџпрџџџџ€ппџџџџ\пп€ррџџџџрп‚,PXџџџџџџцB9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ррџџџџрпx(XџџџџџџчB9fџџџџNsрыџџџџ€ррџџџџ\рр€ыыџџџџыр‚,PXџџџџџџчB9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ыыџџџџырx(XџџџџџџчB9fџџџџjsыјџџџџ€ыыџџџџыр€јјџџџџјр‚,PXџџџџџџчB9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€јјџџџџјрx(XџџџџџџшB9fџџџџŠsјџџџџ€јјџџџџјр€џџџџр‚,PXџџџџџџшB9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€џџџџрxh…(ƒџџџџџџ(ўшB9fџџџџ(р§џџџџ€џџџџр€§§џџџџ§рx(XџџџџџџшB9fџџџџ§џџџџ€§§џџџџ§р€џџџџр‚,PXџџџџџџшB9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€џџџџрxh…(ƒџџџџџџ(ўшB9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџр€џџџџрx(XџџџџџџшB9fџџџџ)џџџџ€џџџџр€))џџџџ)р‚,PXџџџџџџшB9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€))џџџџ)рxh…(ƒџџџџџџ(ўшB9fџџџџ$%џџџџ€))џџџџ)р€))џџџџ)рx(XџџџџџџэB9fџџџџ)џџџџ€))џџџџ)р€џџџџр‚,PXџџџџџџэB9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€џџџџрx(XџџџџџџюB9fџџџџ˜s@џџџџ€џџџџ€@@џџџџ@‚,PXџџџџџџюB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€@@џџџџ@x(XџџџџџџюB9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџюB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџx(XџџџџџџюB9fџџџџ=>џџџџ€==џџџџ==€>>џџџџ>=‚,PXџџџџџџюB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€>>џџџџ>=x(XџџџџџџюB9fџџџџWXџџџџ€WWџџџџWW€XXџџџџXW‚,PXџџџџџџюB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€XXџџџџXWxh…(Xџџџџџџ(ўюB9fџџџџtuџџџџ€ttџџџџtt€uuџџџџutxh…(Xџџџџџџ(ўюB9fџџџџ‘’џџџџ€‘‘џџџџ‘‘€’’џџџџ’‘x(XџџџџџџюB9fџџџџЎЏџџџџ€ЎЎџџџџЎЎ€ЏЏџџџџЏЎ‚,PXџџџџџџюB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЏЏџџџџЏЎx(XџџџџџџюB9fџџџџЪЫџџџџ€ЪЪџџџџЪЪ€ЫЫџџџџЫЪ‚,PXџџџџџџюB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЫЫџџџџЫЪx(XџџџџџџюB9fџџџџщъџџџџ€щщџџџџщщ€ъъџџџџъщ‚,PXџџџџџџюB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ъъџџџџъщx(XџџџџџџюB9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџюB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџx(XџџџџџџюB9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџюB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџx(XџџџџџџюB9fџџџџ89џџџџ€88џџџџ88€99џџџџ98‚,PXџџџџџџюB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€99џџџџ98x(XџџџџџџяB9fџџџџKdџџџџ€KKџџџџnnKK€ddџџџџdK‚,PXџџџџџџяB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ddџџџџdKxh…(ƒџџџџџџ(ўяB9fџџџџcdџџџџ€ddџџџџdK€ddџџџџdKx(XџџџџџџяB9fџџџџdeџџџџ€ddџџџџdK€eeџџџџeK‚,PXџџџџџџяB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€eeџџџџeKxh…(ƒџџџџџџ(ўяB9fџџџџdeџџџџ€eeџџџџeK€eeџџџџeKx(XџџџџџџяB9fџџџџdkџџџџ€eeџџџџeK€kkџџџџkK‚,PXџџџџџџяB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€kkџџџџkKxh…(ƒџџџџџџ(ўяB9fџџџџjkџџџџ€kkџџџџkK€kkџџџџkKxh…(џџџџџџ(ўяB9fџџџџccџџџџ€ccџџџџcc€ccџџџџccx(XџџџџџџяB9fџџџџЌschџџџџ€ccџџџџcc€hhџџџџhc‚,PXџџџџџџяB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€hhџџџџhcxh…(џџџџџџ(ўяB9fџџџџkkџџџџ€kkџџџџkk€kkџџџџkkxh…(џџџџџџ(ўяB9fџџџџmmџџџџ€mmџџџџmm€mmџџџџmmx(XџџџџџџёB9fџџџџМsm‹џџџџ€mmџџџџmm€‹‹џџџџ‹m‚,PXџџџџџџёB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€‹‹џџџџ‹mxh…(џџџџџџ(ўёB9fџџџџˆˆџџџџ€ˆˆџџџџˆˆ€ˆˆџџџџˆˆx(XџџџџџџѓB9fџџџџЬsˆЛџџџџ€ˆˆџџџџˆˆ€ЛЛџџџџЛˆ‚,PXџџџџџџѓB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЛЛџџџџЛˆx(XџџџџџџѓB9fџџџџ Ёџџџџ€  џџџџ  €ЁЁџџџџЁ ‚,PXџџџџџџѓB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЁЁџџџџЁ x(XџџџџџџєB9fџџџџ№sМЭџџџџ€ММџџџџ\ММ€ЭЭџџџџЭМ‚,PXџџџџџџєB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЭЭџџџџЭМxh…(џџџџџџ(ўєB9fџџџџФФџџџџ€ФФџџџџ””ФФ€ФФџџџџФФx(XџџџџџџєB9fџџџџФХџџџџ€ФФџџџџФФ€ХХџџџџХФ‚,PXџџџџџџєB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ХХџџџџХФxh…(џџџџџџ(ўєB9fџџџџФФџџџџ€ФФџџџџ““ФФ€ФФџџџџФФx(XџџџџџџєB9fџџџџФХџџџџ€ФФџџџџФФ€ХХџџџџХФ‚,PXџџџџџџєB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ХХџџџџХФx(XџџџџџџѕB9fџџџџtЬуџџџџ€ЬЬџџџџЬЬ€ууџџџџуЬ‚,PXџџџџџџѕB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ууџџџџуЬxh…(џџџџџџ(ўіB9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ@@€џџџџx(XџџџџџџіB9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџіB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџx(XџџџџџџїB9fџџџџжзџџџџ€жжџџџџ\жж€ззџџџџзж‚,PXџџџџџџїB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ззџџџџзжxh…(џџџџџџ(ўїB9fџџџџъъџџџџ€ъъџџџџъъ€ъъџџџџъъx(XџџџџџџїB9fџџџџ"#џџџџ€""џџџџ\""€##џџџџ#"‚,PXџџџџџџїB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€##џџџџ#"xh…(МџџџџџџрљјB9fџџџџНЭџџџџ€ООџџџџОО€ООџџџџООx(XџџџџџџC9fџџџџLtоёџџџџ€ооџџџџ;;оо€ёёџџџџёо‚,PXџџџџџџC9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ёёџџџџёоx(XџџџџџџC9fџџџџїјџџџџ€їїџџџџїї€јјџџџџјї‚,PXџџџџџџC9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€јјџџџџјїx(Xџџџџџџиz9fџџџџxtотџџџџ€ооџџџџ33оо€ттџџџџто‚,PXџџџџџџиz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ттџџџџтоx(Xџџџџџџиz9fџџџџ†t9@џџџџ€99џџџџhh99€@@џџџџ@9‚,PXџџџџџџиz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€@@џџџџ@9x(Xџџџџџџиz9fџџџџštX\џџџџ€XXџџџџ33XX€\\џџџџ\X‚,PXџџџџџџиz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€\\џџџџ\Xx(Xџџџџџџйz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџйz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€џџџџxh…(џџџџџџ(ўйz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЃЃ€џџџџxh…(џџџџџџ(ўйz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџxh…(џџџџџџ(ўйz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЂЂ€џџџџxh…(џџџџџџ(ўйz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЃЃ€џџџџxh…(џџџџџџ(ўйz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЂЂ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџкz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџкz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџкz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџкz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€џџџџxh…(ƒџџџџџџ(ўкz9fџџџџ6мџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџмz9fџџџџЈtSџџџџ€џџџџ€SSџџџџS‚,PXџџџџџџмz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€SSџџџџSxh…(>џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ\€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџмz9fџџџџМtWaџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€aaџџџџaW‚,PXџџџџџџмz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€aaџџџџaWx(Xџџџџџџмz9fџџџџдt 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€ џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџŠ џџџџ — џџџџ  € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџъЏ Џ џџџџЏ ™ џџџџGЏ Џ €Џ Џ џџџџЏ Џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџk k џџџџk ‚ џџџџVk k €k k џџџџk k xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ4Ы Ы џџџџЫ џ џџџџ Ы д €Ы Ы џџџџЫ Ы xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў"ы9fџџџџ ффџџџџфяџџџџафф€ффџџџџффxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў#ы9fџџџџ< < џџџџ< @ џџџџ€< < €< < џџџџ< < xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў#ы9fџџџџ< < џџџџ€< < џџџџ< < €< < џџџџ< < xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў#ы9fџџџџC C џџџџC J џџџџЋC C €C C џџџџC C x(Xџџџџџџ'ы9fџџџџ‚zГ М џџџџ€Г Г џџџџддГ Г €М М џџџџМ Г ‚,PXџџџџџџ'ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€М М џџџџМ Г x(Xџџџџџџ1ы9fџџџџšz/ 5 џџџџ€/ / џџџџ)/ / €5 5 џџџџ5 / ‚,PXџџџџџџ1ы9fџџџџvuўџџџS@€џџџџ€5 5 џџџџ5 / xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџїїN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџјјN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџїїN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџјјN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџїїN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџїїN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџїїN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџo o €o o џџџџo o x(Xџџџџџџ2ы9fџџџџЌzo ƒ џџџџ€o o џџџџo o €ƒ ƒ џџџџƒ o ‚,PXџџџџџџ2ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€ƒ ƒ џџџџƒ o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџƒ ƒ џџџџ€ƒ ƒ џџџџƒ o €ƒ ƒ џџџџƒ ƒ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџƒ ƒ џџџџ€ƒ ƒ џџџџggƒ ƒ €ƒ ƒ џџџџƒ ƒ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџƒ ƒ џџџџ€ƒ ƒ џџџџggƒ ƒ €ƒ ƒ џџџџƒ ƒ x(Xџџџџџџ3ы9fџџџџкzƒ • џџџџ€– – џџџџcc– – €• • џџџџ• ƒ ‚,PXџџџџџџ3ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€• • џџџџ• ƒ x(Xџџџџџџ3ы9fџџџџюzЏ Б џџџџ€Џ Џ џџџџЏ Џ €Б Б џџџџБ Џ ‚,PXџџџџџџ3ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€Б Б џџџџБ Џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџП П џџџџ€П П џџџџП П €П П џџџџП П xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџП П џџџџ€П П џџџџssП П €П П џџџџП П x(Xџџџџџџ3ы9fџџџџјzП Т џџџџ€П П џџџџП П €Т Т џџџџТ П ‚,PXџџџџџџ3ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€Т Т џџџџТ П x(Xџџџџџџ3ы9fџџџџе ж џџџџ€е е џџџџе е €ж ж џџџџж е ‚,PXџџџџџџ3ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж е xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж е €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж x(Xџџџџџџ4ы9fџџџџў џ џџџџ€ў ў џџџџТТў ў €џ џ џџџџџ ў ‚,PXџџџџџџ4ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€џ џ џџџџџ ў xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџџ ў €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ 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‰‹§џџџ Ž‘’“”•–—˜™š›œЉџџџџ§џџџ§џџџ§џџџ§џџџ§џџџ§џџџ§џџџ§џџџ§џџџ§џџџo ЋЌ­ЎЏАБВГДЕЖЗИЙКЛМНОПРСТУФХЦЧШЩЪЫЬЭЮЯабвгдежзийклмнопрстуфхцчшщъыьэюя№ёђѓєѕіїјљњћќ§ўџј‚,PXџџџџџџ8ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€њњџџџџњјx(Xџџџџџџ9ы9fџџџџ"{јћџџџџ€јјџџџџKKјј€ћћџџџџћј‚,PXџџџџџџ9ы9fџџџџuvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ћћџџџџћјxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў9ы9fџџџџљљџџџџ€љљџџџџццљљ€љљџџџџљљxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў9ы9fџџџџљљџџџџ€љљџџџџццљљ€љљџџџџљљxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў9ы9fџџџџљљџџџџ€љљџџџџљљ€љљџџџџљљxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў9ы9fџџџџљљџџџџ€љљџџџџццљљ€љљџџџџљљxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў9ы9fџџџџљљџџџџ€љљџџџџљљ€љљџџџџљљxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџn!n!џџџџ€n!n!џџџџЙЙn!n!€n!n!џџџџn!n!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџn!n!џџџџ€n!n!џџџџККn!n!€n!n!џџџџn!n!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџn!n!џџџџ€n!n!џџџџЙЙn!n!€n!n!џџџџn!n!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџn!n!џџџџ€n!n!џџџџЙЙn!n!€n!n!џџџџn!n!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџn!n!џџџџ€n!n!џџџџn!n!€n!n!џџџџn!n!x(Xџџџџџџ;ы9fџџџџn!o!џџџџ€n!n!џџџџn!n!€o!o!џџџџo!n!‚,PXџџџџџџ;ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€o!o!џџџџo!n!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ~!~!џџџџ€~!~!џџџџ~!~!€~!~!џџџџ~!~!x(Xџџџџџџ;ы9fџџџџ~!!џџџџ€~!~!џџџџ~!~!€!!џџџџ!~!‚,PXџџџџџџ;ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€!!џџџџ!~!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!x(Xџџџџџџ;ы9fџџџџ.{‰!Ž!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!€Ž!Ž!џџџџŽ!‰!‚,PXџџџџџџ;ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€Ž!Ž!џџџџŽ!‰!x(Xџџџџџџ@ы9fџџџџŠ"‹"џџџџ€Š"Š"џџџџ 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Œ˜џџџџŒ—џџџџЭŒŒŒ—џџџџŒŒx@(Xџџџџџџ(ўмb:Fџџџџ—˜џџџџ€——џџџџЫЫ——€˜˜џџџџ˜—x(Xџџџџџџнb:Fџџџџ˜Њџџџџ€˜˜џџџџ˜—€ЊЊџџџџЊ—‚,PXџџџџџџнb:FџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ЊЊџџџџЊ—x(Xџџџџџџнb:FџџџџЄЅџџџџ€ЄЄџџџџЄЄ€ЅЅџџџџЅЄ‚,PXџџџџџџнb:FџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ЅЅџџџџЅЄx(Xџџџџџџоb:Fџџџџк€Њфџџџџ€ЊЊџџџџЊЊ€ффџџџџфЊ‚,PXџџџџџџоb:FџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ффџџџџфЊx(Xџџџџџџоb:Fџџџџю€РХџџџџ€РРџџџџИИРР€ХХџџџџХР‚,PXџџџџџџоb:FџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ХХџџџџХРx(Xџџџџџџрb:Fџџџџў€Щаџџџџ€ЩЩџџџџЩЩ€ааџџџџаЩ‚,PXџџџџџџрb:FџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ааџџџџаЩx(Xџџџџџџрb:Fџџџџёѓџџџџ€ёёџџџџёё€ѓѓџџџџѓё‚,PXџџџџџџрb:FџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ѓѓџџџџѓёx(Xџџџџџџрb:Fџџџџђ&џџџџ€ђђџџџџђђ€&&џџџџ&ђ‚,PXџџџџџџрb:FџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€&&џџџџ&ђx@(Џџџџџџџрљфb:Fџџџџ%(џџџџ(џџџџ(џџџџx(Xџџџџџџхb:Fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџыы€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџхb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџхb:Fџџџџ>џџџџ€џџџџАА€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџхb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџхb:FџџџџJ!$џџџџ€!!џџџџ!!€$$џџџџ$!‚,PXџџџџџџхb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€$$џџџџ$!x(Xџџџџџџхb:FџџџџV-1џџџџ€--џџџџ--€11џџџџ1-‚,PXџџџџџџхb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€11џџџџ1-x(Xџџџџџџхb:Fџџџџdёѓџџџџ€ёёџџџџёё€ѓѓџџџџѓё‚,PXџџџџџџхb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ѓѓџџџџѓёx(Xџџџџџџцb:FџџџџnХЧџџџџ€ХХџџџџХХ€ЧЧџџџџЧХ‚,PXџџџџџџцb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЧЧџџџџЧХx(Xџџџџџџцb:FџџџџxХЫџџџџ€ХХџџџџХХ€ЫЫџџџџЫХ‚,PXџџџџџџцb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЫЫџџџџЫХx(Xџџџџџџцb:FџџџџŠиоџџџџ€ииџџџџии€ооџџџџои‚,PXџџџџџџцb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ооџџџџоиx(Xџџџџџџчb:Fџџџџœџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџчb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџчb:FџџџџЋЌџџџџ€ЋЋџџџџџџЋЋ€ЌЌџџџџЌЋ‚,PXџџџџџџчb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЌЌџџџџЌЋx(Xџџџџџџшb:FџџџџЪ:>џџџџ€::џџџџ  ::€>>џџџџ>:‚,PXџџџџџџшb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€>>џџџџ>:x(Xџџџџџџщb:FџџџџиMQџџџџ€MMџџџџMM€QQџџџџQM‚,PXџџџџџџщb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€QQџџџџQMx(Xџџџџџџщb:Fџџџџц^bџџџџ€^^џџџџ^^€bbџџџџb^‚,PXџџџџџџщb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€bbџџџџb^x(Xџџџџџџщb:FџџџџєЬбџџџџ€ЬЬџџџџДДЬЬ€ббџџџџбЬ‚,PXџџџџџџщb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ббџџџџбЬx@(џџџџџџ(ўщb:Fџџџџггџџџџ€ггџџџџгг€ггџџџџггx(Xџџџџџџщb:Fџџџџбгџџџџ€ггџџџџгг€ггџџџџгб‚,PXџџџџџџщb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ггџџџџгбx(Xџџџџџџыb:Fџџџџ‚уъџџџџ€ууџџџџуу€ъъџџџџъу‚,PXџџџџџџыb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ъъџџџџъуx(Xџџџџџџьb:Fџџџџ‚!7џџџџ€!!џџџџ$$!!€77џџџџ7!‚,PXџџџџџџьb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€77џџџџ7!x(Xџџџџџџьb:Fџџџџ ™Єџџџџ€ЅЅџџџџЅЅ€ЄЄџџџџЄ™‚,PXџџџџџџьb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЄЄџџџџЄ™x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:FџџџџЧЧџџџџ€ЧЧџџџџЧЧ€ЧЧџџџџЧЧx@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџннџџџџ€ннџџџџffнн€ннџџџџннx@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ  џџџџ€  џџџџff  €  џџџџ  x(Xџџџџџџьb:Fџџџџ8‚)0џџџџ€))џџџџMM))€00џџџџ0)‚,PXџџџџџџьb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€00џџџџ0)x(Xџџџџџџьb:Fџџџџ^`џџџџ€aaџџџџ™™aa€``џџџџ`^‚,PXџџџџџџьb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€``џџџџ`^x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџrrџџџџ€rrџџџџrr€rrџџџџrrx@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ‚‚џџџџ€‚‚џџџџff‚‚€‚‚џџџџ‚‚x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ88џџџџ€88џџџџff88€88џџџџ88x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ88џџџџ€88џџџџ88€88џџџџ88x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ88џџџџ€88џџџџff88€88џџџџ88x(Xџџџџџџьb:Fџџџџ89џџџџ€88џџџџ88€99џџџџ98‚,PXџџџџџџьb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€99џџџџ98x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ22џџџџ€22џџџџ22€22џџџџ22x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ22џџџџ€22џџџџ22€22џџџџ22x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ22џџџџ€22џџџџ]22€22џџџџ22x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ22џџџџ€22џџџџ]22€22џџџџ22x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ22џџџџ€22џџџџ22€22џџџџ22x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ22џџџџ€22џџџџ]22€22џџџџ22x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ22џџџџ€22џџџџ]22€22џџџџ22x(Xџџџџџџьb:FџџџџL‚љћџџџџ€љљџџџџ]љљ€ћћџџџџћљ‚,PXџџџџџџьb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ћћџџџџћљx(Xџџџџџџэb:FџџџџV‚ГЕџџџџ€ГГџџџџ]ГГ€ЕЕџџџџЕГ‚,PXџџџџџџэb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЕЕџџџџЕГx@(џџџџџџ(ўэb:FџџџџЪЪџџџџ€ЪЪџџџџЪЪ€ЪЪџџџџЪЪx@(џџџџџџ(ўэb:FџџџџЪЪџџџџ€ЪЪџџџџллЪЪ€ЪЪџџџџЪЪx(Xџџџџџџюb:Fџџџџ`‚Z_џџџџ€ZZџџџџooZZ€__џџџџ_Z‚,PXџџџџџџюb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€__џџџџ_Zx(Xџџџџџџюb:Fџџџџp‚quџџџџ€qqџџџџqq€uuџџџџuq‚,PXџџџџџџюb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€uuџџџџuqx(Xџџџџџџюb:Fџџџџ~‚…‰џџџџ€……џџџџ……€‰‰џџџџ‰…‚,PXџџџџџџюb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€‰‰џџџџ‰…x@(џџџџџџ(ўюb:Fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџюb:Fџџџџ‚џџџџ€џџџџ€‚‚џџџџ‚‚,PXџџџџџџюb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€‚‚џџџџ‚x@(џџџџџџ(ўюb:Fџџџџ„„џџџџ€„„џџџџ„„€„„џџџџ„„x(Xџџџџџџюb:Fџџџџ„…џџџџ€„„џџџџ„„€……џџџџ…„‚,PXџџџџџџюb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€……џџџџ…„x@(џџџџџџ(ўюb:Fџџџџˆˆџџџџ€ˆˆџџџџˆˆ€ˆˆџџџџˆˆx(Xџџџџџџюb:Fџџџџˆ‰џџџџ€ˆˆџџџџˆˆ€‰‰џџџџ‰ˆ‚,PXџџџџџџюb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€‰‰џџџџ‰ˆx@(-џџџџџџрљяb:Fџџџџ 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Q џџџџ€Q Q џџџџUQ Q €Q Q џџџџQ Q x$d(lџџџџџџрљ“k&џџџџ46џџџџ5Sџџџџ55€55џџџџ55x(Xџџџџџџƒ“k&џџџџzzџџџџ€zzџџџџ&zz€zzџџџџzz‚,PXџџџџџџƒ“k&џџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€zzџџџџzzxd7(nџџџџџџрљƒ“k&џџџџz0}џџџџ€zzџџџџzz€0}0}џџџџ0}0}xd7(lџџџџџџрљ„“k&џџџџzzџџџџz2}џџџџzz€zzџџџџzzx(Xџџџџџџ„“k&џџџџ ^^џџџџ€ ^ ^џџџџ& ^ ^€^^џџџџ^ ^‚,PXџџџџџџ„“k&џџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€^^џџџџ^ ^xd7(nџџџџџџрљ„“k&џџџџ ^+aџџџџ€ ^ ^џџџџ ^ ^€+a+aџџџџ+a+ax(Xџџџџџџ…“k&џџџџ ^ ^џџџџ€ ^ ^џџџџU ^ ^€ ^ ^џџџџ ^ ^‚,PXџџџџџџ…“k&џџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ ^ ^џџџџ ^ ^xd7(ƒџџџџџџ(ў…“k&џџџџ ^^џџџџ€ ^ ^џџџџ ^ ^€ ^ ^џџџџ ^ ^x(Xџџџџџџ…“k&џџџџњ\^џџџџ€ ^ ^џџџџ ^ ^€ ^ ^џџџџ ^^‚,PXџџџџџџ…“k&џџџџvuўџџџS@€џџџџ€ ^ ^џџџџ ^^x(Xџџџџџџ…“k&џџџџ ^ ^џџџџ€ ^ ^џџџџ ^^€ ^ ^џџџџ ^^‚,PXџџџџџџ…“k&џџџџuvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ ^ ^џџџџ ^^x(Xџџџџџџ…“k&џџџџ–‚^^џџџџ€^^џџџџ^^€^^џџџџ^^‚,PXџџџџџџ…“k&џџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€^^џџџџ^^xd7(џџџџџџ(ў…“k&џџџџQ ^\^џџџџ€^^џџџџ^^€^^џџџџ^^xd7(.џџџџџџрљ…“k&џџџџF^[^џџџџ^[^џџџџ,%^^^[^џџџџ%^^x(Xџџџџџџ…“k&џџџџ\^\^џџџџ\^]^џџџџ\^\^€\^\^џџџџ\^\^‚,PXџџџџџџ…“k&џџџџuvўџџџS@€џџџџ€\^\^џџџџ\^\^xd7(ƒџџџџџџ(ў…“k&џџџџ\^m^џџџџ€\^\^џџџџ\^\^€\^\^џџџџ\^\^x(Xџџџџџџ…“k&џџџџ\^_^џџџџ€\^\^џџџџ\^\^€_^_^џџџџ_^\^‚,PXџџџџџџ…“k&џџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€_^_^џџџџ_^\^x(Xџџџџџџ…“k&џџџџ ‚^^y^џџџџ€^^^^џџџџ^^^^€y^y^џџџџy^^^‚,PXџџџџџџ…“k&џџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€y^y^џџџџy^^^x(Xџџџџџџ…“k&џџџџк‚c^•^џџџџ€c^c^џџџџOOc^c^€•^•^џџџџ•^c^‚,PXџџџџџџ…“k&џџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€•^•^џџџџ•^c^xd7(џџџџџџ(ў…“k&џџџџ•^•^џџџџ€•^•^џџџџ•^c^€•^•^џџџџ•^•^xd7(џџџџџџ(ў…“k&џџџџ•^•^џџџџ€•^•^џџџџ•^•^€•^•^џџџџ•^•^xd7(џџџџџџ(ў…“k&џџџџ•^•^џџџџ€•^•^џџџџ•^•^€•^•^џџџџ•^•^xd7(џџџџџџ(ў…“k&џџџџ•^•^џџџџ€•^•^џџџџ•^•^€•^•^џџџџ•^•^xd7(џџџџџџ(ў…“k&џџџџ•^•^џџџџ€•^•^џџџџ•^•^€•^•^џџџџ•^•^xd7(џџџџџџ(ў…“k&џџџџ•^•^џџџџ€•^•^џџџџнн•^•^€•^•^џџџџ•^•^xd7(џџџџџџ(ў…“k&џџџџ•^•^џџџџ€•^•^џџџџнн•^•^€•^•^џџџџ•^•^xd7(џџџџџџ(ў…“k&џџџџ•^•^џџџџ€•^•^џџџџнн•^•^€•^•^џџџџ•^•^xd7(џџџџџџ(ў†“k&џџџџ•^•^џџџџ€•^•^џџџџ•^•^€•^•^џџџџ•^•^x(Xџџџџџџ†“k&џџџџ^”^џџџџ€•^•^џџџџ•^•^€”^”^џџџџ”^^‚,PXџџџџџџ†“k&џџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€”^”^џџџџ”^^xd7(џџџџџџ(ў†“k&џџџџ]^]^џџџџ€]^]^џџџџ]^]^€]^]^џџџџ]^]^xd7(џџџџџџ(ў†“k&џџџџ]^]^џџџџ€]^]^џџџџ]^]^€]^]^џџџџ]^]^x(Xџџџџџџ†“k&џџџџ:ƒ\^f^џџџџ€]^]^џџџџ//]^]^€f^f^џџџџf^\^‚,PXџџџџџџ†“k&џџџџvuўџџџS@€џџџџ€f^f^џџџџf^\^x(Xџџџџџџ†“k&џџџџp`q`џџџџp`q`џџџџp`p`€q`q`џџџџq`p`‚,PXџџџџџџ†“k&џџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€q`q`џџџџq`p`x(Xџџџџџџ†“k&џџџџo`p`џџџџ€o`o`џџџџo`o`€p`p`џџџџp`o`‚,PXџџџџџџ†“k&џџџџuvўџџџS@€џџџџ€p`p`џџџџp`o`xd7(ƒџџџџџџ(ў†“k&џџџџp`q`џџџџ€p`p`џџџџp`o`€p`p`џџџџp`o`x(Xџџџџџџ†“k&џџџџp`z`џџџџ€p`p`џџџџp`o`€z`z`џџџџz`o`‚,PXџџџџџџ†“k&џџџџvuўџџџS@€џџџџ€z`z`џџџџz`o`xd7(nџџџџџџрљ†“k&џџџџz`Ч`џџџџ€z`z`џџџџ((z`z`€Ч`Ч`џџџџЧ`Ч`xd7(џџџџџџ(ў†“k&џџџџЧ`Ч`џџџџ€Ч`Ч`џџџџЧ`Ч`€Ч`Ч`џџџџЧ`Ч`xd7(џџџџџџ(ў†“k&џџџџЧ`Ч`џџџџ€Ч`Ч`џџџџUЧ`Ч`€Ч`Ч`џџџџЧ`Ч`xd7(nџџџџџџрљ‡“k&џџџџЫabџџџџ€ЫaЫaџџџџUЫaЫa€bbџџџџbbxd7(ƒџџџџџџ(ў‡“k&џџџџBЫa bџџџџЫa bџџџџЫaЫaЫa bџџџџЫaЫa‚,PXџџџџџџ‡“k&џџџџvuўџџџS@Ыa bџџџџЫaЫaЫa bџџџџЫaЫax(Xџџџџџџ‡“k&џџџџAЫaЬaџџџџЫa bџџџџЫaЫa€ЬaЬaџџџџЬaЫa‚,PXџџџџџџ‡“k&џџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЬaЬaџџџџЬaЫaxd7(nџџџџџџрљ‡“k&џџџџЬabџџџџ€ЬaЬaџџџџЬaЫa€bbџџџџbbxd7(Xџџџџџџ(ў‡“k&џџџџbbџџџџ€bbџџџџ/bb€bbџџџџbbx(Xџџџџџџ‡“k&џџџџTƒдaлaџџџџ€дaдaџџџџ$$дaдa€лaлaџџџџлaдa‚,PXџџџџџџ‡“k&џџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€лaлaџџџџлaдax(Xџџџџџџ‡“k&џџџџz`z`џџџџ€‚`‚`џџџџHH‚`‚`€z`z`џџџџz`z`‚,PXџџџџџџ‡“k&џџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€z`z`џџџџz`z`xd7(џџџџџџ(ўˆ“k&џџџџz`z`џџџџ€z`z`џџџџ((z`z`€z`z`џџџџz`z`xd7(џџџџџџ(ўˆ“k&џџџџz`z`џџџџ€z`z`џџџџz`z`€z`z`џџџџz`z`xd7(џџџџџџ(ўˆ“k&џџџџЫaЫaџџџџ€ЫaЫaџџџџ((ЫaЫa€ЫaЫaџџџџЫaЫaxd7(џџџџџџ(ўˆ“k&џџџџЫaЫaџџџџ€ЫaЫaџџџџ((ЫaЫa€ЫaЫaџџџџЫaЫaxd7(џџџџџџ(ўˆ“k&џџџџЫaЫaџџџџ€ЫaЫaџџџџ((ЫaЫa€ЫaЫaџџџџЫaЫaxd7(џџџџџџ(ўˆ“k&џџџџЫaЫaџџџџ€ЫaЫaџџџџ((ЫaЫa€ЫaЫaџџџџЫaЫaxd7(џџџџџџ(ўˆ“k&џџџџЫaЫaџџџџ€ЫaЫaџџџџ((ЫaЫa€ЫaЫaџџџџЫaЫaxd7(џџџџџџ(ўˆ“k&џџџџЫaЫaџџџџ€ЫaЫaџџџџ((ЫaЫa€ЫaЫaџџџџЫaЫaxd7(џџџџџџ(ўˆ“k&џџџџЫaЫaџџџџ€ЫaЫaџџџџ((ЫaЫa€ЫaЫaџџџџЫaЫaxd7(џџџџџџ(ўˆ“k&џџџџЫaЫaџџџџ€ЫaЫaџџџџ((ЫaЫa€ЫaЫaџџџџЫaЫaxd7(џџџџџџ(ўˆ“k&џџџџbbџџџџ€bbџџџџbb€bbџџџџbbxd7(џџџџџџ(ўˆ“k&џџџџbbџџџџ€bbџџџџUbb€bbџџџџbbxd7(џџџџџџ(ўˆ“k&џџџџbbџџџџ€bbџџџџ&bb€bbџџџџbbxd7(џџџџџџ(ўˆ“k&џџџџbbџџџџ€bbџџџџ&bb€bbџџџџbbxd7(џџџџџџ(ўˆ“k&џџџџbbџџџџ€bbџџџџ&bb€bbџџџџbbxd7(џџџџџџ(ўˆ“k&џџџџbbџџџџ€bbџџџџ&bb€bbџџџџbbxd7(џџџџџџ(ўˆ“k&џџџџbbџџџџ€bbџџџџbb€bbџџџџbbxd7(џџџџџџ(ўˆ“k&џџџџbbџџџџ€bbџџџџ/bb€bbџџџџbbxd7(џџџџџџ(ў“k&џџџџе е џџџџ€е е џџџџ9е е €е е џџџџе е xd7(ƒџџџџџџ(ўž“k&џџџџ89џџџџ€88џџџџ88€88џџџџ88xd7(Xџџџџџџ(ўž“k&џџџџ68џџџџ€88џџџџ88€77џџџџ76x(Xџџџџџџž“k&џџџџ66џџџџ€77џџџџ76€66џџџџ66‚,PXџџџџџџž“k&џџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€66џџџџ66x(Xџџџџџџ`Ъk&џџџџ 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PAGE 44 PAGE 44 ' PAGE 44 '’ PAGE 44 '’ PAGE 44 ’ PAGE 44 . PAGE 44 PAGE 44 PAGE 44 z PAGE 44 s PAGE 44 PAGE 44 6 PAGE 44 PAGE 44 PAGE 44 generalizability PAGE 44 PAGE 44 PAGE 44 PAGE 44 PAGE 44 PAGE 44 norms PAGE 44 PAGE 44 generalizability total score .78 .85 ------------- PAGE 44 PAGE 45 --------- PAGE 45 ----------------- PAGE 45 Characteristics of the research with the SON-R outside The Netherlands ------------ PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 ests PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 Correlation with PAGE 45 criterion test PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 z PAGE 45 standardisations PAGE 3 i PAGE 3 in PAGE 3 PAGE 3 PAGE 3 i PAGE 3 PAGE 3 PAGE 3 of the SON-R tests PAGE 3 not primarily to be able to perform comparative studies across national, ethnic and cultural groups, butoften original test PAGE 3 e PAGE 3 As a check of the equivalence of the translated and original instrument the translated instrument is often back-translated into the source language. This checking procedure probably will reduce possible measurement inequivalence, but does not lead to guarantees that the two different language versions are psychometrically equivalent and can be compared legitimately (Hulin, 1987). for different cultures language as part of their content or testing format (nonverbal)back-process PAGE 3 PAGE 45 however, for these instruments PAGE 4 no empirical research PAGE 4 PAGE 4 in PAGE 4 PAGE 4 should be necessary. PAGE 5 in this respect PAGE 4 -sbecause of the fact PAGE 5 of PAGE 5 PAGE 5 that the i PAGE 6 v PAGE 6 subtests that PAGE 6 PAGE 45 PAGE 6 test intelligence PAGE 7 rather than in the subtests in which non-meaningful materials such as geometrical forms are used. PAGE 7 In the second part of this article a short description will be given of the SON-R tests. Part three will describe the validation studies done with the SON-R 2Н-7, the version for pre-school children, in Australia, the USA and in Great-Britain. In the fourth part cross-cultural studies with the SON-R 5Н-17 undertaken in China, Peru and Brazil will be summarised. In part five conclusions will be drawn on basis of the research data in reference to the question to what extent adaptations of the material of the SON-R tests (test instructions, testing format, examples, items) are required for cross-national and cross-cultural use. PAGE 44 PAGE 7 ‚ƒ„…†‡ˆ‰Š‹ŒŽ‘’“”•–—˜™š›œžŸ ЁЂЃЄЅІЇЈЉЊЋЌ­ЎЏАБВГДЕЖЗИЙКЛМНОПРСТУФХЦЧШЩЪЫЬЭЮЯабвгдежзийклмнопрстуфхцчшщъыьэюя№ёђѓєѕіїјљњћќ§џ§џџџ PAGE 45 p PAGE 7 PAGE 7 PAGE 7 PAGE 7 PAGE 7 PAGE 8 pe PAGE 8 PAGE 8 PAGE 8 PAGE 8 PAGE 45 PAGE 8 PAGE 8 PAGE 8 PAGE 8 tim PAGE 45 r PAGE 8 PAGE 8 elements PAGE 8 PAGE 8 ituations PAGE 8 PAGE 8 in the proper sequence SON-R 2Н-7 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 SON-R 5Н-17 SON-R 5Н-17 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 46 Characteristics of the SON-tests in the Netherlands SON-R 2Н-7 SON-R 5Н-17 age range 2;0 – 7;11 years 5;6 – 16;11 years N sample 1124 1350 N subtests 6 7 reasoning abilities Categories Categories Situations Situations Analogies Analogies ---- Stories spatial abilities Mosaics Mosaics Patterns Patterns Puzzles ---- perceptual abilities ---- Hidden Pictures administration time 50 min. 90 min. mean reliability subtests .72 .76 reliability total score .90 .93 generalizability total score .78 .85 Table 2 Characteristics of the research with the SON-R outside The Netherlands SON-R 2Н-7 Australia Great-Britain United States N of subjects 155 58 75/31/26/29/47 Age 4;5 (0;10) 6;3 (0;3) 5;1/4;7/4;7/5;6/4;7 Correlation with criterion test .78 (WPPSI-R PIQ) .87 (BAS 6 subt.) .59 (WPPSI-R FSIQ) .66 (K-ABC) .61 (MSCA) .47 (PPVT-R) .61 (PLS-3) SON-R 5Н-17 China Peru Brazil N of subjects 302 Age 11;6 Correlation with criterion test Items with problems Categories Situations Stories PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 China PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 - PAGE 45 - PAGE 45 - PAGE 45 SON-R 5Н-17 Cross-cultural research with the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Tests. Cross-cultural research with the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Tests. Jaap A. Laros 1 and Peter J. Tellegen 2 1 University of Brasэlia, Brazil, 2 University of Groningen, The Netherlands Abstract The SON-R 2Н-7 and the SON-R 5Н-17 are the latest revisions of the Snijders-Oomen nonverbal intelligence test, originally developed in the Netherlands in 1943 for use with deaf children. The tests consist of 6 to 7 subtests mainly focussed on visual-spatial abilities and abstract and concrete reasoning. Research in the Netherlands indicates that the nonverbal SON-R tests are well suited for use with children of ethnic minorities. With traditional tests the cognitive abilities of minority children are often underestimated as a result of their lack of knowledge of the official language. Notwithstanding the favorite research results with minority children in The Netherlands, it cannot simply be assumed that the SON-R tests can be used unmodified in countries which are greatly different from The Netherlands. In this presentation we will discuss results obtained with the SON-R tests in Australia, the USA, Great Britain, China, Peru and Brazil. I Introduction With the latest revision and standardization in the Netherlands of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Tests, various cross-cultural validation studies have been initiated. The objective of these studies was to verify to which degree the SON-R tests can be used with cultures different from the cultures in Western Europe in general, and different from the cultures in the Netherlands in particular. In other words, the goal of these studies was to discern if, and to what extent adaptations of the material (e.g., test instructions, testing format, examples, items) of the SON-R tests are required for cross-national and cross-cultural use. The reason of the adaptation of the SON-R tests is to be able to assess in a fair way the construct of intelligence in multiple cultures. A crucial phase in the adaptation of conventional tests is the translation of the instrument from the source language into a target language. To obtain an equivalent test in another language or culture not only a translation is needed that preserves the meaning of the verbal test materials, but also additional changes may be necessary to insure the equivalence of the versions of the test in multiple languages or cultures, such as those affecting item format and testing procedures. (Hambleton, 1993). Close correspondence between the original version and the translated version is required before reliance can be placed on results based on translated tests. In addition to using effective translation practices, test users also need to examine the psychometric properties of translated tests (Ellis, 1995). The adaptation of nonverbal tests for multiple cultures does not include the difficult and often very problematic test translation phase and is therefore much less complicated than the adaptation process of (partly) verbal tests. The fact that the adaptation process of nonverbal tests is much less complicated than the one needed for intelligence tests which use written or spoken language is one of the great advantages of nonverbal intelligence tests. The circumstance that nonverbal intelligence tests often do not need translation, does not automatically mean that there is no need for empirical studies on the equivalence of their applications for different cultures. Van de Vijver and Poortinga (1997) noted that when a psychological instrument developed in one society is applied in a different cultural context, invariance of psychometric properties like reliability and validity cannot be merely assumed, but has to be empirically demonstrated. The occurrence of bias can change the psychometric properties of an instrument when it is used in a different culture. Bias can appear at various levels; at test-, subtest-, or at item-level. A test, subtest, or an item is biased if it does not measure the same psychological trait across cultural groups (Van de Vijver, 1998). Three different types of bias can be differentiated, construct bias, method bias and item bias (Van de Vijver & Poortinga, 1997). A test shows construct bias if the construct measured is not identical across different cultural groups. Method bias occurs as a consequence of nuisance variables due to method-related factors. Three sorts of method bias can be distinguished: sample bias, instrument bias and administration bias. Sample bias occurs when the samples are incomparable on aspects other than the target variable. Instrument bias is related to characteristics of the instrument that are not identical for different culture groups. An example of this kind of bias is stimulus familiarity. The third type of method bias occurs when there are problems related with the administration of a test. This type of bias can occur when communication problems arise because of the insufficient knowledge of the subject of the language that the examiner uses. Item bias occurs if persons with the same amount of the trait being estimated, but belonging to different groups have different probabilities of making a specific response to the item. The probability that administration bias will occur with a nonverbal intelligence test like the SON-R is low as that the instructions are given in a nonverbal or in a verbal way, dependent on the possibilities of communication of the subject. Moreover, the providing of feedback following each item and the ‘showing how to do it’ by the examiner reduces the chance of the occurrence of administration bias. Drenth (1975) has indicated the SON-test as an example of culture-reduced tests, meaning that these tests only measure a limited number of culturally determined skills that they do not intend to measure. Examples of culturally determined skills are: being able to use a pencil, being capable of working with numbers, and being able to understand the instructions. Drenth has argued that it is not essential for a culture-reduced test to produce similar score distributions in different cultural groups; the only condition for a culture-reduced test is that it should not reflect skill differences determined by cultural factors. Drenth defines a culture-fair test as a culture-reduced test for the particular groups under consideration. The conception of Jensen (1980) of a culture-reduced test differs slightly from DrenthДs conception: Jensen considers a test culture-reduced when the performance on this test is only to a limited extent influenced by culturally determined familiarity with the stimulus figures and response format. Jensen has formulated the following criteria for culture-reduced tests: (a) the test has to be a performance measure, (b) instructions should be given in mime to exclude the influence of language, (3) preliminary practice items should be provided, (4) items should not depend on time, (5) items should require abstract reasoning rather than factual information and (6) problems should be designed in such a way as to ensure subjects are unable to guess from memory of similar items encountered in the past. The SON-R tests do not satisfy all of the criteria of Jensen for culture-reduced tests because with one subtest of the SON-R 5Н-17 (Hidden Pictures) a time limit is being used. Jensen has also stated that the use of abstract geometrical figures reduces the likelihood of cultural bias. In the SON-R tests various subtests contain concrete, meaningful pictures instead of abstract, geometrical figures. The subtests using meaningful picture materials might be culture-specific. The research finding that immigrant children in the Netherlands (mainly children from Morocco, Turkey, Suriname and the Dutch Antilles) perform better on the SON-R tests than on traditional intelligence tests like the WISC-R and RAKIT (Laros & Tellegen, 1991; Tellegen, Winkel, Wijnberg-Williams & Laros, 1998) provides a positive empirical indication of the culture-fairness of the SON-R for the immigrant groups in the Dutch population. One of the reasons why immigrant children attain lower mean scores on traditional intelligence tests than on nonverbal intelligence tests like the SON-R is the relative strong reliance of these tests on verbal abilities and specific knowledge learned in school. This is especially the case with the so-called omnibus intelligence tests like the various Wechsler scales which contain subtests like Information and Vocabulary which presuppose specific knowledge learned in school (Helms-Lorenz & Van de Vijver, 1995). The fact that minority groups show lower means on a test, however, does not necessarily mean that a test is culturally biased. Van de Vijver & Poortinga (1992) argued that the desirability of cultural loadings in measurement procedures is determined by the intention of the test in question. If a particular test is intended to test knowledge gained during a course at school it is quite likely that culture-specific knowledge is tested. In this case, cultural loadings in tests are unavoidable and even desirable. In general a distinction can be made between generalizations about achievements and about aptitudes. In the latter case, cultural loadings are undesirable (Helms-Lorenz & Van de Vijver, 1995). A second research result with positive implications for the culture-fairness of the SON-R tests for the immigrant groups in the Netherlands is the finding that there is no relation between their length of stay in the Netherlands and their IQ-scores, indicating that performance on the SON-R is not dependent on knowledge of the Dutch language (Laros & Tellegen, 1991). Notwithstanding the existence of the positive indications of the culture-fairness of the SON-R tests, also some negative indications are available, especially in reference to the subtests of the SON-R in which concrete, meaningful picture materials are used instead of abstract geometrical figures. Our expectation before the start of the cross-cultural validation studies with the SON-R tests, was to encounter some bias in the subtests that use meaningful picture materials because some of the pictures used seemed rather specific for western cultures. Before presenting the results of these studies, a short description of the SON-R tests will be given. II Description of the SON-R tests The SON test was originally developed in 1943 by Snijders-Oomen for use with deaf children. She intended to measure a broad spectrum of intelligence functions without being dependent on the use of oral or written language. With subsequent revisions also norms and instructions for use with hearing subjects were developed. The latest revision comprises of separate tests for younger and older children, the SON-R 2Н-7 (Tellegen et al., 1998) and the SON-R 5Н-17 (Snijders, Tellegen & Laros, 1989). In table 1 some characteristics of the tests are presented. Most subtests are related to either reasoning abilities or spatial abilities while in the SON-R 5Н-17 also a test for perceptual abilities is included. In the subtest Categories the subject has to find the common element between three pictures and select two other pictures that belong to the same category. In Situations one or more parts are missing from a drawing and the subject has to select those parts from a number of alternatives to make the drawing a meaningful whole. In Analogies the transformation of an abstract element is shown and the subject has to perform the same transformation on another element by selecting the proper alternative. In Stories cards have to be ordered to make a meaningful story. The SON-R 2Н-7 The revised version of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Test (Tellegen et al., 1988) for children between the ages of 2Н to 7 years comprises 6 subtests. In sequence of administration the subtests are: Mosaics, Categories, Puzzles, Analogies, Situations and Patterns. In the subtest Mosaics the child is asked to copy different mosaic patterns with red/white squares. In the first part of the subtest Categories the child has to sort cards based on the category they belong; in the second part two out of five pictures have to be chosen, which are missing in a certain category of pictures. In the first part of Puzzles, three pieces have to be copied in a frame to resemble an example; in the second part the child is asked to form a whole from three to six puzzle pieces. In the first part of Analogies the child is required to sort three to five forms according to form, colour, and size into two compartments. In part two of Analogies a geometric figure changes in one or more aspects to form another figure. To obtain a similar transformation with a second figure, the child is asked to choose the correct alternative. In the fist part of Situations with items showing only the upper halves of four pictures, the child is asked to find the missing halves. In the second part of Situations the task is to indicate the missing parts of drawings of concrete situations. In Patterns the child is asked to copy several patterns with a pencil. The subtests Mosaics, Puzzles and Patterns reflect spatial abilities, while the remaining subtests Categories, Analogies and Situations are more directed to abstract and concrete reasoning abilities. The administration of the SON-R 2Н-7 occurs individually; the mean administration time of the SON-R 2Н-7 amounts to 50 minutes. A very important element of the instructions exist in the ‘showing how to do it’ of the examiner of a part of the items. Another very important aspect of the test administration is the feedback that the examiner offers after each item. The feedback offered with the SON-R 2Н-7 goes beyond the feedback given with the SON-R 5Н-17; the child is not only informed whether the answer was right or wrong, but the examiner helps the child to find the correct solution. Because of this aspect the SON-R 2Н-7 has more similarities with a learning potential test than with a traditional test of intelligence (Tellegen & Laros, 1993a). The standardization of the SON-R 2Н-7 is based on a nationwide sample of 1124 children varying in age from 2 years and 3 months to 7 years and three months. The reliability (alpha stratified) of the total score of the SON-R 2Н-7 increases from .86 at 2Н years to .92 at 7Н years with a mean value of .90. The generalizability of the total score (alpha) increases from .71 at 2Н years to .82 at 7Н years with a mean value of .78. The average reliability of the subtests is .72. The test-retest correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with an interval of 3 months is .79. Besides a total IQ-score on the SON-R 2Н-7 also scores on the Performance Scale and Reasoning Scale are being calculated. The score on the Performance Scale is based on the three performance subtests Mosaics, Puzzles and Patterns, and the score on the Reasoning Scale is based on the three reasoning subtests Categories, Analogies and Situations. The validity of the SON-R 2Н-7 has been investigated through various validation studies in the Netherlands and in other countries like Great Britain, the USA, and Australia by comparing the results on this test with results on other intelligence- and language development tests. The results of the studies outside the Netherlands will be described in the third part of this paper. The results on the SON-R 2Н-7 have been compared in the Netherlands with the following tests: the WISC-R, the WPPSI-R, the TONI-2, the Stutsman, the Kaufman-ABC, the BOS 2-30, the LDT, the RAKIT, the TOMAL, the DTVP-2 and the Reynell and Schlichting language development tests. The sample size of the various validation studies varies from 26 to 558 subjects; the mean sample size amounts to 118 subjects. The 21 correlations of the SON-R 2Н-7 with other non-verbal (intelligence) tests vary from .45 to .83 and have a mean value of .65. The 12 correlations with general intelligence measures vary from .54 to .87 with a mean of .65. The 19 correlations of the SON-R 2Н-7 with measures for verbal ability and verbal intelligence vary from .20 to .71 and have a mean value of .48. With some of the general intelligence tests it is possible to calculate the correlation with the performance scale, the verbal scale and with the total score. In all of these cases the correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the performance scale was higher than the correlation with the verbal scale. These diverse validation studies support the divergent and convergent validity of the SON-R 2Н-7, but the highly varying correlations imply that substantial differences between the scores on the SON-R 2Н-7 and on other intelligence tests can appear. Possible explanations for these highly varying correlations are: differences between the contents of the SON-R and other intelligence tests, differences in the test procedure of the SON-R and the various other tests, the very young age at which the children were tested and the great interval of time between the application of the tests. The SON-R 5Н-17 The revised version of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal intelligence test (Snijders, Tellegen & Laros, 1989) for children and adolescents between the ages of 5Н to 17 years consists of 7 subtests. In sequence of administration the 7 subtests are: Categories, Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns, Situations, Analogies and Stories. In Categories a child has to choose two out of five pictures, which are missing in a certain category of pictures. The task in Mosaics consists of copying figures with red/white squares. In Hidden Pictures the task is to find a given picture that is hidden several times in a bigger drawing. In Patterns a part of a particular pattern or line is missing: the child has to draw the missing part with a pencil. The task in Situations is to indicate the missing parts of drawings of concrete situations. In Analogies geometrical figures are presented with the problem format A : B = C : D; the child has to discover the principle behind the transformation A : B and apply it to figure C to find the correct figure D out of for alternatives. In Stories the child has to order a number of cards in such a way that they form a logical story. Categories, Situations and Analogies are multiple choice tests, while Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Stories are so-called ‘action’ tests. In action tests the solution has to be sought in an active manner which makes observation of behaviour possible. The SON-R 5Н-17 can be divided into four types of tests according to their contents: abstract reasoning tests (Categories & Analogies), concrete reasoning tests (Situations & Stories), spatial tests (Mosaics & Patterns) and perceptual tests (Hidden Pictures). Principal components analysis (PCA) has been performed on the subtest correlations to obtain empirical confirmation of the theoretical dimensions of the test. Although for the youngest age groups the four theoretical dimensions were supported by the loadings on the first four varimax rotated components, across all age groups the two component solution with a ‘reasoning’ and a ‘spatial’ component provided more consistent results. The SON-R 5Н-17 is administered individually; the average administration time amounts 1Н hours. The role of time scoring is kept to a minimum; only with the subtest Hidden Pictures an effective time is being used. For the other subtests sufficient time is allowed for the answering of each item. In the following two important aspects the administration procedure of the SON-R shows differences with the procedure used in traditional intelligence tests: (1) the providing of feedback following each item, and (2) the use of an adaptive procedure. The feedback given during the application of the SON-R 5Н-17 is restricted to informing the examinee whether the answer was right or wrong. The feedback clarifies the instructions and gives the child the opportunity to learn from his own errors and successes and to adjust his problem solving strategy. With the used test procedure of the SON-R each item becomes an opportunity to learn and adjust (Tellegen & Laros, 1993). The adaptive procedure is made possible by dividing the subtests in two or three parallel series of about 10 items; every child starts with the easiest item of the first series. Each series is broken off after two errors; the starting point for the next series is determined by the score on the preceding series. In this way, the administration of items is determined by the subjectДs individual performance and the presentation is limited to the most relevant items for each subject. On the average the number of items presented with the adaptive procedure is 50% of the total number of items in the subtests while the maximum number to presented amounts to about 60%. The standardization of the SON-R 5Н-17 is based on a nationwide sample of 1350 children and adolescents varying in age from 6 to 14 years. The reliability coefficient (alpha stratified) of the total score of the test increases from .90 at six years to .94 at fourteen years with a mean value of .93. The generalizability of the total score (alpha) increases from .81 at six years to .88 at fourteen years with a mean value of .85. The average reliability of the subtests is .76. The validity of the SON-R 5Н-17 is evident from the clear relationship with different indicators of school career such as school type, class repetition and school report marks. The mean multiple correlation of the SON-R with these indicators of school career amounts to .59. For children in the age group of 7 to 9 years the multiple correlation is .54, for children in the age group 10-11 years .60, and for children in the age group 13-14 years the multiple correlation increases to .63. III Cross-cultural studies with the SON-R 2Н-7 Research in Australia The validity study with the SON-R 2Н-7 in Australia was executed in 1996 in Victoria under supervision of Jo Jenkinson of the Deakin University in co-operation with the University of Groningen (Jenkinson, Roberts, Dennehy & Tellegen, 1996; Tellegen, 1997). The study is based on 155 subjects, 72 boys and 83 girls, with a mean age of 4 years and 5 months (standard deviation 10 months). Within the group of 155 children three groups can be differentiated: children without specific handicaps (N=59); hearing impaired children (N=59), and children with a developmental retardation (N=37). In this research both the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence – Revised (WPPSI-R) and the SON-R 2Н-7 were administrated in changing order; the mean interval between applications was 20 days. The SON-R 2Н-7 was administered according to the standard test procedure by psychology students from the University of Groningen, while the WPSSI-R was administrated by Australian psychologists. The hearing impaired children and the children with a developmental retardation only did the performance scale of the WPPSI-R. Results The correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the WPPSI-R in the total Australian sample amounts to .78. Within the three different groups the correlation between the performance scale of the WPSS-R and the SON-R 2Н-7 was .74, .74 and .75. Within the non-handicapped group the correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the verbal scale (.54) is lower than the correlation with the performance scale (.74) of the WPPSI-R. The scores on the SON-R 2Н-7 are on average 5 points lower than the scores on the WPSSI-R. Research in the USA The validation study executed in the USA (West Virginia) supervised by Stephen OДKeefe of the West-Virginia Graduate College implied the application of the SON-R 2Н-7 and five other cognitive tests. The tests that were applied were the following: the WPPSI-R, the Kaufman-ABC, the McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities (MSCA), the Peabody Picture and Vocabulary Test - Revised (PPVT-R) and the Preschool Language Scale-3 (PLS-3). The SON-R 2Н-7 was partly administrated by psychology students from the University of Groningen, partly by psychologists from West Virginia. The amount of time between the administration of the SON-R 2Н-7 and the other tests generally was very short; in the majority of the cases the other test was applied on the same day. The PLS-3 was not administrated during this study; the test scores on the PLS-3 were collected on another occasion and could be used in this research. The number of children that both made the SON-R 2Н-7 and another test varied from 26 (in case of the MSCA) to 75 (in case of the WPPSI-R). Results The SON-R 2Н-7 had a correlation of .59 with the total score on the WPPSI-R; the correlations with the performance and verbal scales were .60 and .43 respectively. The average age of the 75 children that did both tests was 5.1 years. The mean total score on the SON-R 2Н-7 was more than two points lower than the total score on the WPPSI-R (94.5 versus 96.8) and nearly four points lower than the performance scale of the WPPSI-R (94.5 versus 98.3). The SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation of .66 with the Kaufman-ABC. The correlation with the simultaneous scale was much higher than with the scale for sequential processing (.58 versus .29). The correlation with the nonverbal scale of the Kaufman-ABC amounted to .61. The average age of the 31 children that did both the Kaufman-ABC and the SON-R 2Н-7 was 4.6 years. With the general cognitive index of the MSCA the SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation of .61; the correlation with the verbal scale was .48; while the correlation with the perceptual performance scale amounted to .61. The average age of the 26 children that did both tests was 4.6 years. The correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the PPVT-R was .47; the average age of the 29 children that did both tests was 5.5 years. With the total language score of the PLS-3 the SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation of .61; with the Auditory Comprehension Scale the correlation was .59, while the correlation with the Expressive Communication Scale amounted to .56. The average age of the 47 children who did both tests was 4.6 years. Research in Great Britain During this validation research in Great Britain which took place in 1996 and that was supervised by Julie Dockrell of the University of London, the SON-R 2Н-7 and the British Ability Scales (BAS) were both administrated. The BAS was administrated by psychology students from the University of London, and the SON-R was applied by psychology students from the University of Groningen. Both tests were applied in changing order to 58 children, 34 boys and 24 girls, from the first year of primary school. The mean age of the children was 6;3 years (standard deviation 3 months). The interval between test administrations varied from some days to some weeks. Within the total sample three groups of children can be distinguished: a group without specific handicaps (N=20), a group for which English is the second language (N=22), and a group with learning disabilities (N=16). Six subtests of the BAS were applied, the four subtests of the short version (Naming Vocabulary, Digit Recall, Similarities, and Matrices) and two extra nonverbal subtests (Block Design and Visual Recognition). Results The correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the short version of the BAS is .80. When the two nonverbal subtests are included the correlation augments to .87. The correlation with the verbal part (three verbal subtests) of the shortened version of the BAS was .71, while the correlation with the performance part (three nonverbal subtests) amounted to .78. The correlations in the group of children without any handicaps are considerably lower than in the other two groups (.56 versus .76 and .78). In the total English sample the SON-R IQ-scores are 7 points lower than on the short form of the BAS. The difference in IQ-scores between the group of normal children and children with learning disabilities for the SON-R 2Н-7 is 40.8 points and for the short form of the BAS 42.8 points. Conclusions of the studies in Australia, the USA, and Great Britain In the three cross-cultural studies the correlations of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the performance scales of a number of criterion tests could be compared to the correlations with the verbal scales. In all three studies the correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the performance scale of the criterion test was clearly stronger than with the verbal scale. In the Australian study the SON-R 2Н-7 showed correlations with the performance and verbal scales of the WPPSI-R of .74 and .54 respectively; in the study in the USA these correlations were .60 and .43. In the same study the SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation of .61 with the perceptual performance scale of the MSCA, and a correlation of .48 with the verbal scale of the MSCA. In the research in Great Britain the SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation with the performance part of the BAS of .78 and a correlation of .71 with the verbal part of the BAS. These correlations obtained in Australia, the USA and Great Britain support the convergent and the divergent validity of the SON-R 2Н-7. IV Cross-cultural Studies with the SON-R 5Н-17 Research in China Chinese psychology students in collaboration with Milly Judistera, a Dutch psychologist, executed the research with the SON-R 5Н-17 in China, which took place in 1996. The study was supervised in China by Professor Zhang Hou Can of the Beijing Normal University. This study was a pilot study as a preparation of the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5Н-17 for China. All 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-7 were administrated according to the standard test procedure by Chinese psychology students to a sample of 302 Chinese children, consisting of 165 boys and 137 girls. To make the administration of the test possible, the instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17 were translated into the Chinese language. The Chinese students were trained in the administration of the SON-R 5Н-17 by Milly Judistira with help of an English speaking Chinese psychology student as an interpreter. The Chinese subjects were tested in the following age groups: 6Н-year-olds (103), 11Н-year-olds (94), and 14Н-year-olds (105). The children came from Beijing (23), Tianjin (81), Miyun (77) and Guangrao (121). The sampling procedure used was not a random procedure; the schools were chosen on basis of existing contacts with the University of Beijing, and within the schools children were chosen by the teachers. Although the teachers claimed to have chosen the children in a random manner, there is no guarantee that this really was the case. The research results therefore have to be interpreted with some caution. Psychometric characteristics The generalizabilty coefficient (alpha) of the total score of the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Chinese sample increases from .76 at 6Н years to .82 at 14Н years with a mean value of .80. These values are lower than the ones found for the Dutch standardization sample; here the generalizability of the total score increased from .81 at 6Н years to .88 at 14Н years with a mean value of .85. The generalizability coefficient is computed by the usual coefficient alpha in which the subtests are the unit of analysis; the number of subtests and the mean correlation between the subtests determine this coefficient. The mean correlation between the 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 was lower for the three Chinese age groups than for the comparable age groups of the Dutch sample (.31, .40, and .42 versus .37, .50 and .51). The mean of the standardized total score obtained by the Chinese children was quite close to the mean standardized total score of the Dutch norm group (98.9 versus 100). The mean scores of the Chinese children on Categories, Situations and Stories, all subtests that use meaningful picture materials, were lower in comparison with the Dutch norm group (respectively 93.6, 91.6, and 95.3 versus 100). The mean of these three subtests amounts to 93.5. The mean scores of the Chinese children on Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies, all subtests using non-meaningful picture material such as geometrical forms, were 96.9, 101.9, 104.2 and 108.1. The mean of these four subtests amounts to 102.8 and is higher in comparison to the mean score of the four subtests in the Dutch norm group (100). The difference found in the Chinese sample between the mean score of the subtests with meaningful picture material (93.5) and the mean score of the subtests with non-meaningful picture material (102.8) is significant at the 5% level. This result is an indication that the Chinese children had more difficulties with the subtests that use meaningful picture materials than with the subtests using non-meaningful picture materials. The relative low scores of the Chinese children on Categories, Situations and Stories were conform to expectations beforehand; the meaningful pictures used in these subtests were not expected to be familiar to cultures very different from the Dutch culture. In one of the items of the subtest Categories, for instance, people leaving a church is shown; such a situation did appear not to be very familiar to Chinese children. The lower mean score on Mosaics (96.9 versus 100) does not correspond with earlier expectations since the item material of this subtest consist of abstract geometrical figures which according to Jensen (1980) reduces the probability of cultural bias. The Chinese children did not show any problems with the other two subtests containing abstract geometrical figures; on these subtests, Patterns and Analogies, they even showed higher mean scores than their Dutch colleagues (104.2 and 108.1 versus 100). The lower score on Mosaics might be a result of the fact that the majority of the Chinese children were not tested with the original version of the subtest Mosaics. Due to financial restrictions there was only one original SON-R 5Н-17 test available for the research in China; in order to be able to test various children in the same period of time a number of copies of the test were made. The squares of the copied version of Mosaics did not fit very well in the frame in which the mosaic patterns had to be copied. Probably, the use of test material, which was not standardized, has caused the lower score of the Chinese children on Mosaics. Factor analysis failed to show a clear similarity between the factor structure of the 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Chinese sample and in the Dutch standardization sample. In the Dutch sample Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with varimax rotation resulted in two clear factors: a ‘reasoning’ and a ‘spatial’ factor. Although in the youngest age groups four factors appeared (‘spatial’, ‘concrete reasoning’, ‘abstract reasoning’, and ‘perception’) the two factor solution offered better and more consistent results across all different age groups. In the Chinese sample PCA with varimax rotation did not provide the same results as in the Netherlands. In the Dutch research the two spatial subtests showed high loadings on the second factor (the ‘spatial’ factor) while in the Chinese study this only seems to be the case for the youngest group. Moreover, in the Dutch research Categories showed high loadings on the first factor (the ‘reasoning’ factor); but this was not the case for the eldest group of the Chinese sample. The results of the factor analysis suggest a lack of test equivalence of the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Chinese and the Dutch culture. These results, however, have to be interpreted with some caution because reservations can be made about the appropriateness of factor analysis as a method for assessing equivalence of test applications in different cultures. Hambleton & Bollwark, (1991) note in this respect that the disadvantage of factor analysis is that the results are sample dependent, since it is based on classical item statistics. Their conclusion also applies to other often used classical statistical methods to detect a possible cultural loading of a test that are sample dependent, like the comparison of p-values and the comparison of total test scores. All these methods presuppose the use of equal ability groups. Even in the case of non-equal ability groups researchers must still check that the ordering of item difficulties is the same in the two different cultures (Hambleton & Kanjee, 1995). Following the recommendation of Hambleton & Kanjee, the correlation coefficients between the ordering of the item difficulties in the two cultures have been calculated. The SpearmanДs rho correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the six subtests of the SON-R (one subtest, Hidden Pictures, does not consist of independent items so no correlations could be computed) obtained in the Chinese sample and in the Dutch sample are the following: .98 (Categories), .99 (Mosaics), .99 (Patterns), .98 (Situations), .99 (Analogies) & .98 (Stories). Although the correlations between the item difficulties in the two cultures are all very high, Categories, Situations, and Stories show a slightly lower correlation than the remaining subtests. This might be an indication of cultural bias of these subtests. The above-described psychometric characteristics of the SON-R 5Н-17 in this study with 302 Chinese children suggest that the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories might have a cultural bias. A next step in this study was an attempt to identify the sources of this possible cultural bias of the three subtests. Results of the judgmental procedure According to Hambleton (1993) both judgmental and statistical methods should be used in studies to determine the equivalence of a test in multiple languages or cultures. In this study the judgmental procedure consisted of the reviewing on the aspect of possible cultural bias of the test instructions, the testing format, the examples, and all the items of Categories, Situations and Stories for the Chinese population of children from 6 to 17 years of age. The reviewing took place during a group discussion with the Chinese psychology students. The test instructions, the testing format and the examples used in the SON-R 5Н-17 were judged by them as containing no cultural bias. The only aspect of the testing procedure that caused some problems for the Chinese administrators of the SON-R 5Н-17 was the providing of feedback after each item. Some students reported that they felt uncomfortable giving feedback because they believed that this might influence the emotions of the children. Possibly the problems with the provision of feedback is related to the fact that in the Chinese culture communication often occurs in an indirect manner. The results of the judgmental procedure with respect to the items of the three subtests are the following: 6 items of Categories (items 2b, 3b, 4b, 6a, 7a, and 9b) and 3 items of Situations (2b, 2c and 10b) were identified as being possibly culture specific. For the subtest Stories no culture specific items were identified. For these culture specific items new items have been developed that are adapted to the Chinese culture. A Chinese student of the art academy has drawn the adapted items. In the future standardization and validation research of the SON-R 5Н-17 in China the items that were identified as being culture specific will be replaced by the adapted items. Research in Peru The validation study with the SON-R 5Н-17 in Peru took place in 1996 and was executed by two psychology students from the University of Groningen, and by Peruvian psychologists. The research was supervised in Peru by Veronica Bisso Cajas, from the Consortium of Catholic Centres of Education in Lima. This study served as a preparation of the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5Н-17 for Peru. All 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-7 were administrated according to the standard test procedure by the two Dutch psychology students and by ten Peruvian psychologists. To make the administration of the test possible, the instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17 were translated into Spanish. The Peruvian psychologists were trained in the administration procedure of the SON-R 5Н-17. The test was administrated to a sample of 160 Peruvian children, consisting of 79 boys and 81 girls. The age of the children varied from 6 years to 15 years with a mean of 9;4 years. All the subjects of the Peruvian sample lived in the city of Lima, the capital of Peru; 50% of the children came from State schools and 50% private schools. The State schools in Peru are fully supported by the government; children who visit these schools generally come from families with a low SES-level and often live in very poor circumstances. The private schools are partly financed by religious congregations and private persons; children who frequent these schools generally come from families with a high or moderately high SES-level. The sampling procedure used was only partially a random procedure; the schools were chosen on basis of existing contacts with the Consortium of Catholic Centres of Education, but within the schools children were selected at random. In this research there is an over-representation of children with moderate and high SES levels. The Peruvian sample cannot be considered as representative for Peru, nor for Lima. The results of this study, therefore, cannot simply be generalised to all of Peru and have to be interpreted with caution. Psychometric characteristics The results of this study show that the Peruvian children obtained a lower mean score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the children of the Dutch norm group (94.0 versus 100). The mean scores of the Peruvian children on Categories, Situations and Stories, the subtests which use meaningful picture material, were 97.1, 91.7 and 93.1. The mean of these three subtests amounts to 93.9. The mean scores of the Peruvian children on Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies, all subtests using non-meaningful picture materials, were 91.6, 92.2, 101.4, and 98.1. The mean of these four subtests amounts to 95.8. The difference between the mean score of the subtests with meaningful picture material (93.9) and the mean score of the subtests with non-meaningful picture material (95.8) is significant at the 5% level. This finding is in accordance with expectations beforehand; Peruvian children, like the Chinese children, showed more problems with the subtests containing meaningful pictures than with the subtests containing non-meaningful pictures. To check whether the ordering of item difficulties was the same in the Peruvian sample and the Dutch sample Spearman’s rho correlation coefficients were calculated. The correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Peruvian sample and in the Dutch norm sample are .97, .98, and .97. These correlations are based on 48 children from the total sample of Peruvian children. Note that the correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Peruvian and in the Dutch sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations between the item difficulties found in the Chinese and the Dutch sample. In addition to the SON-R 5Н-17 also a Spanish version of the WISC-R was administered to all 160 children of the Peruvian sample in order to obtain information about the validity of the SON-R 5Н-17 in Peru. Since there were no Peruvian norms available for the WISC-R, norm scores were used that are based on the standardization sample of the USA (Wechsler, 1974). The correlation of the SON-R 5Н-17 with the full scale of the WISC-R was .77, with the performance scale .74 and with the verbal scale .69. These correlations are slightly lower compared to those found in a study in the Netherlands with 35 children from an outdoor psychiatric university clinic (Tellegen & Laros, 1993b). In this study the correlation of the SON-R 5Н-17 with the full scale of the WISC-R was .80, with the performance scale .80 and with the verbal scale .66. The mean IQ-score of the Peruvian sample on the WISC-R was 96.7; the mean score on the verbal scale 94.3 and the mean score on the performance scale 100.2 These scores cannot simply be compared to the mean IQ-score on the SON-R 5Н-17 because the tests have been standardized in different years; the WISC-R was standardized in 1974 and the SON-R 5Н-17 in 1988. As Flynn (1987) has observed, norms on intelligence tests are becoming stricter during the years. In a recent study (Sattler, 1992) comparing the norms of the WISC-R with those of the most recent version of the Wechsler test for children, the WISC-III (Wechsler, 1991), the norm scores on the WISC-III appeared to be lower than the norm scores on the WISC-R. In the 17 years between the two standardizations (1974-1991) the norm scores for the full scale decreased 5.3 points, for the verbal scale 2.4 points, and for the performance scale 7.4 points. Based on the differences found between the norms of the WISC-R and the WISC-III one can correct the obtained scores for the differences in years of standardization of the WISC-R and the SON-R 5Н-17. After correction, the mean norm score on the WISC-R of the Peruvian sample becomes 92.3 for the full scale, 94.1 for the performance scale and 92.3 for the verbal scale. The Peruvian children obtain, after correction, a higher score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than on the WISC-R. Results of the judgmental procedure To identify culture specific items of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories a judgmental procedure was used. With the remaining subtests (Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns, Analogies) no judgmental procedure was used, because these subtests are less likely to be culture specific. When a child responded incorrectly on an item of Categories, Situations or Stories the examiner checked, after testing, whether the pictures used in the item were understood by the child. This procedure, however, has not been followed in a systematic way; not all the children, who responded incorrectly to an item, were asked if the pictures used in that particular were familiar to them. The difference with the judgmental procedure used in the Chinese study is that there the examiners (psychology students) were asked to judge the cultural loading of the items; in this study the examinees (children) were asked to give their judgement. The results of the judgmental procedure with respect to the items of the three subtests are the following: 3 items of Categories (items 1a, 2b, and 4a) and 2 items and one example of Situations (example A, and items 2c and 4b) were identified as being possibly culture specific. Research in Brazil The research in Brazil, which took place in 1996, was executed under the supervision of Jaap Laros of the University of Brasilia, one of the authors of the SON-R tests. Six psychology students of the above-mentioned university did the actual test administration at schools. To make the administration of the test possible, the test instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17 were translated into Portuguese. The Brazilian psychology students were trained in the administration of the SON-R 5Н-17 by their supervisor. The study was a preparation for the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5Н-17 for Brazil. In this Brazilian study the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories of the SON-R 5Н-17 were administered individually to a sample of 82 Brazilian children, consisting of 41 girls and 41 boys. The age of the children varied from 7 to 14 years with a mean of 10,4 years. All children came from 2 state schools from Brasilia, the capital of Brazil. The two schools differed in respect to the SES-level of their pupils; the 36 children from the first school generally came from families with a moderate SES-level, while the 46 children from the second school principally came from families with a low SES-level. The sampling procedure used was not a totally random procedure; the schools were selected on the basis of existing contacts with the University of Brasilia, but within the schools the children were selected at random, using only their age as a selection criterion. The Brazilian sample cannot be considered to be representative for Brazil, nor for Brasilia. The results of this study should therefore be interpreted with some caution. To gain additional information on possible cultural bias, the three subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 have been administered in a nonstandard fashion. Van de Vijver & Poortinga (1997) stress the importance of nonstandard administration of tests in cross-cultural studies to evaluate the adequacy of stimulus and response formats, and of the test administration procedure. In such a nonstandard test procedure it usually is very informative to ask examinees to motivate their responses. In the standard procedure of the SON-R 5Н-17 the subtests are divided into two or three parallel series of about 10 items; each child starts with the easiest item of the first series, but with which item of the second or third series is started, depends on the performance of the child on the previous series. In the nonstandard procedure used in this study the items were offered in order of increasing difficulty; the subtests Categories and Situations with 27 and 33 items were broken off after twelve errors, while the subtest Stories with 20 items was broken off after 8 errors. With the use of this nonstandard test procedure the children responded to much more items than would have been the case if the standard adaptive procedure had used. The average number of items administrated with the adaptive procedure is 50% of the total number of items; with the nonstandard procedure this number amounts to about 90% of the total number of items. Psychometric characteristics The reliability coefficients (alpha) for the three subtests in the Brazilian sample were as follows: .85 for Categories, .87 for Situations and .82 for Stories. When corrected for the influence of age, the corrected reliability coefficients are: .76 for Categories, .82 for Situations and .76 for Stories. These values of the reliability coefficients are quite similar to the values found in a Dutch sample of 415 subjects when the three subtests were administrated without an adaptive procedure (Laros & Tellegen, 1991, page 33). The results from this research indicate further that the Brazilian children obtained a lower mean total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 (based on the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories) in comparison to the Dutch norm group (96.2 versus 100). The mean scores of the Brazilian children for Categories (94.8) and Situations (95,0) are relatively low in comparison with the Dutch norm group (100); the mean score of the Brazilian sample on Stories (97.5) comes close to the mean score of their Dutch colleagues. The children of the school with a comparatively low SES-level seemed to have more difficulties with Categories and Situations than the children of the school with a higher SES-level. The mean score of the low SES-group (N=46) on the three subtests was 94.8 while the mean scores on the three subtests were as follows: Categories 92.9, Situations 92.5 and Stories 97.0. It can be concluded that Brazilian children had more problems with Categories and Situations than with Stories. This trend seems to get stronger for Brazilian children with a low SES-level. The Spearman’s rho correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Brazilian sample and in the Dutch norm sample are .97, .92, and .96. The relative low correlation coefficient for the subtest Situations might be an indication of item bias in this subtest, but might also reflect the different test administration procedures that were used in the Dutch and the Brazilian research. If the latter were the case, the use of the non-standard administration procedure would have had more effect on the item difficulties of Situations than on the item difficulties of the other two subtests. In addition to the administration of the three subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17, other data of the 82 Brazilian children were gathered in order to obtain information about the validity of the subtests. School marks on mathematics, science, and Portuguese were collected for every child of the Brazilian sample. The school marks give an indication of the school achievement of the children. The children were also evaluated on their motivation, cooperation and concentration by their schoolteachers and by the psychology students that administrated (a part of) the SON-R 5Н-17. Of the three subtests, the report marks showed the highest correlations with the subtest Categories: science (.61); mathematics (.59), and Portuguese (.38); they showed the lowest correlations with the subtest Stories: science (.26); mathematics (.36), and Portuguese (.29). The correlations of the report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 are as following: science (.52); mathematics (.49), and Portuguese (.38). The multiple correlation of the report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 amounts to .60. The correlations of report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Dutch norm sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations found in the Brazilian sample. Considering the fact that in the Brazilian study the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 was based on only three instead of all seven subtests, the correlations in this study are quite high. The judgment of the teachers on motivation, cooperation and concentration of their pupils correlated higher with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the judgment of the psychology students. When the judgment scores of the teachers and the psychology students were combined into a mean score, these scores showed a higher correlation with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the scores based on the judgment of the teachers alone. The correlation of the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 with the mean score on motivation is .40, with the mean score on cooperation .45, and with the mean score on concentration .19. The multiple correlation of the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 with the mean scores on motivation, cooperation and concentration is .50. Results of the judgmental procedure The judgmental procedure used in this research consisted of the following: when a child responded incorrectly on an example or an item the examiner checked, immediately after the incorrect answer, whether the child understood the pictures that were used in the item. This procedure was followed in a systematic way, and formed the basis on which conclusions were made regarding the cultural specificity of the items. For the subtest Categories the judgmental procedure implied that after each incorrectly answered item the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with eight figures. [Each item of the subtest Categories is build up out of eight figures; three figures define the category, and five figures are the alternatives from which the child has to choose two that pertain to the category]. In case of the subtest Situations the procedure implied that after each incorrectly answered item, the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with five to fourteen figures. The procedure implied for the subtest Stories that the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with four to seven figures for every incorrectly answered item. As a consequence of this time consuming test procedure the amount of time needed to administer the three subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 came close to an hour. The results obtained with this judgmental procedure indicate that the Brazilian children had no problems understanding the subtest instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17. On the basis of the answers that the children provided with respect to their (un)familiarity with the figures used in the items, 14 items were identified as being possibly culture-specific; 10 items of Categories (items 2b, 2c, 3a, 4a, 4b, 5c, 6a, 8a, 8c and 9c) and 4 items of Situations (items 2b, 3c, 4a, and 10b). The criterion which was used to classify an item as being possibly culture specific was the following: when one of the figures that form an item was indicated by more than 5% of the Brazilian sample as being unfamiliar an item was classified as being possibly culture specific. Maybe this criterion might be a little too strict, considering the large amount of items of the subtest Categories that were classified as possibly culture specific. In case of the subtest Categories twice as many figures used in the alternatives were unfamiliar to the Brazilian children than       !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~€§џџџthe figures that defined the category. With the subtest Situations, however, twice as many ‘main’ figures were identified as unfamiliar than the figures used in the alternatives. For the subtest Stories no adaptations for the Brazilian culture were found to be necessary. Conclusions of the studies in China, Peru and Brazil. In the cross-cultural validation studies in China and Peru, where all seven subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 were administrated, the average of the mean scores on the three subtests with meaningful picture materials (Categories, Situations and Stories) was significantly lower at 5% level than the average of the mean scores on the four remaining subtests that contain non-meaningful picture materials (Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies). This research finding is in accordance with our expectations beforehand that were partially based on the theoretical considerations of Jensen (1980) about culture-fair tests. This result indicates a possible cultural bias in the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories. Another indication of possible bias is given by the correlation between the item difficulties in the Dutch norm group and the item difficulties in different cultures. The correlation coeffcients give an indication of the extent in which the ordering of item difficulties is the same in the two different cultures. A different ordering of the items might indicate that the items do not have the same meaning for two different cultural groups. The Spearman’s rho correlation coefficients for the subtests Mosaics, Patterns, and Analogies in the Chinese study were all .99. The correlation coefficients for Categories in the Chinese, Peruvian, and Brazilian study are respectively .98, .97, and .97; for Situations .98, .98, and .92; for Stories .98, .97, and .96. Although all the correlation coefficients are quite high, the correlations for the three subtests Categories, Situations and Stories in which meaningful picture materials are used, are somewhat lower which might indicate possible bias in these subtests. The lowest correlations were found in the Brazilian sample, but there the nonstandard test procedure makes a straightforward comparison with the item difficulties in the Dutch sample problematic. The reliability coefficients of the subtests in the three studies are comparable with the coefficients found in the Dutch sample, although the values in the Dutch sample are somewhat higher. In the Chinese study, the only study where a factor analysis was performed, the resulting factor structure failed to show a clear similarity with the factor structure in the Dutch sample. This might be an indication of the cultural loading of some of the subtests. In the Peruvian and Brazilian study clear indications of the validity of the SON-R 5Н-17 were found. The SON-R 5Н-17 showed a relatively high correlation with the WISC-R (.77) in the Peruvian study. In the Brazilian study the standardized total score based on three subtests of the SON-R showed satisfactory correlations with school marks on science (.52); mathematics (.49), and Portuguese (.38). The correlations of report marks with the total score on the SON-R based on 7 subtests in the Dutch sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations found in the Brazilian sample. In the Brazilian study the total score on the SON-R, based on three subtests, correlated .40 with motivation, .45 with cooperation and .19 with concentration. In all three studies a judgmental procedure was used for the identification of item bias in the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories. In the Chinese study the Chinese psychology students who applied the SON-R 5Н-17 reviewed the items on the aspect of possible cultural bias. In the Peruvian and Brazilian study the children who responded incorrectly to an item were asked if the pictures that were used in that item were understood by them. As a result of this procedure 14 of the 33 items (42%) of the subtest Categories have been identified as possibly culture specific. One of these items has been identified as culture specific in all three studies (item 2b), 3 items were identified as biased in two studies (items 4a, 4b and 6a) and 9 items were identified as biased in just one study (items 1a, 2c, 3a, 3b, 5c, 7a, 8a, 8c, and 9c). For the subtest Situations 6 of the 33 items (18%) and one example were identified as possibly culture specific. Three of the items were identified in two different studies (items 2b, 2c, and 10b); the remaining 3 items were identified as biased in just one study (items 3c, 4a, 4b). The example that was identified as culture specific (example A) was identified in only one study. V General Conclusions The research results obtained in various countries for both the SON-R 2Н-7 and the SON-R 5Н-17 indicate that both tests can be used in cultures that are different from the Dutch culture. The validity-coefficients of both SON-R tests encountered in various countries are comparable to the validity-coefficients found in the Dutch norm sample. For the SON-R 5Н-17, however, some adaptations will have to be made in the subtests Categories and Situations. For the subtest Categories 42% of the items will have be adapted, while for the subtest Situations 18% of the items and one example will have to be adapted. For the other subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 no adaptations have to be made. Although no specific research have been done to item bias of the SON-R 2Н-7, adaptations of this test seems to be less necessary. For this young age group the test uses only very simple pictures. In the construction phase of this test special attention was paid to possible item bias. The research result that immigrant children in the Netherlands had the same mean score on the subtests that use meaningful picture materials as on the subtests that use non-meaningful picture materials such as geometrical forms, is an empirical argument indicating the culture-fairness of the SON-R 2Н-7. Only future empirical research will tell whether the impression is correct that for cross-cultural use of the SON-R 2Н-7 no adaptations are necessary. VI References Anastasi, A. (1989). Psychological testing (6th edition). New York: Macmillan. Brouwer, A., Koster, M. & Veenstra, B. (1995). Validation of the Snijders-Oomen Test (SON-R2Н-7) for Dutch and Australian children with disabilities. Groningen: Internal Report, Department of Educational and Personality Psychology. Ceci, S.J. (1991). How much does schooling influence general intelligence and its cognitive components? A reassessment of the evidence. Developmental Psychology, 27, 703-722. Cooper, C.R. & Denner, J. (1998). 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Psychological Measurement in China. International Journal of Psychology, 23, 101-117. Table 1 Characteristics of the SON-tests in the Netherlands SON-R 2Н-7 SON-R 5Н-17 age range 2;0 – 7;11 years 5;6 – 16;11 years N sample 1124 1350 N subtests 6 7 reasoning abilities Categories Categories Situations Situations Analogies Analogies ---- Stories spatial abilities Mosaics Mosaics Patterns Patterns Puzzles ---- perceptual abilities ---- Hidden Pictures administration time 50 min. 90 min. mean reliability subtests .72 .76 reliability total score .90 .93 generalizability total score .78 .85 Table 2 Characteristics of the research with the SON-R outside The Netherlands SON-R 2Н-7 Australia Great-Britain United States N of subjects 155 58 75/31/26/29/47 Age 4;5 (0;10) 6;3 (0;3) 5;1/4;7/4;7/5;6/4;7 Correlation with criterion test .78 (WPPSI-R PIQ) .87 (BAS 6 subt.) .59 (WPPSI-R FSIQ) .66 (K-ABC) .61 (MSCA) .47 (PPVT-R) .61 (PLS-3) SON-R 5Н-17 China Peru Brazil N of subjects 302 160 82 Age 11;6 9;4 10;5 Correlation with criterion test - .77 (WISC-R FSIQ) .60 (school marks) Items with problems: Categories 6 3 10 Situations 3 2 4 Stories 0 0 0 W PAGE 18 With the latest revision and standardization in the Netherlands of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Tests, various cross-cultural validation studies have been initiated. The objective of these studies was to verify to which degree the SON-R tests can be used with cultures different from the cultures in Western Europe in general, and different from the cultures in the Netherlands in particular. In other words, the goal of these studies was to discern if, and to what extent adaptations of the material (e.g., test instructions, testing format, examples, items) of the SON-R tests are required for cross-national and cross-cultural use. The reason of the adaptation of the SON-R tests is to be able to assess in a fair way the construct of intelligence in multiple cultures. I A crucial phase in the adaptation of conventional tests is the translation of the instrument from the source language into a target language. To obtain an equivalent test in another language or culture not only a translation is needed that preserves the meaning of the verbal test materials, but also additional changes may be necessary to insure the equivalence of the versions of the test in multiple languages or cultures, such as those affecting item format and testing procedures. (Hambleton, 1993). Close correspondence between the original version and the translated version is required before reliance can be placed on results based on translated tests. In addition to using effective translation practices, test users also need to examine the psychometric properties of translated tests (Ellis, 1995). The adaptation of nonverbal tests for multiple cultures does not include the difficult and often very problematic test translation phase and is therefore much less complicated than the adaptation process of (partly) verbal tests. PAGE 18 The fact that the adaptation process of nonverbal tests is much less complicated than the one needed for intelligence tests which use written or spoken language is one of the great advantages of nonverbal intelligence tests. The circumstance that nonverbal intelligence tests often do not need translation, does not automatically mean that there is no need for empirical studies on the equivalence of their applications for different cultures. Van de Vijver and Poortinga (1997) noted that when a psychological instrument developed in one society is applied in a different cultural context, invariance of psychometric properties like reliability and validity cannot be merely assumed, but has to be empirically demonstrated. The occurrence of bias can change the psychometric properties of an instrument when it is used in a different culture. Bias can appear at various levels; at test-, subtest-, or at item-level. A test, subtest, or an item is biased if it does not measure the same psychological trait across cultural groups (Van de Vijver, 1998). Three different types of bias can be differentiated, construct bias, method bias and item bias (Van de Vijver & Poortinga, 1997). A test shows construct bias if the construct measured is not identical across different cultural groups. Method bias occurs as a consequence of nuisance variables due to method-related factors. Three sorts of method bias can be distinguished: sample bias, instrument bias and administration bias. Sample bias occurs when the samples are incomparable on aspects other than the target variable. Instrument bias is related to characteristics of the instrument that are not identical for different culture groups. An example of this kind of bias is stimulus familiarity. The third type of method bias occurs when there are problems related with the administration of a test. This type of bias can occur when communication problems arise because of the insufficient knowledge of the subject of the language that the examiner uses. Item bias occurs if persons with the same amount of the trait being estimated, but belonging to different groups have different probabilities of making a specific response to the item. PAGE 1 The probability that administration bias will occur with a nonverbal intelligence test like the SON-R is low as that the instructions are given in a nonverbal or in a verbal way, dependent on the possibilities of communication of the subject. Moreover, the providing of feedback following each item and the ‘showing how to do it’ by the examiner reduces the chance of the occurrence of administration bias. PAGE 2 The research finding that immigrant children in the Netherlands (mainly children from Morocco, Turkey, Suriname and the Dutch Antilles) perform better on the SON-R tests than on traditional intelligence tests like the WISC-R and RAKIT (Laros & Tellegen, 1991; Tellegen, Winkel, Wijnberg-Williams & Laros, 1998) provides a positive empirical indication of the culture-fairness of the SON-R for the immigrant groups in the Dutch population. One of the reasons why immigrant children attain lower mean scores on traditional intelligence tests than on nonverbal intelligence tests like the SON-R is the relative strong reliance of these tests on verbal abilities and specific knowledge learned in school. This is especially the case with the so-called omnibus intelligence tests like the various Wechsler scales which contain subtests like Information and Vocabulary which presuppose specific knowledge learned in school (Helms-Lorenz & Van de Vijver, 1995). The fact that minority groups show lower means on a test, however, does not necessarily mean that a test is culturally biased. Van de Vijver & Poortinga (1992) argued that the desirability of cultural loadings in measurement procedures is determined by the intention of the test in question. If a particular test is intended to test knowledge gained during a course at school it is quite likely that culture-specific knowledge is tested. In this case, cultural loadings in tests are unavoidable and even desirable. In general a distinction can be made between generalizations about achievements and about aptitudes. In the latter case, cultural loadings are undesirable (Helms-Lorenz & Van de Vijver, 1995). PAGE 2 PAGE 3 A second research result with positive implications for the culture-fairness of the PAGE 14 Notwithstanding the existence of the positive indications of the culture-fairness of the SON-R tests, also some negative indications are available, especially in reference to the subtests of the SON-R in which concrete, meaningful picture materials are used instead of abstract geometrical figures. Our expectation before the start of the cross-cultural validation studies with the SON-R tests, was to encounter some bias in the subtests that use meaningful picture materials because some of the pictures used seemed rather specific for western cultures. Before presenting the results of these studies, a short description of the SON-R tests will be given. PAGE 3 II PAGE 15 Table 1 Characteristics of the SON-tests in the Netherlands SON-R 2Н-7 SON-R 5Н-17 age range 2;0 – 7;11 years 5;6 – 16;11 years N sample 1124 1350 N subtests 6 7 reasoning abilities Categories Categories Situations Situations Analogies Analogies ---- Stories spatial abilities Mosaics Mosaics Patterns Patterns Puzzles ---- perceptual abilities ---- Hidden Pictures administration time 50 min. 90 min. mean reliability subtests .72 .76 reliability total score .90 .93 generalizability total score .78 .85 PAGE 4 Table 1 PAGE 4 Characteristics of the SON-tests in the Netherlands PAGE 4 PAGE 4 Table 1: Characteristics of the SON-tests in the Netherlands Characteristics of the SON-tests in the Netherlands The SON-R 2Н-7 The revised version of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Test (Tellegen et al., 1988) for children between the ages of 2Н to 7 years comprises 6 subtests. In sequence of administration the subtests are: Mosaics, Categories, Puzzles, Analogies, Situations and Patterns. In the subtest Mosaics the child is asked to copy different mosaic patterns with red/white squares. In the first part of the subtest Categories the child has to sort cards based on the category they belong; in the second part two out of five pictures have to be chosen, which are missing in a certain category of pictures. In the first part of Puzzles, three pieces have to be copied in a frame to resemble an example; in the second part the child is asked to form a whole from three to six puzzle pieces. In the first part of Analogies the child is required to sort three to five forms according to form, colour, and size into two compartments. In part two of Analogies a geometric figure changes in one or more aspects to form another figure. To obtain a similar transformation with a second figure, the child is asked to choose the correct alternative. In the fist part of Situations with items showing only the upper halves of four pictures, the child is asked to find the missing halves. In the second part of Situations the task is to indicate the missing parts of drawings of concrete situations. In Patterns the child is asked to copy several patterns with a pencil. The subtests Mosaics, Puzzles and Patterns reflect spatial abilities, while the remaining subtests Categories, Analogies and Situations are more directed to abstract and concrete reasoning abilities. PAGE 5 PAGE 5 The administration of the SON-R 2Н-7 occurs individually; the mean administration time of the SON-R 2Н-7 amounts to 50 minutes. A very important element of the instructions exist in the ‘showing how to do it’ of the examiner of a part of the items. Another very important aspect of the test administration is the feedback that the examiner offers after each item. The feedback offered with the SON-R 2Н-7 goes beyond the feedback given with the SON-R 5Н-17; the child is not only informed whether the answer was right or wrong, but the examiner helps the child to find the correct solution. Because of this aspect the SON-R 2Н-7 has more similarities with a learning potential test than with a traditional test of intelligence (Tellegen & Laros, 1993a). PAGE 5 The standardization of the SON-R 2Н-7 is based on a nationwide sample of 1124 children varying in age from 2 years and 3 months to 7 years and three months. The reliability (alpha stratified) of the total score of the SON-R 2Н-7 increases from .86 at 2Н years to .92 at 7Н years with a mean value of .90. The generalizability of the total score (alpha) increases from .71 at 2Н years to .82 at 7Н years with a mean value of .78. The average reliability of the subtests is .72. The test-retest correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with an interval of 3 months is .79. Besides a total IQ-score on the SON-R 2Н-7 also scores on the Performance Scale and Reasoning Scale are being calculated. The score on the Performance Scale is based on the three performance subtests Mosaics, Puzzles and Patterns, and the score on the Reasoning Scale is based on the three reasoning subtests Categories, Analogies and Situations. PAGE 5 The validity of the SON-R 2Н-7 has been investigated through various validation studies in the Netherlands and in other countries like Great Britain, the USA, and Australia by comparing the results on this test with results on other intelligence- and language development tests. The results of the studies outside the Netherlands will be described in the third part of this paper. PAGE 5 The results on the SON-R 2Н-7 have been compared in the Netherlands with the following tests: the WISC-R, the WPPSI-R, the TONI-2, the Stutsman, the Kaufman-ABC, the BOS 2-30, the LDT, the RAKIT, the TOMAL, the DTVP-2 and the Reynell and Schlichting language development tests. The sample size of the various validation studies varies from 26 to 558 subjects; the mean sample size amounts to 118 subjects. PAGE 5 These diverse validation studies support the divergent and convergent validity of the SON-R 2Н-7, but the highly varying correlations imply that substantial differences between the scores on the SON-R 2Н-7 and on other intelligence tests can appear. Possible explanations for these highly varying correlations are: differences between the contents of the SON-R and other intelligence tests, differences in the test procedure of the SON-R and the various other tests, the very young age at which the children were tested and the great interval of time between the application of the tests. PAGE 5 The SON-R 5Н-17 The revised version of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal intelligence test (Snijders, Tellegen & Laros, 1989) for children and adolescents between the ages of 5Н to 17 years consists of 7 subtests. In sequence of administration the 7 subtests are: Categories, Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns, Situations, Analogies and Stories. In Categories a child has to choose two out of five pictures, which are missing in a certain category of pictures. The task in Mosaics consists of copying figures with red/white squares. In Hidden Pictures the task is to find a given picture that is hidden several times in a bigger drawing. In Patterns a part of a particular pattern or line is missing: the child has to draw the missing part with a pencil. The task in Situations is to indicate the missing parts of drawings of concrete situations. In Analogies geometrical figures are presented with the problem format A : B = C : D; the child has to discover the principle behind the transformation A : B and apply it to figure C to find the correct figure D out of for alternatives. In Stories the child has to order a number of cards in such a way that they form a logical story. Categories, Situations and Analogies are multiple choice tests, while Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Stories are so-called ‘action’ tests. In action tests the solution has to be sought in an active manner which makes observation of behaviour possible. The SON-R 5Н-17 can be divided into four types of tests according to their contents: abstract reasoning tests (Categories & Analogies), concrete reasoning tests (Situations & Stories), spatial tests (Mosaics & Patterns) and perceptual tests (Hidden Pictures). Principal components analysis (PCA) has been performed on the subtest correlations to obtain empirical confirmation of the theoretical dimensions of the test. Although for the youngest age groups the four theoretical dimensions were supported by the loadings on the first four varimax rotated components, across all age groups the two component solution with a ‘reasoning’ and a ‘spatial’ component provided more consistent results. PAGE 6 The SON-R 5Н-17 is administered individually; the average administration time amounts 1Н hours. The role of time scoring is kept to a minimum; only with the subtest Hidden Pictures an effective time is being used. For the other subtests sufficient time is allowed for the answering of each item. In the following two important aspects the administration procedure of the SON-R shows differences with the procedure used in traditional intelligence tests: (1) the providing of feedback following each item, and (2) the use of an adaptive procedure. The feedback given during the application of the SON-R 5Н-17 is restricted to informing the examinee whether the answer was right or wrong. The feedback clarifies the instructions and gives the child the opportunity to learn from his own errors and successes and to adjust his problem solving strategy. With the used test procedure of the SON-R each item becomes an opportunity to learn and adjust (Tellegen & Laros, 1993). PAGE 6 The adaptive procedure is made possible by dividing the subtests in two or three parallel series of about 10 items; every child starts with the easiest item of the first series. Each series is broken off after two errors; the starting point for the next series is determined by the score on the preceding series. In this way, the administration of items is determined by the subjectДs individual performance and the presentation is limited to the most relevant items for each subject. On the average the number of items presented with the adaptive procedure is 50% of the total number of items in the subtests while the maximum number to presented amounts to about 60%. PAGE 7 The standardization of the SON-R 5Н-17 is based on a nationwide sample of 1350 children and adolescents varying in age from 6 to 14 years. The reliability coefficient (alpha stratified) of the total score of the test increases from .90 at six years to .94 at fourteen years with a mean value of .93. The generalizability of the total score (alpha) increases from .81 at six years to .88 at fourteen years with a mean value of .85. The average reliability of the subtests is .76. The validity of the SON-R 5Н-17 is evident from the clear relationship with different indicators of school career such as school type, class repetition and school report marks. The mean multiple correlation of the SON-R with these indicators of school career amounts to .59. For children in the age group of 7 to 9 years the multiple correlation is .54, for children in the age group 10-11 years .60, and for children in the age group 13-14 years the multiple correlation increases to .63. PAGE 7 III PAGE 12 The validity study with the SON-R 2Н-7 in Australia was executed in 1996 in Victoria under supervision of Jo Jenkinson of the Deakin University in co-operation with the University of Groningen (Jenkinson, Roberts, Dennehy & Tellegen, 1996; Tellegen, 1997). The correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the WPPSI-R in the total Australian sample amounts to .78. Within the three different groups the correlation between the performance scale of the WPSS-R and the SON-R 2Н-7 was .74, .74 and .75. Within the non-handicapped group the correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the verbal scale (.54) is lower than the correlation with the performance scale (.74) of the WPPSI-R. The scores on the SON-R 2Н-7 are on average 5 points lower than the scores on the WPSSI-R. The validation study executed in the USA (West Virginia) supervised by Stephen OДKeefe of the West-Virginia Graduate College implied the application of the SON-R 2Н-7 and five other cognitive tests. The tests that were applied were the following: the WPPSI-R, the Kaufman-ABC, the McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities (MSCA), the Peabody Picture and Vocabulary Test - Revised (PPVT-R) and the Preschool Language Scale-3 (PLS-3). The SON-R 2Н-7 had a correlation of .59 with the total score on the WPPSI-R; the correlations with the performance and verbal scales were .60 and .43 respectively. The average age of the 75 children that did both tests was 5.1 years. The mean total score on the SON-R 2Н-7 was more than two points lower than the total score on the WPPSI-R (94.5 versus 96.8) and nearly four points lower than the performance scale of the WPPSI-R (94.5 versus 98.3). The SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation of .66 with the Kaufman-ABC. The correlation with the simultaneous scale was much higher than with the scale for sequential processing (.58 versus .29). The correlation with the nonverbal scale of the Kaufman-ABC amounted to .61. The average age of the 31 children that did both the Kaufman-ABC and the SON-R 2Н-7 was 4.6 years. PAGE 8 With the general cognitive index of the MSCA the SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation of .61; the correlation with the verbal scale was .48; while the correlation with the perceptual performance scale amounted to .61. The average age of the 26 children that did both tests was 4.6 years. PAGE 8 The correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the PPVT-R was .47; the average age of the 29 children that did both tests was 5.5 years. PAGE 8 With the total language score of the PLS-3 the SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation of .61; with the Auditory Comprehension Scale the correlation was .59, while the correlation with the Expressive Communication Scale amounted to .56. The average age of the 47 children who did both tests was 4.6 years. PAGE 9 During this validation research in Great Britain which took place in 1996 and that was supervised by Julie Dockrell of the University of London, the SON-R 2Н-7 and the British Ability Scales (BAS) were both administrated. The BAS was administrated by psychology students from the University of London, and the SON-R was applied by psychology students from the University of Groningen. Both tests were applied in changing order to 58 children, 34 boys and 24 girls, from the first year of primary school. The mean age of the children was 6;3 years (standard deviation 3 months). The interval between test administrations varied from some days to some weeks. Within the total sample three groups of children can be distinguished: a group without specific handicaps (N=20), a group for which English is the second language (N=22), and a group with learning disabilities (N=16). The correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the short version of the BAS is .80. When the two nonverbal subtests are included the correlation augments to .87. The correlation with the verbal part (three verbal subtests) of the shortened version of the BAS was .71, while the correlation with the performance part (three nonverbal subtests) amounted to .78. The correlations in the group of children without any handicaps are considerably lower than in the other two groups (.56 versus .76 and .78). In the total English sample the SON-R IQ-scores are 7 points lower than on the short form of the BAS. The difference in IQ-scores between the group of normal children and children with learning disabilities for the SON-R 2Н-7 is 40.8 points and for the short form of the BAS 42.8 points. In the three cross-cultural studies the correlations of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the performance scales of a number of criterion tests could be compared to the correlations with the verbal scales. In all three studies the correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the performance scale of the criterion test was clearly stronger than with the verbal scale. In the Australian study the SON-R 2Н-7 showed correlations with the performance and verbal scales of the WPPSI-R of .74 and .54 respectively; in the study in the USA these correlations were .60 and .43. In the same study the SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation of .61 with the perceptual performance scale of the MSCA, and a correlation of .48 with the verbal scale of the MSCA. In the research in Great Britain the SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation with the performance part of the BAS of .78 and a correlation of .71 with the verbal part of the BAS. These correlations obtained in Australia, the USA and Great Britain support the convergent and the divergent validity of the SON-R 2Н-7. IV PAGE 9 Chinese psychology students in collaboration with Milly Judistera, a Dutch psychologist, executed the research with the SON-R 5Н-17 in China, which took place in 1996. The study was supervised in China by Professor Zhang Hou Can of the Beijing Normal University. This study was a pilot study as a preparation of the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5Н-17 for China. The generalizabilty coefficient (alpha) of the total score of the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Chinese sample increases from .76 at 6Н years to .82 at 14Н years with a mean value of .80. These values are lower than the ones found for the Dutch standardization sample; here the generalizability of the total score increased from .81 at 6Н years to .88 at 14Н years with a mean value of .85. The generalizability coefficient is computed by the usual coefficient alpha in which the subtests are the unit of analysis; the number of subtests and the mean correlation between the subtests determine this coefficient. The mean correlation between the 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 was lower for the three Chinese age groups than for the comparable age groups of the Dutch sample (.31, .40, and .42 versus .37, .50 and .51). The mean of the standardized total score obtained by the Chinese children was quite close to the mean standardized total score of the Dutch norm group (98.9 versus 100). The mean scores of the Chinese children on Categories, Situations and Stories, all subtests that use meaningful picture materials, were lower in comparison with the Dutch norm group (respectively 93.6, 91.6, and 95.3 versus 100). The mean of these three subtests amounts to 93.5. The mean scores of the Chinese children on Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies, all subtests using non-meaningful picture material such as geometrical forms, were 96.9, 101.9, 104.2 and 108.1. The mean of these four subtests amounts to 102.8 and is higher in comparison to the mean score of the four subtests in the Dutch norm group (100). The difference found in the Chinese sample between the mean score of the subtests with meaningful picture material (93.5) and the mean score of the subtests with non-meaningful picture material (102.8) is significant at the 5% level. This result is an indication that the Chinese children had more difficulties with the subtests that use meaningful picture materials than with the subtests using non-meaningful picture materials. PAGE 12 The relative low scores of the Chinese children on Categories, Situations and Stories were conform to expectations beforehand; the meaningful pictures used in these subtests were not expected to be familiar to cultures very different from the Dutch culture. In one of the items of the subtest Categories, for instance, people leaving a church is shown; such a situation did appear not to be very familiar to Chinese children. PAGE 10 Factor analysis failed to show a clear similarity between the factor structure of the 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Chinese sample and in the Dutch standardization sample. In the Dutch sample Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with varimax rotation resulted in two clear factors: a ‘reasoning’ and a ‘spatial’ factor. Although in the youngest age groups four factors appeared (‘spatial’, ‘concrete reasoning’, ‘abstract reasoning’, and ‘perception’) the two factor solution offered better and more consistent results across all different age groups. In the Chinese sample PCA with varimax rotation did not provide the same results as in the Netherlands. In the Dutch research the two spatial subtests showed high loadings on the second factor (the ‘spatial’ factor) while in the Chinese study this only seems to be the case for the youngest group. Moreover, in the Dutch research Categories showed high loadings on the first factor (the ‘reasoning’ factor); but this was not the case for the eldest group of the Chinese sample. The results of the factor analysis suggest a lack of test equivalence of the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Chinese and the Dutch culture. These results, however, have to be interpreted with some caution because reservations can be made about the appropriateness of factor analysis as a method for assessing equivalence of test applications in different cultures. Hambleton & Bollwark, (1991) note in this respect that the disadvantage of factor analysis is that the results are sample dependent, since it is based on classical item statistics. Their conclusion also applies to other often used classical statistical methods to detect a possible cultural loading of a test that are sample dependent, like the comparison of p-values and the comparison of total test scores. All these methods presuppose the use of equal ability groups. Even in the case of non-equal ability groups researchers must still check that the ordering of item difficulties is the same in the two different cultures (Hambleton & Kanjee, 1995). Following the recommendation of Hambleton & Kanjee, the correlation coefficients between the ordering of the item difficulties in the two cultures have been calculated. The SpearmanДs rho correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the six subtests of the SON-R (one subtest, Hidden Pictures, does not consist of independent items so no correlations could be computed) obtained in the Chinese sample and in the Dutch sample are the following: .98 (Categories), .99 (Mosaics), .99 (Patterns), .98 (Situations), .99 (Analogies) & .98 (Stories). Although the correlations between the item difficulties in the two cultures are all very high, Categories, Situations, and Stories show a slightly lower correlation than the remaining subtests. This might be an indication of cultural bias of these subtests. PAGE 19 PAGE 11 PAGE 11 The above-described psychometric characteristics of the SON-R 5Н-17 in this study with 302 Chinese children suggest that the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories might have a cultural bias. A next step in this study was an attempt to identify the sources of this possible cultural bias of the three subtests. PAGE 12 According to Hambleton (1993) both judgmental and statistical methods should be used in studies to determine the equivalence of a test in multiple languages or cultures. In this study the judgmental procedure consisted of the reviewing on the aspect of possible cultural bias of the test instructions, the testing format, the examples, and all the items of Categories, Situations and Stories for the Chinese population of children from 6 to 17 years of age. The reviewing took place during a group discussion with the Chinese psychology students. The test instructions, the testing format and the examples used in the SON-R 5Н-17 were judged by them as containing no cultural bias. The only aspect of the testing procedure that caused some problems for the Chinese administrators of the SON-R 5Н-17 was the providing of feedback after each item. Some students reported that they felt uncomfortable giving feedback because they believed that this might influence the emotions of the children. Possibly the problems with the provision of feedback is related to the fact that in the Chinese culture communication often occurs in an indirect manner. The results of the judgmental procedure with respect to the items of the three subtests are the following: 6 items of Categories (items 2b, 3b, 4b, 6a, 7a, and 9b) and 3 items of Situations (2b, 2c and 10b) were identified as being possibly culture specific. For the subtest Stories no culture specific items were identified. PAGE 19 The validation study with the SON-R 5Н-17 in Peru took place in 1996 and was executed by two psychology students from the University of Groningen, and by Peruvian psychologists. The research was supervised in Peru by Veronica Bisso Cajas, from the Consortium of Catholic Centres of Education in Lima. This study served as a preparation of the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5Н-17 for Peru. All 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-7 were administrated according to the standard test procedure by the two Dutch psychology students and by ten Peruvian psychologists. To make the administration of the test possible, the instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17 were translated into Spanish. The Peruvian psychologists were trained in the administration procedure of the SON-R 5Н-17. PAGE 13 The test was administrated to a sample of 160 Peruvian children, consisting of 79 boys and 81 girls. The age of the children varied from 6 years to 15 years with a mean of 9;4 years. All the subjects of the Peruvian sample lived in the city of Lima, the capital of Peru; 50% of the children came from State schools and 50% private schools. The State schools in Peru are fully supported by the government; children who visit these schools generally come from families with a low SES-level and often live in very poor circumstances. The private schools are partly financed by religious congregations and private persons; children who frequent these schools generally come from families with a high or moderately high SES-level. The sampling procedure used was only partially a random procedure; the schools were chosen on basis of existing contacts with the Consortium of Catholic Centres of Education, but within the schools children were selected at random. In this research there is an over-representation of children with moderate and high SES levels. The Peruvian sample cannot be considered as representative for Peru, nor for Lima. The results of this study, therefore, cannot simply be generalised to all of Peru and have to be interpreted with caution. PAGE 13 The results of this study show that the Peruvian children obtained a lower mean score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the children of the Dutch norm group (94.0 versus 100). To check whether the ordering of item difficulties was the same in the Peruvian sample and the Dutch sample Spearman’s rho correlation coefficients were calculated. The correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Peruvian sample and in the Dutch norm sample are .97, .98, and .97. These correlations are based on 48 children from the total sample of Peruvian children. Note that the correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Peruvian and in the Dutch sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations between the item difficulties found in the Chinese and the Dutch sample. PAGE 13 In addition to the SON-R 5Н-17 also a Spanish version of the WISC-R was administered to all 160 children of the Peruvian sample in order to obtain information about the validity of the SON-R 5Н-17 in Peru. Since there were no Peruvian norms available for the WISC-R, norm scores were used that are based on the standardization sample of the USA (Wechsler, 1974). PAGE 14 The correlation of the SON-R 5Н-17 with the full scale of the WISC-R was .77, with the performance scale .74 and with the verbal scale .69. These correlations are slightly lower compared to those found in a study in the Netherlands with 35 children from an outdoor psychiatric university clinic (Tellegen & Laros, 1993b). In this study the correlation of the SON-R 5Н-17 with the full scale of the WISC-R was .80, with the performance scale .80 and with the verbal scale .66. PAGE 14 The mean IQ-score of the Peruvian sample on the WISC-R was 96.7; the mean score on the verbal scale 94.3 and the mean score on the performance scale 100.2 These scores cannot simply be compared to the mean IQ-score on the SON-R 5Н-17 because the tests have been standardized in different years; the WISC-R was standardized in 1974 and the SON-R 5Н-17 in 1988. As Flynn (1987) has observed, norms on intelligence tests are becoming stricter during the years. In a recent study (Sattler, 1992) comparing the norms of the WISC-R with those of the most recent version of the Wechsler test for children, the WISC-III (Wechsler, 1991), the norm scores on the WISC-III appeared to be lower than the norm scores on the WISC-R. In the 17 years between the two standardizations (1974-1991) the norm scores for the full scale decreased 5.3 points, for the verbal scale 2.4 points, and for the performance scale 7.4 points. Based on the differences found between the norms of the WISC-R and the WISC-III one can correct the obtained scores for the differences in years of standardization of the WISC-R and the SON-R 5Н-17. After correction, the mean norm score on the WISC-R of the Peruvian sample becomes 92.3 for the full scale, 94.1 for the performance scale and 92.3 for the verbal scale. The Peruvian children obtain, after correction, a higher score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than on the WISC-R. PAGE 14 To identify culture specific items of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories a judgmental procedure was used. With the remaining subtests (Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns, Analogies) no judgmental procedure was used, because these subtests are less likely to be culture specific. When a child responded incorrectly on an item of Categories, Situations or Stories the examiner checked, after testing, whether the pictures used in the item were understood by the child. This procedure, however, has not been followed in a systematic way; not all the children, who responded incorrectly to an item, were asked if the pictures used in that particular were familiar to them. The difference with the judgmental procedure used in the Chinese study is that there the examiners (psychology students) were asked to judge the cultural loading of the items; in this study the examinees (children) were asked to give their judgement. The results of the judgmental procedure with respect to the items of the three subtests are the following: 3 items of Categories (items 1a, 2b, and 4a) and 2 items and one example of Situations (example A, and items 2c and 4b) were identified as being possibly culture specific. PAGE 15 The research in Brazil, which took place in 1996, was executed under the supervision of Jaap Laros of the University of Brasilia, one of the authors of the SON-R tests. Six psychology students of the above-mentioned university did the actual test administration at schools. To make the administration of the test possible, the test instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17 were translated into Portuguese. The Brazilian psychology students were trained in the administration of the SON-R 5Н-17 by their supervisor. The study was a preparation for the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5Н-17 for Brazil. In this Brazilian study the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories of the SON-R 5Н-17 were administered individually to a sample of 82 Brazilian children, consisting of 41 girls and 41 boys. The age of the children varied from 7 to 14 years with a mean of 10,4 years. All children came from 2 state schools from Brasilia, the capital of Brazil. The two schools differed in respect to the SES-level of their pupils; the 36 children from the first school generally came from families with a moderate SES-level, while the 46 children from the second school principally came from families with a low SES-level. The sampling procedure used was not a totally random procedure; the schools were selected on the basis of existing contacts with the University of Brasilia, but within the schools the children were selected at random, using only their age as a selection criterion. The Brazilian sample cannot be considered to be representative for Brazil, nor for Brasilia. The results of this study should therefore be interpreted with some caution. PAGE 15 To gain additional information on possible cultural bias, the three subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 have been administered in a nonstandard fashion. Van de Vijver & Poortinga (1997) stress the importance of nonstandard administration of tests in cross-cultural studies to evaluate the adequacy of stimulus and response formats, and of the test administration procedure. In such a nonstandard test procedure it usually is very informative to ask examinees to motivate their responses. In the standard procedure of the SON-R 5Н-17 the subtests are divided into two or three parallel series of about 10 items; each child starts with the easiest item of the first series, but with which item of the second or third series is started, depends on the performance of the child on the previous series. In the nonstandard procedure used in this study the items were offered in order of increasing difficulty; the subtests Categories and Situations with 27 and 33 items were broken off after twelve errors, while the subtest Stories with 20 items was broken off after 8 errors. With the use of this nonstandard test procedure the children responded to much more items than would have been the case if the standard adaptive procedure had used. The average number of items administrated with the adaptive procedure is 50% of the total number of items; with the nonstandard procedure this number amounts to about 90% of the total number of items. PAGE 15 The reliability coefficients (alpha) for the three subtests in the Brazilian sample were as follows: .85 for Categories, .87 for Situations and .82 for Stories. When corrected for the influence of age, the corrected reliability coefficients are: .76 for Categories, .82 for Situations and .76 for Stories. These values of the reliability coefficients are quite similar to the values found in a Dutch sample of 415 subjects when the three subtests were administrated without an adaptive procedure (Laros & Tellegen, 1991, page 33). The results from this research indicate further that the Brazilian children obtained a lower mean total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 (based on the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories) in comparison to the Dutch norm group (96.2 versus 100). The mean scores of the Brazilian children for Categories (94.8) and Situations (95,0) are relatively low in comparison with the Dutch norm group (100); the mean score of the Brazilian sample on Stories (97.5) comes close to the mean score of their Dutch colleagues. The children of the school with a comparatively low SES-level seemed to have more difficulties with Categories and Situations than the children of the school with a higher SES-level. The mean score of the low SES-group (N=46) on the three subtests was 94.8 while the mean scores on the three subtests were as follows: Categories 92.9, Situations 92.5 and Stories 97.0. It can be concluded that Brazilian children had more problems with Categories and Situations than with Stories. This trend seems to get stronger for Brazilian children with a low SES-level. PAGE 16 The Spearman’s rho correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Brazilian sample and in the Dutch norm sample are .97, .92, and .96. The relative low correlation coefficient for the subtest Situations might be an indication of item bias in this subtest, but might also reflect the different test administration procedures that were used in the Dutch and the Brazilian research. If the latter were the case, the use of the non-standard administration procedure would have had more effect on the item difficulties of Situations than on the item difficulties of the other two subtests. PAGE 16 In addition to the administration of the three subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17, other data of the 82 Brazilian children were gathered in order to obtain information about the validity of the subtests. School marks on mathematics, science, and Portuguese were collected for every child of the Brazilian sample. The school marks give an indication of the school achievement of the children. The children were also evaluated on their motivation, cooperation and concentration by their schoolteachers and by the psychology students that administrated (a part of) the SON-R 5Н-17. PAGE 16 Of the three subtests, the report marks showed the highest correlations with the subtest Categories: science (.61); mathematics (.59), and Portuguese (.38); they showed the lowest correlations with the subtest Stories: science (.26); mathematics (.36), and Portuguese (.29). The correlations of the report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 are as following: science (.52); mathematics (.49), and Portuguese (.38). The multiple correlation of the report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 amounts to .60. The correlations of report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Dutch norm sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations found in the Brazilian sample. Considering the fact that in the Brazilian study the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 was based on only three instead of all seven subtests, the correlations in this study are quite high. PAGE 16 The judgment of the teachers on motivation, cooperation and concentration of their pupils correlated higher with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the judgment of the psychology students. When the judgment scores of the teachers and the psychology students were combined into a mean score, these scores showed a higher correlation with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the scores based on the judgment of the teachers alone. The correlation of the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 with the mean score on motivation is .40, with the mean score on cooperation .45, and with the mean score on concentration .19. The multiple correlation of the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 with the mean scores on motivation, cooperation and concentration is .50. PAGE 17 The judgmental procedure used in this research consisted of the following: when a child responded incorrectly on an example or an item the examiner checked, immediately after the incorrect answer, whether the child understood the pictures that were used in the item. This procedure was followed in a systematic way, and formed the basis on which conclusions were made regarding the cultural specificity of the items. For the subtest Categories the judgmental procedure implied that after each incorrectly answered item the child had to indicate his or her fa‚ƒ„…†‡ˆ‰Š‹ŒŽ‘’“”•–—˜™š›œžŸ ЁЂЃЄЅІЇЈЉЊЋЌ­ЎЏАБВГДЕЖЗИЙКЛМНОПРСТУФХЦЧШЩЪЫЬЭЮЯабвгдежзийклмнопрстуфхцчшщъыьэюя№ёђѓєѕіїјљњћќ§ўџmiliarity with eight figures. [Each item of the subtest Categories is build up out of eight figures; three figures define the category, and five figures are the alternatives from which the child has to choose two that pertain to the category]. In case of the subtest Situations the procedure implied that after each incorrectly answered item, the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with five to fourteen figures. The procedure implied for the subtest Stories that the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with four to seven figures for every incorrectly answered item. As a consequence of this time consuming test procedure the amount of time needed to administer the three subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 came close to an hour. The results obtained with this judgmental procedure indicate that the Brazilian children had no problems understanding the subtest instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17. On the basis of the answers that the children provided with respect to their (un)familiarity with the figures used in the items, 14 items were identified as being possibly culture-specific; 10 items of Categories (items 2b, 2c, 3a, 4a, 4b, 5c, 6a, 8a, 8c and 9c) and 4 items of Situations (items 2b, 3c, 4a, and 10b). The criterion which was used to classify an item as being possibly culture specific was the following: when one of the figures that form an item was indicated by more than 5% of the Brazilian sample as being unfamiliar an item was classified as being possibly culture specific. Maybe this criterion might be a little too strict, considering the large amount of items of the subtest Categories that were classified as possibly culture specific. PAGE 17 In case of the subtest Categories twice as many figures used in the alternatives were unfamiliar to the Brazilian children than the figures that defined the category. With the subtest Situations, however, twice as many ‘main’ figures were identified as unfamiliar than the figures used in the alternatives. For the subtest Stories no adaptations for the Brazilian culture were found to be necessary. PAGE 17 In the cross-cultural validation studies in China and Peru, where all seven subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 were administrated, the average of the mean scores on the three subtests with meaningful picture materials (Categories, Situations and Stories) was significantly lower at 5% level than the average of the mean scores on the four remaining subtests that contain non-meaningful picture materials (Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies). This research finding is in accordance with our expectations beforehand that were partially based on the theoretical considerations of Jensen (1980) about culture-fair tests. This result indicates a possible cultural bias in the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories. Another indication of possible bias is given by the correlation between the item difficulties in the Dutch norm group and the item difficulties in different cultures. The correlation coeffcients give an indication of the extent in which the ordering of item difficulties is the same in the two different cultures. A different ordering of the items might indicate that the items do not have the same meaning for two different cultural groups. The Spearman’s rho correlation coefficients for the subtests Mosaics, Patterns, and Analogies in the Chinese study were all .99. The correlation coefficients for Categories in the Chinese, Peruvian, and Brazilian study are respectively .98, .97, and .97; for Situations .98, .98, and .92; for Stories .98, .97, and .96. Although all the correlation coefficients are quite high, the correlations for the three subtests Categories, Situations and Stories in which meaningful picture materials are used, are somewhat lower which might indicate possible bias in these subtests. The lowest correlations were found in the Brazilian sample, but there the nonstandard test procedure makes a straightforward comparison with the item difficulties in the Dutch sample problematic. PAGE 18 The reliability coefficients of the subtests in the three studies are comparable with the coefficients found in the Dutch sample, although the values in the Dutch sample are somewhat higher. PAGE 18 PAGE 18 The reliability coefficients of the subtests in the three studies are comparable with the coefficients found in the Dutch sample, although the values in the Dutch sample are somewhat higher. In the Chinese study, the only study where a factor analysis was performed, the resulting factor structure failed to show a clear similarity with the factor structure in the Dutch sample. This might be an indication of the cultural loading of some of the subtests. In the Peruvian and Brazilian study clear indications of the validity of the SON-R 5Н-17 were found. The SON-R 5Н-17 showed a relatively high correlation with the WISC-R (.77) in the Peruvian study. In the Brazilian study the standardized total score based on three subtests of the SON-R showed satisfactory correlations with school marks on science (.52); mathematics (.49), and Portuguese (.38). The correlations of report marks with the total score on the SON-R based on 7 subtests in the Dutch sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations found in the Brazilian sample. In the Brazilian study the total score on the SON-R, based on three subtests, correlated .40 with motivation, .45 with cooperation and .19 with concentration. PAGE 19 In all three studies a judgmental procedure was used for the identification of item bias in the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories. In the Chinese study the Chinese psychology students who applied the SON-R 5Н-17 reviewed the items on the aspect of possible cultural bias. In the Peruvian and Brazilian study the children who responded incorrectly to an item were asked if the pictures that were used in that item were understood by them. As a result of this procedure 14 of the 33 items (42%) of the subtest Categories have been identified as possibly culture specific. One of these items has been identified as culture specific in all three studies (item 2b), 3 items were identified as biased in two studies (items 4a, 4b and 6a) and 9 items were identified as biased in just one study (items 1a, 2c, 3a, 3b, 5c, 7a, 8a, 8c, and 9c). For the subtest Situations 6 of the 33 items (18%) and one example were identified as possibly culture specific. Three of the items were identified in two different studies (items 2b, 2c, and 10b); the remaining 3 items were identified as biased in just one study (items 3c, 4a, 4b). The example that was identified as culture specific (example A) was identified in only one study. PAGE 19 V The research results obtained in various countries for both the SON-R 2Н-7 and the SON-R 5Н-17 indicate that both tests can be used in cultures that are different from the Dutch culture. The validity-coefficients of both SON-R tests encountered in various countries are comparable to the validity-coefficients found in the Dutch norm sample. For the SON-R 5Н-17, however, some adaptations will have to be made in the subtests Categories and Situations. For the subtest Categories 42% of the items will have be adapted, while for the subtest Situations 18% of the items and one example will have to be adapted. For the other subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 no adaptations have to be made. PAGE 19 Although no specific research have been done to item bias of the SON-R 2Н-7, adaptations of this test seems to be less necessary. For this young age group the test uses only very simple pictures. In the construction phase of this test special attention was paid to possible item bias. The research result that immigrant children in the Netherlands had the same mean score on the subtests that use meaningful picture materials as on the subtests that use non-meaningful picture materials such as geometrical forms, is an empirical argument indicating the culture-fairness of the SON-R 2Н-7. Only future empirical research will tell whether the impression is correct that for cross-cultural use of the SON-R 2Н-7 no adaptations are necessary. PAGE 19 VI Table 2 Characteristics of the research with the SON-R outside The Netherlands SON-R 2Н-7 Australia Great-Britain United States N of subjects 155 58 75/31/26/29/47 Age 4;5 (0;10) 6;3 (0;3) 5;1/4;7/4;7/5;6/4;7 Correlation with criterion test .78 (WPPSI-R PIQ) .87 (BAS 6 subt.) .59 (WPPSI-R FSIQ) .66 (K-ABC) .61 (MSCA) .47 (PPVT-R) .61 (PLS-3) SON-R 5Н-17 China Peru Brazil N of subjects 302 160 82 Age 11;6 9;4 10;5 Correlation with criterion test - .77 (WISC-R FSIQ) .60 (school marks) Items with problems: Categories 6 3 10 Situations 3 2 4 Stories 0 0 0 PAGE 24 Table 2 Characteristics of the research with the SON-R outside The Netherlands SON-R 2Н-7 Australia Great-Britain United States N of subjects 155 58 75/31/26/29/47 Age 4;5 (0;10) 6;3 (0;3) 5;1/4;7/4;7/5;6/4;7 Correlation with criterion test .78 (WPPSI-R PIQ) .87 (BAS 6 subt.) .59 (WPPSI-R FSIQ) .66 (K-ABC) .61 (MSCA) .47 (PPVT-R) .61 (PLS-3) SON-R 5Н-17 China Peru Brazil N of subjects 302 160 82 Age 11;6 9;4 10;5 Correlation with criterion test - .77 (WISC-R FSIQ) .60 (school marks) Items with problems: Categories 6 3 10 Situations 3 2 4 Stories 0 0 0 PAGE 24 PAGE 20 Table 2 The correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the WPPSI-R in the total Australian sample amounts to .78. Within the three different groups the correlation between the performance scale of the WPSS-R and the SON-R 2Н-7 was .74, .74 and .75. Within the non-handicapped group the correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the verbal scale (.54) is lower than the correlation with the performance scale (.74) of the WPPSI-R. The scores on the SON-R 2Н-7 are on average 5 points lower than the scores on the WPSSI-R. Table 2 PAGE 10 PAGE 8 PAGE 8 Table 2: Characteristics of the research with the SON-R outside The Netherlands Characteristics of the research with the SON-R outside The Netherlands PAGE 8 SON-R 2Н-7 PAGE 20 PAGE 20 PAGE 10 _____________- PAGE 8 PAGE 10 PAGE 8 PAGE 8 PAGE 10 _________________________________________________________________ PAGE 20 _________________________________________________________________ PAGE 8 PAGE 8 PAGE 8 PAGE 24 en Nonverbal Intelligence Tests. PAGE 23 The conception of Jensen (1980) of a culture-reduced test differs slightly from DrenthДs conception: Jensen considers a test culture-reduced when the performance on this test is only to a limited extent influenced by culturally determined familiarity with the stimulus figures and response format. Jensen has formulated the following criteria for culture-reduced tests: (a) the test has to be a performance measure, (b) instructions should be given in mime to exclude the influence of language, (3) preliminary practice items should be provided, (4) items should not depend on time, (5) items should require abstract reasoning rather than factual information and (6) problems should be designed in such a way as to ensure subjects are unable to guess from memory of similar items encountered in the past. The SON-R tests do not satisfy all of the criteria of Jensen for culture-reduced tests because with one subtest of the SON-R 5Н-17 (Hidden Pictures) a time limit is being used. Jensen has also stated that the use of abstract geometrical figures reduces the likelihood of cultural bias. In the SON-R tests various subtests contain concrete, meaningful pictures instead of abstract, geometrical figures. The subtests using meaningful picture materials might be culture-specific. PAGE 1 PAGE 2 The 21 correlations of the SON-R 2Н-7 with other non-verbal (intelligence) tests vary from .45 to .83 and have a mean value of .65. The 12 correlations with general intelligence measures vary from .54 to .87 with a mean of .65. The 19 correlations of the SON-R 2Н-7 with measures for verbal ability and verbal intelligence vary from .20 to .71 and have a mean value of .48. With some of the general intelligence tests it is possible to calculate the correlation with the performance scale, the verbal scale and with the total score. In all of these cases the correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the performance scale was higher than the correlation with the verbal scale. PAGE 5 PAGE 6 PAGE 10 ------ PAGE 8 PAGE 8 The SON-R 2Н-7 was partly administrated by psychology students from the University of Groningen, partly by psychologists from West Virginia. The amount of time between the administration of the SON-R 2Н-7 and the other tests generally was very short; in the majority of the cases the other test was applied on the same day. The PLS-3 was not administrated during this study; the test scores on the PLS-3 were collected on another occasion and could be used in this research. The number of children that both made the SON-R 2Н-7 and another test varied from 26 (in case of the MSCA) to 75 (in case of the WPPSI-R). PAGE 20 Six subtests of the BAS were applied, the four subtests of the short version (Naming Vocabulary, Digit Recall, Similarities, and Matrices) and two extra nonverbal subtests (Block Design and Visual Recognition). PAGE 9 All 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-7 were administrated according to the standard test procedure by Chinese psychology students to a sample of 302 Chinese children, consisting of 165 boys and 137 girls. To make the administration of the test possible, the instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17 were translated into the Chinese language. The Chinese students were trained in the administration of the SON-R 5Н-17 by Milly Judistira with help of an English speaking Chinese psychology student as an interpreter. PAGE 10 The Chinese subjects were tested in the following age groups: 6Н-year-olds (103), 11Н-year-olds (94), and 14Н-year-olds (105). The children came from Beijing (23), Tianjin (81), Miyun (77) and Guangrao (121). The sampling procedure used was not a random procedure; the schools were chosen on basis of existing contacts with the University of Beijing, and within the schools children were chosen by the teachers. Although the teachers claimed to have chosen the children in a random manner, there is no guarantee that this really was the case. The research results therefore have to be interpreted with some caution. PAGE 11 The lower mean score on Mosaics (96.9 versus 100) does not correspond with earlier expectations since the item material of this subtest consist of abstract geometrical figures which according to Jensen (1980) reduces the probability of cultural bias. The Chinese children did not show any problems with the other two subtests containing abstract geometrical figures; on these subtests, Patterns and Analogies, they even showed higher mean scores than their Dutch colleagues (104.2 and 108.1 versus 100). The lower score on Mosaics might be a result of the fact that the majority of the Chinese children were not tested with the original version of the subtest Mosaics. Due to financial restrictions there was only one original SON-R 5Н-17 test available for the research in China; in order to be able to test various children in the same period of time a number of copies of the test were made. The squares of the copied version of Mosaics did not fit very well in the frame in which the mosaic patterns had to be copied. Probably, the use of test material, which was not standardized, has caused the lower score of the Chinese children on Mosaics. PAGE 11 For these culture specific items new items have been developed that are adapted to the Chinese culture. A Chinese student of the art academy has drawn the adapted items. In the future standardization and validation research of the SON-R 5Н-17 in China the items that were identified as being culture specific will be replaced by the adapted items. PAGE 12 the PAGE 13 the PAGE 13 The results of this study show that the Peruvian children obtained a lower mean score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the children of the Dutch norm group (94.0 versus 100). The mean scores of the Peruvian children on Categories, Situations and Stories, the subtests which use meaningful picture material, were 97.1, 91.7 and 93.1. The mean of these three subtests amounts to 93.9. The mean scores of the Peruvian children on Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies, all subtests using non-meaningful picture materials, were 91.6, 92.2, 101.4, and 98.1. The mean of these four subtests amounts to 95.8. The difference between the mean score of the subtests with meaningful picture material (93.9) and the mean score of the subtests with non-meaningful picture material (95.8) is significant at the 5% level. This finding is in accordance with expectations beforehand; Peruvian children, like the Chinese children, showed more problems with the subtests containing meaningful pictures than with the subtests containing non-meaningful pictures. PAGE 23 indicated PAGE 20 Drenth (1975) has described the SON-test as an example of culture-reduced tests, meaning that these tests only measure a limited number of culturally determined skills that they do not intend to measure. Examples of culturally determined skills are: being able to use a pencil, being capable of working with numbers, and being able to understand the instructions. Drenth has argued that it is not essential for a culture-reduced test to produce similar score distributions in different cultural groups; the only condition for a culture-reduced test is that it should not reflect skill differences determined by cultural factors. Drenth defines a culture-fair test as a culture-reduced test for the particular groups under consideration. PAGE 2 PAGE 2 The SON-R 2Н PAGE 23 -7 and the SON-R 5Н PAGE 23 Н PAGE 4 n et al., 1998) and the SON-R 5Н PAGE 4 -R 2Н PAGE 4 -7 SON-R 5Н PAGE 4 The SON-R 2Н PAGE 4 children between the ages of 2Н PAGE 4 SON-R 2.5-7 and the SON-R 5.5-17 are the latest revisions of the Snijders-Oomen nonverbal intelligence test, originally developed in the Netherlands in 1943 for use with deaf children. The tests consist of 6 to 7 subtests mainly focussed on visual-spatial abilities and abstract and concrete reasoning. Research in the Netherlands indicates that the nonverbal SON-R tests are well suited for use with children of ethnic minorities. With traditional tests the cognitive abilities of minority children are often underestimated as a result of their lack of knowledge of the official language. Notwithstanding the favorite research results with minority children in The Netherlands, it cannot simply be assumed that the SON-R tests can be used unmodified in countries which are greatly different from The Netherlands. In this presentation we will discuss results obtained with the SON-R tests in Australia, the USA, Great Britain, China, Peru and Brazil. Introduction With the latest revision and standardization in the Netherlands of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Tests, various cross-cultural validation studies have been initiated. The objective of these studies was to verify to which degree the SON-R tests can be used with cultures different from the cultures in Western Europe in general, and different from the cultures in the Netherlands in particular. In other words, the goal of these studies was to discern if, and to what extent adaptations of the material (e.g., test instructions, testing format, examples, items) of the SON-R tests are required for cross-national and cross-cultural use. The reason of the adaptation of the SON-R tests is to be able to assess in a fair way the construct of intelligence in multiple cultures. A crucial phase in the adaptation of conventional tests is the translation of the instrument from the source language into a target language. To obtain an equivalent test in another language or culture not only a translation is needed that preserves the meaning of the verbal test materials, but also additional changes may be necessary to insure the equivalence of the versions of the test in multiple languages or cultures, such as those affecting item format and testing procedures. (Hambleton, 1993). Close correspondence between the original version and the translated version is required before reliance can be placed on results based on translated tests. In addition to using effective translation practices, test users also need to examine the psychometric properties of translated tests (Ellis, 1995). The adaptation of nonverbal tests for multiple cultures does not include the difficult and often very problematic test translation phase and is therefore much less complicated than the adaptation process of (partly) verbal tests. The fact that the adaptation process of nonverbal tests is much less complicated than the one needed for intelligence tests which use written or spoken language is one of the great advantages of nonverbal intelligence tests. The circumstance that nonverbal intelligence tests often do not need translation, does not automatically mean that there is no need for empirical studies on the equivalence of their applications for different cultures. Van de Vijver and Poortinga (1997) noted that when a psychological instrument developed in one society is applied in a different cultural context, invariance of psychometric properties like reliability and validity cannot be merely assumed, but has to be empirically demonstrated. The occurrence of bias can change the psychometric properties of an instrument when it is used in a different culture. Bias can appear at various levels; at test-, subtest-, or at item-level. A test, subtest, or an item is biased if it does not measure the same psychological trait across cultural groups (Van de Vijver, 1998). Three different types of bias can be differentiated, construct bias, method bias and item bias (Van de Vijver & Poortinga, 1997). A test shows construct bias if the construct measured is not identical across different cultural groups. Method bias occurs as a consequence of nuisance variables due to method-related factors. Three sorts of method bias can be distinguished: sample bias, instrument bias and administration bias. Sample bias occurs when the samples are incomparable on aspects other than the target variable. Instrument bias is related to characteristics of the instrument that are not identical for different culture groups. An example of this kind of bias is stimulus familiarity. The third type of method bias occurs when there are problems related with the administration of a test. This type of bias can occur when communication problems arise because of the insufficient knowledge of the subject of the language that the examiner uses. Item bias occurs if persons with the same amount of the trait being estimated, but belonging to different groups have different probabilities of making a specific response to the item. The probability that administration bias will occur with a nonverbal intelligence test like the SON-R is low as that the instructions are given in a nonverbal or in a verbal way, dependent on the possibilities of communication of the subject. Moreover, the providing of feedback following each item and the ‘showing how to do it’ by the examiner reduces the chance of the occurrence of administration bias. Drenth (1975) has described the SON-test as an example of culture-reduced tests, meaning that these tests only measure a limited number of culturally determined skills that they do not intend to measure. Examples of culturally determined skills are: being able to use a pencil, being capable of working with numbers, and being able to understand the instructions. Drenth has argued that it is not essential for a culture-reduced test to produce similar score distributions in different cultural groups; the only condition for a culture-reduced test is that it should not reflect skill differences determined by cultural factors. Drenth defines a culture-fair test as a culture-reduced test for the particular groups under consideration. The conception of Jensen (1980) of a culture-reduced test differs slightly from DrenthДs conception: Jensen considers a test culture-reduced when the performance on this test is only to a limited extent influenced by culturally determined familiarity with the stimulus figures and response format. Jensen has formulated the following criteria for culture-reduced tests: (a) the test has to be a performance measure, (b) instructions should be given in mime to exclude the influence of language, (3) preliminary practice items should be provided, (4) items should not depend on time, (5) items should require abstract reasoning rather than factual information and (6) problems should be designed in such a way as to ensure subjects are unable to guess from memory of similar items encountered in the past. The SON-R tests do not satisfy all of the criteria of Jensen for culture-reduced tests because with one subtest of the SON-R 5Н-17 (Hidden Pictures) a time limit is being used. Jensen has also stated that the use of abstract geometrical figures reduces the likelihood of cultural bias. In the SON-R tests various subtests contain concrete, meaningful pictures instead of abstract, geometrical figures. The subtests using meaningful picture materials might be culture-specific. The research finding that immigrant children in the Netherlands (mainly children from Morocco, Turkey, Suriname and the Dutch Antilles) perform better on the SON-R tests than on traditional intelligence tests like the WISC-R and RAKIT (Laros & Tellegen, 1991; Tellegen, Winkel, Wijnberg-Williams & Laros, 1998) provides a positive empirical indication of the culture-fairness of the SON-R for the immigrant groups in the Dutch population. One of the reasons why immigrant children attain lower mean scores on traditional intelligence tests than on nonverbal intelligence tests like the SON-R is the relative strong reliance of these tests on verbal abilities and specific knowledge learned in school. This is especially the case with the so-called omnibus intelligence tests like the various Wechsler scales which contain subtests like Information and Vocabulary which presuppose specific knowledge learned in school (Helms-Lorenz & Van de Vijver, 1995). The fact that minority groups show lower means on a test, however, does not necessarily mean that a test is culturally biased. Van de Vijver & Poortinga (1992) argued that the desirability of cultural loadings in measurement procedures is determined by the intention of the test in question. If a particular test is intended to test knowledge gained during a course at school it is quite likely that culture-specific knowledge is tested. In this case, cultural loadings in tests are unavoidable and even desirable. In general a distinction can be made between generalizations about achievements and about aptitudes. In the latter case, cultural loadings are undesirable (Helms-Lorenz & Van de Vijver, 1995). A second research result with positive implications for the culture-fairness of the SON-R tests for the immigrant groups in the Netherlands is the finding that there is no relation between their length of stay in the Netherlands and their IQ-scores, indicating that performance on the SON-R is not dependent on knowledge of the Dutch language (Laros & Tellegen, 1991). Notwithstanding the existence of the positive indications of the culture-fairness of the SON-R tests, also some negative indications are available, especially in reference to the subtests of the SON-R in which concrete, meaningful picture materials are used instead of abstract geometrical figures. Our expectation before the start of the cross-cultural validation studies with the SON-R tests, was to encounter some bias in the subtests that use meaningful picture materials because some of the pictures used seemed rather specific for western cultures. Before presenting the results of these studies, a short description of the SON-R tests will be given. Description of the SON-R tests The SON test was originally developed in 1943 by Snijders-Oomen for use with deaf children. She intended to measure a broad spectrum of intelligence functions without being dependent on the use of oral or written language. With subsequent revisions also norms and instructions for use with hearing subjects were developed. The latest revision comprises of separate tests for younger and older children, the SON-R 2.5-7 (Tellegen et al., 1998) and the SON-R 5.5-17 (Snijders, Tellegen & Laros, 1989). In table 1 some characteristics of the tests are presented. Table 1: Characteristics of the SON-tests in the Netherlands SON-R 2.5-7 SON-R 5.5-17 age range 2;0 – 7;11 years 5;6 – 16;11 years N sample 1124 1350 N subtests 6 7 reasoning abilities Categories Categories Situations Situations Analogies Analogies ---- Stories spatial abilities Mosaics Mosaics Patterns Patterns Puzzles ---- perceptual abilities ---- Hidden Pictures administration time 50 min. 90 min. mean reliability subtests .72 .76 reliability total score .90 .93 generalizability total score .78 .85 Most subtests are related to either reasoning abilities or spatial abilities while in the SON-R 5Н-17 also a test for perceptual abilities is included. In the subtest Categories the subject has to find the common element between three pictures and select two other pictures that belong to the same category. In Situations one or more parts are missing from a drawing and the subject has to select those parts from a number of alternatives to make the drawing a meaningful whole. In Analogies the transformation of an abstract element is shown and the subject has to perform the same transformation on another element by selecting the proper alternative. In Stories cards have to be ordered to make a meaningful story. The SON-R 2.5-7 The revised version of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Test (Tellegen et al., 1988) for children between the ages of 2.5 to 7 years comprises 6 subtests. In sequence of administration the subtests are: Mosaics, Categories, Puzzles, Analogies, Situations and Patterns. In the subtest Mosaics the child is asked to copy different mosaic patterns with red/white squares. In the first part of the subtest Categories the child has to sort cards based on the category they belong; in the second part two out of five pictures have to be chosen, which are missing in a certain category of pictures. In the first part of Puzzles, three pieces have to be copied in a frame to resemble an example; in the second part the child is asked to form a whole from three to six puzzle pieces. In the first part of Analogies the child is required to sort three to five forms according to form, colour, and size into two compartments. In part two of Analogies a geometric figure changes in one or more aspects to form another figure. To obtain a similar transformation with a second figure, the child is asked to choose the correct alternative. In the fist part of Situations with items showing only the upper halves of four pictures, the child is asked to find the missing halves. In the second part of Situations the task is to indicate the missing parts of drawings of concrete situations. In Patterns the child is asked to copy several patterns with a pencil. The subtests Mosaics, Puzzles and Patterns reflect spatial abilities, while the remaining subtests Categories, Analogies and Situations are more directed to abstract and concrete reasoning abilities. The administration of the SON-R 2Н-7 occurs individually; the mean administration time of the SON-R 2Н-7 amounts to 50 minutes. A very important element of the instructions exist in the ‘showing how to do it’ of the examiner of a part of the items. Another very important aspect of the test administration is the feedback that the examiner offers after each item. The feedback offered with the SON-R 2Н-7 goes beyond the feedback given with the SON-R 5Н-17; the child is not only informed whether the answer was right or wrong, but the examiner helps the child to find the correct solution. Because of this aspect the SON-R 2Н-7 has more similarities with a learning potential test than with a traditional test of intelligence (Tellegen & Laros, 1993a). The standardization of the SON-R 2Н-7 is based on a nationwide sample of 1124 children varying in age from 2 years and 3 months to 7 years and three months. The reliability (alpha stratified) of the total score of the SON-R 2Н-7 increases from .86 at 2Н years to .92 at 7Н years with a mean value of .90. The generalizability of the total score (alpha) increases from .71 at 2Н years to .82 at 7Н years with a mean value of .78. The average reliability of the subtests is .72. The test-retest correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with an interval of 3 months is .79. Besides a total IQ-score on the SON-R 2Н-7 also scores on the Performance Scale and Reasoning Scale are being calculated. The score on the Performance Scale is based on the three performance subtests Mosaics, Puzzles and Patterns, and the score on the Reasoning Scale is based on the three reasoning subtests Categories, Analogies and Situations. The validity of the SON-R 2Н-7 has been investigated through various validation studies in the Netherlands and in other countries like Great Britain, the USA, and Australia by comparing the results on this test with results on other intelligence- and language development tests. The results of the studies outside the Netherlands will be described in the third part of this paper. The results on the SON-R 2Н-7 have been compared in the Netherlands with the following tests: the WISC-R, the WPPSI-R, the TONI-2, the Stutsman, the Kaufman-ABC, the BOS 2-30, the LDT, the RAKIT, the TOMAL, the DTVP-2 and the Reynell and Schlichting language development tests. The sample size of the various validation studies varies from 26 to 558 subjects; the mean sample size amounts to 118 subjects. The 21 correlations of the SON-R 2Н-7 with other non-verbal (intelligence) tests vary from .45 to .83 and have a mean value of .65. The 12 correlations with general intelligence measures vary from .54 to .87 with a mean of .65. The 19 correlations of the SON-R 2Н-7 with measures for verbal ability and verbal intelligence vary from .20 to .71 and have a mean value of .48. With some of the general intelligence tests it is possible to calculate the correlation with the performance scale, the verbal scale and with the total score. In all of these cases the correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the performance scale was higher than the correlation with the verbal scale. These diverse validation studies support the divergent and convergent validity of the SON-R 2Н-7, but the highly varying correlations imply that substantial differences between the scores on the SON-R 2Н-7 and on other intelligence tests can appear. Possible explanations for these highly varying correlations are: differences between the contents of the SON-R and other intelligence tests, differences in the test procedure of the SON-R and the various other tests, the very young age at which the children were tested and the great interval of time between the application of the tests. The SON-R 5Н-17 The revised version of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal intelligence test (Snijders, Tellegen & Laros, 1989) for children and adolescents between the ages of 5Н to 17 years consists of 7 subtests. In sequence of administration the 7 subtests are: Categories, Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns, Situations, Analogies and Stories. In Categories a child has to choose two out of five pictures, which are missing in a certain category of pictures. The task in Mosaics consists of copying figures with red/white squares. In Hidden Pictures the task is to find a given picture that is hidden several times in a bigger drawing. In Patterns a part of a particular pattern or line is missing: the child has to draw the missing part with a pencil. The task in Situations is to indicate the missing parts of drawings of concrete situations. In Analogies geometrical figures are presented with the problem format A : B = C : D; the child has to discover the principle behind the transformation A : B and apply it to figure C to find the correct figure D out of for alternatives. In Stories the child has to order a number of cards in such a way that they form a logical story. Categories, Situations and Analogies are multiple choice tests, while Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Stories are so-called ‘action’ tests. In action tests the solution has to be sought in an active manner which makes observation of behaviour possible. The SON-R 5Н-17 can be divided into four types of tests according to their contents: abstract reasoning tests (Categories & Analogies), concrete reasoning tests (Situations & Stories), spatial tests (Mosaics & Patterns) and perceptual tests (Hidden Pictures). Principal components analysis (PCA) has been performed on the subtest correlations to obtain empirical confirmation of the theoretical dimensions of the test. Although for the youngest age groups the four theoretical dimensions were supported by the loadings on the first four varimax rotated components, across all age groups the two component solution with a ‘reasoning’ and a ‘spatial’ component provided more consistent results. The SON-R 5Н-17 is administered individually; the average administration time amounts 1Н hours. The role of time scoring is kept to a minimum; only with the subtest Hidden Pictures an effective time is being used. For the other subtests sufficient time is allowed for the answering of each item. In the following two important aspects the administration procedure of the SON-R shows differences with the procedure used in traditional intelligence tests: (1) the providing of feedback following each item, and (2) the use of an adaptive procedure. The feedback given during the application of the SON-R 5Н-17 is restricted to informing the examinee whether the answer was right or wrong. The feedback clarifies the instructions and gives the child the opportunity to learn from his own errors and successes and to adjust his problem solving strategy. With the used test procedure of the SON-R each item becomes an opportunity to learn and adjust (Tellegen & Laros, 1993). The adaptive procedure is made possible by dividing the subtests in two or three parallel series of about 10 items; every child starts with the easiest item of the first series. Each series is broken off after two errors; the starting point for the next series is determined by the score on the preceding series. In this way, the administration of items is determined by the subjectДs individual performance and the presentation is limited to the most relevant items for each subject. On the average the number of items presented with the adaptive procedure is 50% of the total number of items in the subtests while the maximum number to presented amounts to about 60%. The standardization of the SON-R 5Н-17 is based on a nationwide sample of 1350 children and adolescents varying in age from 6 to 14 years. The reliability coefficient (alpha stratified) of the total score of the test increases from .90 at six years to .94 at fourteen years with a mean value of .93. The generalizability of the total score (alpha) increases from .81 at six years to .88 at fourteen years with a mean value of .85. The average reliability of the subtests is .76. The validity of the SON-R 5Н-17 is evident from the clear relationship with different indicators of school career such as school type, class repetition and school report marks. The mean multiple correlation of the SON-R with these indicators of school career amounts to .59. For children in the age group of 7 to 9 years the multiple correlation is .54, for children in the age group 10-11 years .60, and for children in the age group 13-14 years the multiple correlation increases to .63. Cross-cultural studies with the SON-R 2Н-7 Research in Australia The validity study with the SON-R 2Н-7 in Australia was executed in 1996 in Victoria under supervision of Jo Jenkinson of the Deakin University in co-operation with the University of Groningen (Jenkinson, Roberts, Dennehy & Tellegen, 1996; Tellegen, 1997). The study is based on 155 subjects, 72 boys and 83 girls, with a mean age of 4 years and 5 months (standard deviation 10 months). Within the group of 155 children three groups can be differentiated: children without specific handicaps (N=59); hearing impaired children (N=59), and children with a developmental retardation (N=37). In this research both the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence – Revised (WPPSI-R) and the SON-R 2Н-7 were administrated in changing order; the mean interval between applications was 20 days. The SON-R 2Н-7 was administered according to the standard test procedure by psychology students from the University of Groningen, while the WPSSI-R was administrated by Australian psychologists. The hearing impaired children and the children with a developmental retardation only did the performance scale of the WPPSI-R. Results The correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the WPPSI-R in the total Australian sample amounts to .78. Within the three different groups the correlation between the performance scale of the WPSS-R and the SON-R 2Н-7 was .74, .74 and .75. Within the non-handicapped group the correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the verbal scale (.54) is lower than the correlation with the performance scale (.74) of the WPPSI-R. The scores on the SON-R 2Н-7 are on average 5 points lower than the scores on the WPSSI-R. Table 2: Characteristics of the research with the SON-R outside The Netherlands _________________________________________________________________ SON-R 2Н-7 Australia Great-Britain United States ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ N of subjects 155 58 75/31/26/29/47 Age 4;5 (0;10) 6;3 (0;3) 5;1/4;7/4;7/5;6/4;7 Correlation with criterion test .78 (WPPSI-R PIQ) .87 (BAS 6 subt.) .59 (WPPSI-R FSIQ) .66 (K-ABC) .61 (MSCA) .47 (PPVT-R) .61 (PLS-3) _________________________________________________________________ SON-R 5Н-17 China Peru Brazil ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ N of subjects 302 160 82 Age 11;6 9;4 10;5 Correlation with criterion test - .77 (WISC-R FSIQ) .60 (school marks) Items with problems: Categories 6 3 10 Situations 3 2 4 Stories 0 0 0 _________________________________________________________________ Research in the USA The validation study executed in the USA (West Virginia) supervised by Stephen OДKeefe of the West-Virginia Graduate College implied the application of the SON-R 2Н-7 and five other cognitive tests. The tests that were applied were the following: the WPPSI-R, the Kaufman-ABC, the McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities (MSCA), the Peabody Picture and Vocabulary Test - Revised (PPVT-R) and the Preschool Language Scale-3 (PLS-3). The SON-R 2Н-7 was partly administrated by psychology students from the University of Groningen, partly by psychologists from West Virginia. The amount of time between the administration of the SON-R 2Н-7 and the other tests generally was very short; in the majority of the cases the other test was applied on the same day. The PLS-3 was not administrated during this study; the test scores on the PLS-3 were collected on another occasion and could be used in this research. The number of children that both made the SON-R 2Н-7 and another test varied from 26 (in case of the MSCA) to 75 (in case of the WPPSI-R). Results The SON-R 2Н-7 had a correlation of .59 with the total score on the WPPSI-R; the correlations with the performance and verbal scales were .60 and .43 respectively. The average age of the 75 children that did both tests was 5.1 years. The mean total score on the SON-R 2Н-7 was more than two points lower than the total score on the WPPSI-R (94.5 versus 96.8) and nearly four points lower than the performance scale of the WPPSI-R (94.5 versus 98.3). The SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation of .66 with the Kaufman-ABC. The correlation with the simultaneous scale was much higher than with the scale for sequential processing (.58 versus .29). The correlation with the nonverbal scale of the Kaufman-ABC amounted to .61. The average age of the 31 children that did both the Kaufman-ABC and the SON-R 2Н-7 was 4.6 years. With the general cognitive index of the MSCA the SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation of .61; the correlation with the verbal scale was .48; while the correlation with the perceptual performance scale amounted to .61. The average age of the 26 children that did both tests was 4.6 years. The correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the PPVT-R was .47; the average age of the 29 children that did both tests was 5.5 years. With the total language score of the PLS-3 the SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation of .61; with the Auditory Comprehension Scale the correlation was .59, while the correlation with the Expressive Communication Scale amounted to .56. The average age of the 47 children who did both tests was 4.6 years. Research in Great Britain During this validation research in Great Britain which took place in 1996 and that was supervised by Julie Dockrell of the University of London, the SON-R 2Н-7 and the British Ability Scales (BAS) were both administrated. The BAS was administrated by psychology students from the University of London, and the SON-R was applied by psychology students from the University of Groningen. Both tests were applied in changing order to 58 children, 34 boys and 24 girls, from the first year of primary school. The mean age of the children was 6;3 years (standard deviation 3 months). The interval between test administrations varied from some days to some weeks. Within the total sample three groups of children can be distinguished: a group without specific handicaps (N=20), a group for which English is the second language (N=22), and a group with learning disabilities (N=16). Six subtests of the BAS were applied, the four subtests of the short version (Naming Vocabulary, Digit Recall, Similarities, and Matrices) and two extra nonverbal subtests (Block Design and Visual Recognition). Results The correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the short version of the BAS is .80. When the two nonverbal subtests are included the correlation augments to .87. The correlation with the verbal part (three verbal subtests) of the shortened version of the BAS was .71, while the correlation with the performance part (three nonverbal subtests) amounted to .78. The correlations in the group of children without any handicaps are considerably lower than in the other two groups (.56 versus .76 and .78). In the total English sample the SON-R IQ-scores are 7 points lower than on the short form of the BAS. The difference in IQ-scores between the group of normal children and children with learning disabilities for the SON-R 2Н-7 is 40.8 points and for the short form of the BAS 42.8 points. Conclusions of the studies in Australia, the USA, and Great Britain In the three cross-cultural studies the correlations of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the performance scales of a number of criterion tests could be compared to the correlations with the verbal scales. In all three studies the correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the performance scale of the criterion test was clearly stronger than with the verbal scale. In the Australian study the SON-R 2Н-7 showed correlations with the performance and verbal scales of the WPPSI-R of .74 and .54 respectively; in the study in the USA these correlations were .60 and .43. In the same study the SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation of .61 with the perceptual performance scale of the MSCA, and a correlation of .48 with the verbal scale of the MSCA. In the research in Great Britain the SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation with the performance part of the BAS of .78 and a correlation of .71 with the verbal part of the BAS. These correlations obtained in Australia, the USA and Great Britain support the convergent and the divergent validity of the SON-R 2Н-7. Cross-cultural Studies with the SON-R 5Н-17 Research in China Chinese psychology students in collaboration with Milly Judistera, a Dutch psychologist, executed the research with the SON-R 5Н-17 in China, which took place in 1996. The study was supervised in China by Professor Zhang Hou Can of the Beijing Normal University. This study was a pilot study as a preparation of the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5Н-17 for China. All 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-7 were administrated according to the standard test procedure by Chinese psychology students to a sample of 302 Chinese children, consisting of 165 boys and 137 girls. To make the administration of the test possible, the instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17 were translated into the Chinese language. The Chinese students were trained in the administration of the SON-R 5Н-17 by Milly Judistira with help of an English speaking Chinese psychology student as an interpreter. The Chinese subjects were tested in the following age groups: 6Н-year-olds (103), 11Н-year-olds (94), and 14Н-year-olds (105). The children came from Beijing (23), Tianjin (81), Miyun (77) and Guangrao (121). The sampling procedure used was not a random procedure; the schools were chosen on basis of existing contacts with the University of Beijing, and within the schools children were chosen by the teachers. Although the teachers claimed to have chosen the children in a random manner, there is no guarantee that this really was the case. The research results therefore have to be interpreted with some caution. Psychometric characteristics The generalizabilty coefficient (alpha) of the total score of the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Chinese sample increases from .76 at 6Н years to .82 at 14Н years with a mean value of .80. These values are lower than the ones found for the Dutch standardization sample; here the generalizability of the total score increased from .81 at 6Н years to .88 at 14Н years with a mean value of .85. The generalizability coefficient is computed by the usual coefficient alpha in which the subtests are the unit of analysis; the number of subtests and the mean correlation between the subtests determine this coefficient. The mean correlation between the 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 was lower for the three Chinese age groups than for the comparable age groups of the Dutch sample (.31, .40, and .42 versus .37, .50 and .51). The mean of the standardized total score obtained by the Chinese children was quite close to the mean standardized total score of the Dutch norm group (98.9 versus 100). The mean scores of the Chinese children on Categories, Situations and Stories, all subtests that use meaningful picture materials, were lower in comparison with the Dutch norm group (respectively 93.6, 91.6, and 95.3 versus 100). The mean of these three subtests amounts to 93.5. The mean scores of the Chinese children on Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies, all subtests using non-meaningful picture material such as geometrical forms, were 96.9, 101.9, 104.2 and 108.1. The mean of these four subtests amounts to 102.8 and is higher in comparison to the mean score of the four subtests in the Dutch norm group (100). The difference found in the Chinese sample between the mean score of the subtests with meaningful picture material (93.5) and the mean score of the subtests with non-meaningful picture material (102.8) is significant at the 5% level. This result is an indication that the Chinese children had more difficulties with the subtests that use meaningful picture materials than with the subtests using non-meaningful picture materials. The relative low scores of the Chinese children on Categories, Situations and Stories were conform to expectations beforehand; the meaningful pictures used in these subtests were not expected to be familiar to cultures very different from the Dutch culture. In one of the items of the subtest Categories, for instance, people leaving a church is shown; such a situation did appear not to be very familiar to Chinese children. The lower mean score on Mosaics (96.9 versus 100) does not correspond with earlier expectations since the item material of this subtest consist of abstract geometrical figures which according to Jensen (1980) reduces the probability of cultural bias. The Chinese children did not show any problems with the other two subtests containing abstract geometrical figures; on these subtests, Patterns and Analogies, they even showed higher mean scores than their Dutch colleagues (104.2 and 108.1 versus 100). The lower score on Mosaics might be a result of the fact that the majority of the Chinese children were not tested with the original version of the subtest Mosaics. Due to financial restrictions there was only one original SON-R 5Н-17 test available for the research in China; in order to be able to test various children in the same period of time a number of copies of the test were made. The squares of the copied version of Mosaics did not fit very well in the frame in which the mosaic patterns had to be copied. Probably, the use of test material, which was not standardized, has caused the lower score of the Chinese children on Mosaics. Factor analysis failed to show a clear similarity between the factor structure of the 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Chinese sample and in the Dutch standardization sample. In the Dutch sample Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with varimax rotation resulted in two clear factors: a ‘reasoning’ and a ‘spatial’ factor. Although in the youngest age groups four factors appeared (‘spatial’, ‘concrete reasoning’, ‘abstract reasoning’, and ‘perception’) the two factor solution offered better and more consistent results across all different age groups. In the Chinese sample PCA with varimax rotation did not provide the same results as in the Netherlands. In the Dutch research the two spatial subtests showed high loadings on the second factor (the ‘spatial’ factor) while in the Chinese study this only seems to be the case for the youngest group. Moreover, in the Dutch research Categories showed high loadings on the first factor (the ‘reasoning’ factor); but this was not the case for the eldest group of the Chinese sample. The results of the factor analysis suggest a lack of test equivalence of the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Chinese and the Dutch culture. These results, however, have to be interpreted with some caution because reservations can be made about the appropriateness of factor analysis as a method for assessing equivalence of test applications in different cultures. Hambleton & Bollwark, (1991) note in this respect that the disadvantage of factor analysis is that the results are sample dependent, since it is based on classical item statistics. Their conclusion also applies to other often used classical statistical methods to detect a possible cultural loading of a test that are sample dependent, like the comparison of p-values and the comparison of total test scores. All these methods presuppose the use of equal ability groups. Even in the case of non-equal ability groups researchers must still check that the ordering of item difficulties is the same in the two different cultures (Hambleton & Kanjee, 1995). Following the recommendation of Hambleton & Kanjee, the correlation coefficients between the ordering of the item difficulties in the two cultures have been calculated. The SpearmanДs rho correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the six subtests of the SON-R (one subtest, Hidden Pictures, does not consist of independent items so no correlations could be computed) obtained in the Chinese sample and in the Dutch sample are the following: .98 (Categories), .99 (Mosaics), .99 (Patterns), .98 (Situations), .99 (Analogies) & .98 (Stories). Although the correlations between the item difficulties in the two cultures are all very high, Categories, Situations, and Stories show a slightly lower correlation than the remaining subtests. This might be an indication of cultural bias of these subtests. The above-described psychometric characteristics of the SON-R 5Н-17 in this study with 302 Chinese children suggest that the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories might have a cultural bias. A next step in this study was an attempt to identify the sources of this possible cultural bias of the three subtests. Results of the judgmental procedure According to Hambleton (1993) both judgmental and statistical methods should be used in studies to determine the equivalence of a test in multiple languages or cultures. In this study the judgmental procedure consisted of the reviewing on the aspect of possible cultural bias of the test instructions, the testing format, the examples, and all the items of Categories, Situations and Stories for the Chinese population of children from 6 to 17 years of age. The reviewing took place during a group discussion with the Chinese psychology students. The test instructions, the testing format and the examples used in the SON-R 5Н-17 were judged by them as containing no cultural bias. The only aspect of the testing procedure that caused some problems for the Chinese administrators of the SON-R 5Н-17 was the providing of feedback after each item. Some students reported that they felt uncomfortable giving feedback because they believed that this might influence the emotions of the children. Possibly the problems with the provision of feedback is related to the fact that in the Chinese culture communication often occurs in an indirect manner. The results of the judgmental procedure with respect to the items of the three subtests are the following: 6 items of Categories (items 2b, 3b, 4b, 6a, 7a, and 9b) and 3 items of Situations (2b, 2c and 10b) were identified as being possibly culture specific. For the subtest Stories no culture specific items were identified. For these culture specific items new items have been developed that are adapted to the Chinese culture. A Chinese student of the art academy has drawn the adapted items. In the future standardization and validation research of the SON-R 5Н-17 in China, items that were identified as being culture specific will be replaced by џџ іX~;}‚–29&,DLŒє LTXT;,@C D4LTXгВ Dвга i$@ёџ$NormalmH<A@ђџЁ<Default Paragraph FontГфJџџџџІІwІxІyІzІŽІšІЇЇЇЇЇЇvЇwЇxЇyЇšЇЅЇ Ј Ј ЈЈЈЈ…Ј†Ј‡ЈˆЈ–ЈЁЈЉЉ Љ ЉЉ"ЉˆЉ‰ЉŠЉ‹ЉЌЉЗЉЊЊЊ Њadapted items. Research in Peru The validation study with the SON-R 5Н-17 in Peru took place in 1996 and was executed by two psychology students from the University of Groningen, and by Peruvian psychologists. The research was supervised in Peru by Veronica Bisso Cajas, from the Consortium of Catholic Centres of Education in Lima. This study served as a preparation of the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5Н-17 for Peru. All 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-7 were administrated according to the standard test procedure by the two Dutch psychology students and by ten Peruvian psychologists. To make the administration of the test possible, the instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17 were translated into Spanish. The Peruvian psychologists were trained in the administration procedure of the SON-R 5Н-17. The test was administrated to a sample of 160 Peruvian children, consisting of 79 boys and 81 girls. The age of the children varied from 6 years to 15 years with a mean of 9;4 years. All the subjects of the Peruvian sample lived in the city of Lima, the capital of Peru; 50% of the children came from State schools and 50% private schools. The State schools in Peru are fully supported by the government; children who visit these schools generally come from families with a low SES-level and often live in very poor circumstances. The private schools are partly financed by religious congregations and private persons; children who frequent these schools generally come from families with a high or moderately high SES-level. The sampling procedure used was only partially a random procedure; the schools were chosen on basis of existing contacts with the Consortium of Catholic Centres of Education, but within the schools children were selected at random. In this research there is an over-representation of children with moderate and high SES levels. The Peruvian sample cannot be considered as representative for Peru, nor for Lima. The results of this study, therefore, cannot simply be generalised to all of Peru and have to be interpreted with caution. Psychometric characteristics The results of this study show that the Peruvian children obtained a lower mean score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the children of the Dutch norm group (94.0 versus 100). The mean scores of the Peruvian children on Categories, Situations and Stories, the subtests which use meaningful picture material, were 97.1, 91.7 and 93.1. The mean of these three subtests amounts to 93.9. The mean scores of the Peruvian children on Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies, all subtests using non-meaningful picture materials, were 91.6, 92.2, 101.4, and 98.1. The mean of these four subtests amounts to 95.8. The difference between the mean score of the subtests with meaningful picture material (93.9) and the mean score of the subtests with non-meaningful picture material (95.8) is significant at the 5% level. This finding is in accordance with expectations beforehand; Peruvian children, like the Chinese children, showed more problems with the subtests containing meaningful pictures than with the subtests containing non-meaningful pictures. To check whether the ordering of item difficulties was the same in the Peruvian sample and the Dutch sample Spearman’s rho correlation coefficients were calculated. The correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Peruvian sample and in the Dutch norm sample are .97, .98, and .97. These correlations are based on 48 children from the total sample of Peruvian children. Note that the correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Peruvian and in the Dutch sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations between the item difficulties found in the Chinese and the Dutch sample. In addition to the SON-R 5Н-17 also a Spanish version of the WISC-R was administered to all 160 children of the Peruvian sample in order to obtain information about the validity of the SON-R 5Н-17 in Peru. Since there were no Peruvian norms available for the WISC-R, norm scores were used that are based on the standardization sample of the USA (Wechsler, 1974). The correlation of the SON-R 5Н-17 with the full scale of the WISC-R was .77, with the performance scale .74 and with the verbal scale .69. These correlations are slightly lower compared to those found in a study in the Netherlands with 35 children from an outdoor psychiatric university clinic (Tellegen & Laros, 1993b). In this study the correlation of the SON-R 5Н-17 with the full scale of the WISC-R was .80, with the performance scale .80 and with the verbal scale .66. The mean IQ-score of the Peruvian sample on the WISC-R was 96.7; the mean score on the verbal scale 94.3 and the mean score on the performance scale 100.2 These scores cannot simply be compared to the mean IQ-score on the SON-R 5Н-17 because the tests have been standardized in different years; the WISC-R was standardized in 1974 and the SON-R 5Н-17 in 1988. As Flynn (1987) has observed, norms on intelligence tests are becoming stricter during the years. In a recent study (Sattler, 1992) comparing the norms of the WISC-R with those of the most recent version of the Wechsler test for children, the WISC-III (Wechsler, 1991), the norm scores on the WISC-III appeared to be lower than the norm scores on the WISC-R. In the 17 years between the two standardizations (1974-1991) the norm scores for the full scale decreased 5.3 points, for the verbal scale 2.4 points, and for the performance scale 7.4 points. Based on the differences found between the norms of the WISC-R and the WISC-III one can correct the obtained scores for the differences in years of standardization of the WISC-R and the SON-R 5Н-17. After correction, the mean norm score on the WISC-R of the Peruvian sample becomes 92.3 for the full scale, 94.1 for the performance scale and 92.3 for the verbal scale. The Peruvian children obtain, after correction, a higher score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than on the WISC-R. Results of the judgmental procedure To identify culture specific items of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories a judgmental procedure was used. With the remaining subtests (Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns, Analogies) no judgmental procedure was used, because these subtests are less likely to be culture specific. When a child responded incorrectly on an item of Categories, Situations or Stories the examiner checked, after testing, whether the pictures used in the item were understood by the child. This procedure, however, has not been followed in a systematic way; not all the children, who responded incorrectly to an item, were asked if the pictures used in that particular were familiar to them. The difference with the judgmental procedure used in the Chinese study is that there the examiners (psychology students) were asked to judge the cultural loading of the items; in this study the examinees (children) were asked to give their judgement. The results of the judgmental procedure with respect to the items of the three subtests are the following: 3 items of Categories (items 1a, 2b, and 4a) and 2 items and one example of Situations (example A, and items 2c and 4b) were identified as being possibly culture specific. Research in Brazil The research in Brazil, which took place in 1996, was executed under the supervision of Jaap Laros of the University of Brasilia, one of the authors of the SON-R tests. Six psychology students of the above-mentioned university did the actual test administration at schools. To make the administration of the test possible, the test instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17 were translated into Portuguese. The Brazilian psychology students were trained in the administration of the SON-R 5Н-17 by their supervisor. The study was a preparation for the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5Н-17 for Brazil. In this Brazilian study the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories of the SON-R 5Н-17 were administered individually to a sample of 82 Brazilian children, consisting of 41 girls and 41 boys. The age of the children varied from 7 to 14 years with a mean of 10,4 years. All children came from 2 state schools from Brasilia, the capital of Brazil. The two schools differed in respect to the SES-level of their pupils; the 36 children from the first school generally came from families with a moderate SES-level, while the 46 children from the second school principally came from families with a low SES-level. The sampling procedure used was not a totally random procedure; the schools were selected on the basis of existing contacts with the University of Brasilia, but within the schools the children were selected at random, using only their age as a selection criterion. The Brazilian sample cannot be considered to be representative for Brazil, nor for Brasilia. The results of this study should therefore be interpreted with some caution. To gain additional information on possible cultural bias, the three subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 have been administered in a nonstandard fashion. Van de Vijver & Poortinga (1997) stress the importance of nonstandard administration of tests in cross-cultural studies to evaluate the adequacy of stimulus and response formats, and of the test administration procedure. In such a nonstandard test procedure it usually is very informative to ask examinees to motivate their responses. In the standard procedure of the SON-R 5Н-17 the subtests are divided into two or three parallel series of about 10 items; each child starts with the easiest item of the first series, but with which item of the second or third series is started, depends on the performance of the child on the previous series. In the nonstandard procedure used in this study the items were offered in order of increasing difficulty; the subtests Categories and Situations with 27 and 33 items were broken off after twelve errors, while the subtest Stories with 20 items was broken off after 8 errors. With the use of this nonstandard test procedure the children responded to much more items than would have been the case if the standard adaptive procedure had used. The average number of items administrated with the adaptive procedure is 50% of the total number of items; with the nonstandard procedure this number amounts to about 90% of the total number of items. Psychometric characteristics The reliability coefficients (alpha) for the three subtests in the Brazilian sample were as follows: .85 for Categories, .87 for Situations and .82 for Stories. When corrected for the influence of age, the corrected reliability coefficients are: .76 for Categories, .82 for Situations and .76 for Stories. These values of the reliability coefficients are quite similar to the values found in a Dutch sample of 415 subjects when the three subtests were administrated without an adaptive procedure (Laros & Tellegen, 1991, page 33). The results from this research indicate further that the Brazilian children obtained a lower mean total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 (based on the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories) in comparison to the Dutch norm group (96.2 versus 100). The mean scores of the Brazilian children for Categories (94.8) and Situations (95,0) are relatively low in comparison with the Dutch norm group (100); the mean score of the Brazilian sample on Stories (97.5) comes close to the mean score of their Dutch colleagues. The children of the school with a comparatively low SES-level seemed to have more difficulties with Categories and Situations than the children of the school with a higher SES-level. The mean score of the low SES-group (N=46) on the three subtests was 94.8 while the mean scores on the three subtests were as follows: Categories 92.9, Situations 92.5 and Stories 97.0. It can be concluded that Brazilian children had more problems with Categories and Situations than with Stories. This trend seems to get stronger for Brazilian children with a low SES-level. The Spearman’s rho correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Brazilian sample and in the Dutch norm sample are .97, .92, and .96. The relative low correlation coefficient for the subtest Situations might be an indication of item bias in this subtest, but might also reflect the different test administration procedures that were used in the Dutch and the Brazilian research. If the latter were the case, the use of the non-standard administration procedure would have had more effect on the item difficulties of Situations than on the item difficulties of the other two subtests. In addition to the administration of the three subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17, other data of the 82 Brazilian children were gathered in order to obtain information about the validity of the subtests. School marks on mathematics, science, and Portuguese were collected for every child of the Brazilian sample. The school marks give an indication of the school achievement of the children. The children were also evaluated on their motivation, cooperation and concentration by their schoolteachers and by the psychology students that administrated (a part of) the SON-R 5Н-17. Of the three subtests, the report marks showed the highest correlations with the subtest Categories: science (.61); mathematics (.59), and Portuguese (.38); they showed the lowest correlations with the subtest Stories: science (.26); mathematics (.36), and Portuguese (.29). The correlations of the report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 are as following: science (.52); mathematics (.49), and Portuguese (.38). The multiple correlation of the report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 amounts to .60. The correlations of report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Dutch norm sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations found in the Brazilian sample. Considering the fact that in the Brazilian study the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 was based on only three instead of all seven subtests, the correlations in this study are quite high. The judgment of the teachers on motivation, cooperation and concentration of their pupils correlated higher with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the judgment of the psychology students. When the judgment scores of the teachers and the psychology students were combined into a mean score, these scores showed a higher correlation with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the scores based on the judgment of the teachers alone. The correlation of the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 with the mean score on motivation is .40, with the mean score on cooperation .45, and with the mean score on concentration .19. The multiple correlation of the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 with the mean scores on motivation, cooperation and concentration is .50. Results of the judgmental procedure The judgmental procedure used in this research consisted of the following: when a child responded incorrectly on an example or an item the examiner checked, immediately after the incorrect answer, whether the child understood the pictures that were used in the item. This procedure was followed in a systematic way, and formed the basis on which conclusions were made regarding the cultural specificity of the items. For the subtest Categories the judgmental procedure implied that after each incorrectly answered item the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with eight figures. [Each item of the subtest Categories is build up out of eight figures; three figures define the category, and five figures are the alternatives from which the child has to choose two that pertain to the category]. In case of the subtest Situations the procedure implied that after each incorrectly answered item, the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with five to fourteen figures. The procedure implied for the subtest Stories that the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with four to seven figures for every incorrectly answered item. As a consequence of this time consuming test procedure the amount of time needed to administer the three subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 came close to an hour. The results obtained with this judgmental procedure indicate that the Brazilian children had no problems understanding the subtest instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17. On the basis of the answers that the children provided with respect to their (un)familiarity with the figures used in the items, 14 items were identified as being possibly culture-specific; 10 items of Categories (items 2b, 2c, 3a, 4a, 4b, 5c, 6a, 8a, 8c and 9c) and 4 items of Situations (items 2b, 3c, 4a, and 10b). The criterion which was used to classify an item as being possibly culture specific was the following: when one of the figures that form an item was indicated by more than 5% of the Brazilian sample as being unfamiliar an item was classified as being possibly culture specific. Maybe this criterion might be a little too strict, considering the large amount of items of the subtest Categories that were classified as possibly culture specific. In case of the subtest Categories twice as many figures used in the alternatives were unfamiliar to the Brazilian children than the figures that defined the category. With the subtest Situations, however, twice as many ‘main’ figures were identified as unfamiliar than the figures used in the alternatives. For the subtest Stories no adaptations for the Brazilian culture were found to be necessary. Conclusions of the studies in China, Peru and Brazil. In the cross-cultural validation studies in China and Peru, where all seven subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 were administrated, the average of the mean scores on the three subtests with meaningful picture materials (Categories, Situations and Stories) was significantly lower at 5% level than the average of the mean scores on the four remaining subtests that contain non-meaningful picture materials (Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies). This research finding is in accordance with our expectations beforehand that were partially based on the theoretical considerations of Jensen (1980) about culture-fair tests. This result indicates a possible cultural bias in the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories. Another indication of possible bias is given by the correlation between the item difficulties in the Dutch norm group and the item difficulties in different cultures. The correlation coeffcients give an indication of the extent in which the ordering of item difficulties is the same in the two different cultures. A different ordering of the items might indicate that the items do not have the same meaning for two different cultural groups. The Spearman’s rho correlation coefficients for the subtests Mosaics, Patterns, and Analogies in the Chinese study were all .99. The correlation coefficients for Categories in the Chinese, Peruvian, and Brazilian study are respectively .98, .97, and .97; for Situations .98, .98, and .92; for Stories .98, .97, and .96. Although all the correlation coefficients are quite high, the correlations for the three subtests Categories, Situations and Stories in which meaningful picture materials are used, are somewhat lower which might indicate possible bias in these subtests. The lowest correlations were found in the Brazilian sample, but there the nonstandard test procedure makes a straightforward comparison with the item difficulties in the Dutch sample problematic. The reliability coefficients of the subtests in the three studies are comparable with the coefficients found in the Dutch sample, although the values in the Dutch sample are somewhat higher. In the Chinese study, the only study where a factor analysis was performed, the resulting factor structure failed to show a clear similarity with the factor structure in the Dutch sample. This might be an indication of the cultural loading of some of the subtests. In the Peruvian and Brazilian study clear indications of the validity of the SON-R 5Н-17 were found. The SON-R 5Н-17 showed a relatively high correlation with the WISC-R (.77) in the Peruvian study. In the Brazilian study the standardized total score based on three subtests of the SON-R showed satisfactory correlations with school marks on science (.52); mathematics (.49), and Portuguese (.38). The correlations of report marks with the total score on the SON-R based on 7 subtests in the Dutch sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations found in the Brazilian sample. In the Brazilian study the total score on the SON-R, based on three subtests, correlated .40 with motivation, .45 with cooperation and .19 with concentration. In all three studies a judgmental procedure was used for the identification of item bias in the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories. In the Chinese study the Chinese psychology students who applied the SON-R 5Н-17 reviewed the items on the aspect of possible cultural bias. In the Peruvian and Brazilian study the children who responded incorrectly to an item were asked if the pictures that were used in that item were understood by them. As a result of this procedure 14 of the 33 items (42%) of the subtest Categories have been identified as possibly culture specific. One of these items has been identified as culture specific in all three studies (item 2b), 3 items were identified as biased in two studies (items 4a, 4b and 6a) and 9 items were identified as biased in just one study (items 1a, 2c, 3a, 3b, 5c, 7a, 8a, 8c, and 9c). For the subtest Situations 6 of the 33 items (18%) and one example were identified as possibly culture specific. Three of the items were identified in two different studies (items 2b, 2c, and 10b); the remaining 3 items were identified as biased in just one study (items 3c, 4a, 4b). The example that was identified as culture specific (example A) was identified in only one study. General Conclusions The research results obtained in various countries for both the SON-R 2Н-7 and the SON-R 5Н-17 indicate that both tests can be used in cultures that are different from the Dutch culture. The validity-coefficients of both SON-R tests encountered in various countries are comparable to the validity-coefficients found in the Dutch norm sample. For the SON-R 5Н-17, however, some adaptations will have to be made in the subtests Categories and Situations. For the subtest Categories 42% of the items will have be adapted, while for the subtest Situations 18% of the items and one example will have to be adapted. For the other subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 no adaptations have to be made. Although no specific research have been done to item bias of the SON-R 2Н-7, adaptations of this test seems to be less necessary. For this young age group the test uses only very simple pictures. In the construction phase of this test special attention was paid to possible item bias. The research result that immigrant children in the Netherlands had the same mean score on the subtests that use meaningful picture materials as on the subtests that use non-meaningful picture materials such as geometrical forms, is an empirical argument indicating the culture-fairness of the SON-R 2Н-7. Only future empirical research will tell whether the impression is correct that for cross-cultural use of the SON-R 2Н-7 no adaptations are necessary. References Anastasi, A. (1989). Psychological testing (6th edition). New York: Macmillan. Brouwer, A., Koster, M. & Veenstra, B. (1995). Validation of the Snijders-Oomen Test (SON-R2Н-7) for Dutch and Australian children with disabilities. Groningen: Internal Report, Department of Educational and Personality Psychology. Ceci, S.J. (1991). How much does schooling influence general intelligence and its cognitive components? A reassessment of the evidence. Developmental Psychology, 27, 703-722. Cooper, C.R. & Denner, J. (1998). Theories linking culture and psychology: universal and community-specific processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 559-584. Cronbach, L.J. (1990). Essentials of psychological testing (5th edition). New York: Harper-Collins Publishers Inc. Drenth, P.J.D. (1975). Psychological tests for developing countries: rationale and objectives. Dutch Journal of Psychology [Nederlands Tijdschrift voor de Psychologie], 30, 5-22. Ellis, B.B. (1995). A partial test of HulinДs psychometric theory of measurement equivalence in translated tests. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 11, 184-193. Hambleton, R.K. (1993). Translating achievement tests for use in cross-national studies. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 9, 57-68. Hambleton, R.K. (1994). Guidelines for adapting educational and psychological tests: a progress report. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 10, 229-240. Hambleton, R.K. & Bollwark, J. (1991). Adapting tests for use in different cultures: technical issues and methods. Bulletin of the International Test Commission, 18, 3-32. Hambleton, R.K. & Anjee, A. (1995). Increasing the validity of cross-cultural assessments: use of improved methods for test adaptations. European journal of Psychological Assessment, 11, 147-157. Hambleton, R.K. & Slater, S.C. (1997). Item response theory models and testing practices: current international status and future directions. European journal of Psychological Assessment, 13, 21-28. Hamers, J.H.M. & Sijtsma, K. & Ruijssenaars, A.J.J.M. (1993). Learning Potential Assessment. Theoretical, Methodological and Practical Issues. Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger. Helms-Lorenz, M. & van de Vijver, F.J. (1995). Cognitive assessment in education in a multicultural society. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 11, 158-169. Holland, P.W. & Thayer, D.T. (1988). Differential item performance and the Mantel-Haenszel procedure. In H. Wainer & H.I. Braun (Eds.), Test Validity (pp. 129-145). Hillsdale, New York: Lawrence Erlbaum. Horn, J., ten (1996). Validation research of the Snijders-Oomen nonverbal intelligence test (SON-R 2Н-7) in the USA. Groningen: Internal Report, Department of Educational and Personality Psychology. Hu, S. & Oakland, T. (1991). Global and regional perspectives on testing children and youth: an empirical study. International Journal of Psychology, 26, 329-344. Hulin, C.L. (1987). A psychometric theory of evaluations of item and scale translations – Fidelity across languages. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 18, 115-142. Jenkinson, J., Roberts, S., Dennehy, S. & Tellegen P. (1996). Validation of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal intelligence test – Revised 2Н-7 for Australian children with disabilities. Journal of Psycho-educational Assessment, 14, 276-286. Jensen, A.R. (1980). Bias in mental testing. New York: Free Press. Jensen, A.R. (1984). Test bias: Concepts and criticisms. In: C.R. Reynolds & R.T. Brown (Eds.), Perspectives on bias in mental testing. New York: Free Press. Judistira, E.M. (1996). A preliminary validation research with the SON-R 5Н-17 in China. Groningen: Internal Report, Department of Educational and Personality Psychology. Fan, X., Wilson, V.L. & Kapes, J.T. (1996). Ethnic group representation in test construction samples and test bias: the standardization fallacy revisited. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 56, 365-381. Laros, J.A. & Tellegen, P.J. (1991). Construction and validation of the SON-R 5Н-17, the Snijders-Oomen non-verbal intelligence test. Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff. Le Clerq M. & Holvast L. (1996). The SON-R 5Н-17 and the WISC-R applied to Peruvian school children. Groningen: Internal Report, Department of Educational and Personality Psychology. SWAP: 96-1227. Linden, W.J. van der, & Hambleton, R.K. [eds.] (1997). Handbook of Modern Item Response Theory. New York: Springer Verlag. Oakland, T., Wechsler, S., Bensuan, E. & Stafford, M. (1994). The construct of intelligence among Brazilian children – An exploratory study. School Psychology International, 15, 361- 370. Parmar, R.S. (1989). Cross-cultural transfer of non-verbal intelligence tests: an (in)validation study. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 59, 379-388. Poortinga, Y.H. (1995). Cultural bias in assessment: historical and thematic issues. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 11, 140-146. Sattler, J.M. (1992). Assessment of children, Revised and updated third edition. San Diego, CA: J.M. Sattler, Publisher, Inc. Sijtsma, K. & Molenaar, I. (1987). Reliability of test scores in nonparametric item response theory. Psychometrika, 52, 79-98. Snijders, J.Th., Tellegen, P.J. & Laros, J.A. (1989). Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal intelligence test: SON-R 5Н-17. Manual and research report. Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff. Tellegen, P. (1997). An Addition and Correction to the Jenkinson et al. (1996) Australian SON-R 2Н-7 Validation Study. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 15, 67-69. Tellegen, P.J. & Laros, J.A. (1993a). The Snijders-Oomen nonverbal intelligence tests: general intelligence tests or tests for learning potential? In: Hamers, J.H.M. & Sijtsma, K. & Ruijssenaars, A.J.J.M. Learning Potential Assessment. Theoretical, Methodological and Practical Issues. Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger. Tellegen, P.J. & Laros, J.A. (1993b). The construction and validation of a nonverbal test of intelligence: the revision of the Snijders-Oomen tests. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 9,147-157. Tellegen, P.J., Winkel, M., Wijnberg-Williams, B.J. & Laros, J.A. (1998). Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Test, SON-R 2SON-R 5.5-17 are the latest revisions of the Snijders-Oomen nonverbal intelligence test, originally developed in the Netherlands in 1943 for use with deaf children. The tests consist of 6 to 7 subtests mainly focussed on visual-spatial abilities and abstract and concrete reasoning. Research in the Netherlands indicates that the nonverbal SON-R tests are well suited for use with children of ethnic minorities. With traditional tests the cognitive abilities of minority children are often underestimated as a result of their lack of knowledge of the official language. Notwithstanding the favorite research results with minority children in The Netherlands, it cannot simply be assumed that the SON-R tests can be used unmodified in countries which are greatly different from The Netherlands. In this presentation we will discuss results obtained with the SON-R tests in Australia, the USA, Great Britain, China, Peru and Brazil. Introduction With the latest revision and standardization in the Netherlands of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Tests, various cross-cultural validation studies have been initiated. The objective of these studies was to verify to which degree the SON-R tests can be used with cultures different from the cultures in Western Europe in general, and different from the cultures in the Netherlands in particular. In other words, the goal of these studies was to discern if, and to what extent adaptations of the material (e.g., test instructions, testing format, examples, items) of the SON-R tests are required for cross-national and cross-cultural use. The reason of the adaptation of the SON-R tests is to be able to assess in a fair way the construct of intelligence in multiple cultures. A crucial phase in the adaptation of conventional tests is the translation of the instrument from the source language into a target language. To obtain an equivalent test in another language or culture not only a translation is needed that preserves the meaning of the verbal test materials, but also additional changes may be necessary to insure the equivalence of the versions of the test in multiple languages or cultures, such as those affecting item format and testing procedures. (Hambleton, 1993). Close correspondence between the original version and the translated version is required before reliance can be placed on results based on translated tests. In addition to using effective translation practices, test users also need to examine the psychometric properties of translated tests (Ellis, 1995). The adaptation of nonverbal tests for multiple cultures does not include the difficult and often very problematic test translation phase and is therefore much less complicated than the adaptation process of (partly) verbal tests. The fact that the adaptation process of nonverbal tests is much less complicated than the one needed for intelligence tests which use written or spoken language is one of the great advantages of nonverbal intelligence tests. The circumstance that nonverbal intelligence tests often do not need translation, does not automatically mean that there is no need for empirical studies on the equivalence of their applications for different cultures. Van de Vijver and Poortinga (1997) noted that when a psychological instrument developed in one society is applied in a different cultural context, invariance of psychometric properties like reliability and validity cannot be merely assumed, but has to be empirically demonstrated. The occurrence of bias can change the psychometric properties of an instrument when it is used in a different culture. Bias can appear at various levels; at test-, subtest-, or at item-level. A test, subtest, or an item is biased if it does not measure the same psychological trait across cultural groups (Van de Vijver, 1998). Three different types of bias can be differentiated, construct bias, method bias and item bias (Van de Vijver & Poortinga, 1997). A test shows construct bias if the construct measured is not identical across different cultural groups. Method bias occurs as a consequence of nuisance variables due to method-related factors. Three sorts of method bias can be distinguished: sample bias, instrument bias and administration bias. Sample bias occurs when the samples are incomparable on aspects other than the target variable. Instrument bias is related to characteristics of the instrument that are not identical for different culture groups. An example of this kind of bias is stimulus familiarity. The third type of method bias occurs when there are problems related with the administration of a test. This type of bias can occur when communication problems arise because of the insufficient knowledge of the subject of the language that the examiner uses. Item bias occurs if persons with the same amount of the trait being estimated, but belonging to different groups have different probabilities of making a specific response to the item. The probability that administration bias will occur with a nonverbal intelligence test like the SON-R is low as that the instructions are given in a nonverbal or in a verbal way, dependent on the possibilities of communication of the subject. Moreover, the providing of feedback following each item and the ‘showing how to do it’ by the examiner reduces the chance of the occurrence of administration bias. Drenth (1975) has described the SON-test as an example of culture-reduced tests, meaning that these tests only measure a limited number of culturally determined skills that they do not intend to measure. Examples of culturally determined skills are: being able to use a pencil, being capable of working with numbers, and being able to understand the instructions. Drenth has argued that it is not essential for a culture-reduced test to produce similar score distributions in different cultural groups; the only condition for a culture-reduced test is that it should not reflect skill differences determined by cultural factors. Drenth defines a culture-fair test as a culture-reduced test for the particular groups under consideration. The conception of Jensen (1980) of a culture-reduced test differs slightly from DrenthДs conception: Jensen considers a test culture-reduced when the performance on this test is only to a limited extent influenced by culturally determined familiarity with the stimulus figures and response format. Jensen has formulated the following criteria for culture-reduced tests: (a) the test has to be a performance measure, (b) instructions should be given in mime to exclude the influence of language, (3) preliminary practice items should be provided, (4) items should not depend on time, (5) items should require abstract reasoning rather than factual information and (6) problems should be designed in such a way as to ensure subjects are unable to guess from memory of similar items encountered in the past. The SON-R tests do not satisfy all of the criteria of Jensen for culture-reduced tests because with one subtest of the SON-R 5Н-17 (Hidden Pictures) a time limit is being used. Jensen has also stated that the use of abstract geometrical figures reduces the likelihood of cultural bias. In the SON-R tests various subtests contain concrete, meaningful pictures instead of abstract, geometrical figures. The subtests using meaningful picture materials might be culture-specific. The research finding that immigrant children in the Netherlands (mainly children from Morocco, Turkey, Suriname and the Dutch Antilles) perform better on the SON-R tests than on traditional intelligence tests like the WISC-R and RAKIT (Laros & Tellegen, 1991; Tellegen, Winkel, Wijnberg-Williams & Laros, 1998) provides a positive empirical indication of the culture-fairness of the SON-R for the immigrant groups in the Dutch population. One of the reasons why immigrant children attain lower mean scores on traditional intelligence tests than on nonverbal intelligence tests like the SON-R is the relative strong reliance of these tests on verbal abilities and specific knowledge learned in school. This is especially the case with the so-called omnibus intelligence tests like the various Wechsler scales which contain subtests like Information and Vocabulary which presuppose specific knowledge learned in school (Helms-Lorenz & Van de Vijver, 1995). The fact that minority groups show lower means on a test, however, does not necessarily mean that a test is culturally biased. Van de Vijver & Poortinga (1992) argued that the desirability of cultural loadings in measurement procedures is determined by the intention of the test in question. If a particular test is intended to test knowledge gained during a course at school it is quite likely that culture-specific knowledge is tested. In this case, cultural loadings in tests are unavoidable and even desirable. In general a distinction can be made between generalizations about achievements and about aptitudes. In the latter case, cultural loadings are undesirable (Helms-Lorenz & Van de Vijver, 1995). A second research result with positive implications for the culture-fairness of the SON-R tests for the immigrant groups in the Netherlands is the finding that there is no relation between their length of stay in the Netherlands and their IQ-scores, indicating that performance on the SON-R is not dependent on knowledge of the Dutch language (Laros & Tellegen, 1991). Notwithstanding the existence of the positive indications of the culture-fairness of the SON-R tests, also some negative indications are available, especially in reference to the subtests of the SON-R in which concrete, meaningful picture materials are used instead of abstract geometrical figures. Our expectation before the start of the cross-cultural validation studies with the SON-R tests, was to encounter some bias in the subtests that use meaningful picture materials because some of the pictures used seemed rather specific for western cultures. Before presenting the results of these studies, a short description of the SON-R tests will be given. Description of the SON-R tests The SON test was originally developed in 1943 by Snijders-Oomen for use with deaf children. She intended to measure a broad spectrum of intelligence functions without being dependent on the use of oral or written language. With subsequent revisions also norms and instructions for use with hearing subjects were developed. The latest revision comprises of separate tests for younger and older children, the SON-R 2.5.5-7 (Tellegen et al., 1998) and the SON-R 5.5-17 (Snijders, Tellegen & Laros, 1989). In table 1 some characteristics of the tests are presented. Table 1: Characteristics of the SON-tests in the Netherlands SON-R 2.5.5-7 SON-R 5.5-17 age range 2;0 – 7;11 years 5;6 – 16;11 years N sample 1124 1350 N subtests 6 7 reasoning abilities Categories Categories Situations Situations Analogies Analogies ---- Stories spatial abilities Mosaics Mosaics Patterns Patterns Puzzles ---- perceptual abilities ---- Hidden Pictures administration time 50 min. 90 min. mean reliability subtests .72 .76 reliability total score .90 .93 generalizability total score .78 .85 Most subtests are related to either reasoning abilities or spatial abilities while in the SON-R 5Н-17 also a test for perceptual abilities is included. In the subtest Categories the subject has to find the common element between three pictures and select two other pictures that belong to the same category. In Situations one or more parts are missing from a drawing and the subject has to select those parts from a number of alternatives to make the drawing a meaningful whole. In Analogies the transformation of an abstract element is shown and the subject has to perform the same transformation on another element by selecting the proper alternative. In Stories cards have to be ordered to make a meaningful story. The SON-R 2.5.5-7 The revised version of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Test (Tellegen et al., 1988) for children between the ages of 2.5 to 7 years comprises 6 subtests. In sequence of administration the subtests are: Mosaics, Categories, Puzzles, Analogies, Situations and Patterns. In the subtest Mosaics the child is asked to copy different mosaic patterns with red/white squares. In the first part of the subtest Categories the child has to sort cards based on the category they belong; in the second part two out of five pictures have to be chosen, which are missing in a certain category of pictures. In the first part of Puzzles, three pieces have to be copied in a frame to resemble an example; in the second part the child is asked to form a whole from three to six puzzle pieces. In the first part of Analogies the child is required to sort three to five forms according to form, colour, and size into two compartments. In part two of Analogies a geometric figure changes in one or more aspects to form another figure. To obtain a similar transformation with a second figure, the child is asked to choose the correct alternative. In the fist part of Situations with items showing only the upper halves of four pictures, the child is asked to find the missing halves. In the second part of Situations the task is to indicate the missing parts of drawings of concrete situations. In Patterns the child is asked to copy several patterns with a pencil. The subtests Mosaics, Puzzles and Patterns reflect spatial abilities, while the remaining subtests Categories, Analogies and Situations are more directed to abstract and concrete reasoning abilities. The administration of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 occurs individually; the mean administration time of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 amounts to 50 minutes. A very important element of the instructions exist in the ‘showing how to do it’ of the examiner of a part of the items. Another very important aspect of the test administration is the feedback that the examiner offers after each item. The feedback offered with the SON-R 2.5Н-7 goes beyond the feedback given with the SON-R 5Н-17; the child is not only informed whether the answer was right or wrong, but the examiner helps the child to find the correct solution. Because of this aspect the SON-R 2.5Н-7 has more similarities with a learning potential test than with a traditional test of intelligence (Tellegen & Laros, 1993a). The standardization of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 is based on a nationwide sample of 1124 children varying in age from 2 years and 3 months to 7 years and three months. The reliability (alpha stratified) of the total score of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 increases from .86 at 2Н years to .92 at 7Н years with a mean value of .90. The generalizability of the total score (alpha) increases from .71 at 2Н years to .82 at 7Н years with a mean value of .78. The average reliability of the subtests is .72. The test-retest correlation of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 with an interval of 3 months is .79. Besides a total IQ-score on the SON-R 2.5Н-7 also scores on the Performance Scale and Reasoning Scale are being calculated. The score on the Performance Scale is based on the three performance subtests Mosaics, Puzzles and Patterns, and the score on the Reasoning Scale is based on the three reasoning subtests Categories, Analogies and Situations. The validity of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 has been investigated through various validation studies in the Netherlands and in other countries like Great Britain, the USA, and Australia by comparing the results on this test with results on other intelligence- and language development tests. The results of the studies outside the Netherlands will be described in the third part of this paper. The results on the SON-R 2.5Н-7 have been compared in the Netherlands with the following tests: the WISC-R, the WPPSI-R, the TONI-2, the Stutsman, the Kaufman-ABC, the BOS 2-30, the LDT, the RAKIT, the TOMAL, the DTVP-2 and the Reynell and Schlichting language development tests. The sample size of the various validation studies varies from 26 to 558 subjects; the mean sample size amounts to 118 subjects. The 21 correlations of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 with other non-verbal (intelligence) tests vary from .45 to .83 and have a mean value of .65. The 12 correlations with general intelligence measures vary from .54 to .87 with a mean of .65. The 19 correlations of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 with measures for verbal ability and verbal intelligence vary from .20 to .71 and have a mean value of .48. With some of the general intelligence tests it is possible to calculate the correlation with the performance scale, the verbal scale and with the total score. In all of these cases the correlation of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 with the performance scale was higher than the correlation with the verbal scale. These diverse validation studies support the divergent and convergent validity of the SON-R 2.5Н-7, but the highly varying correlations imply that substantial differences between the scores on the SON-R 2.5Н-7 and on other intelligence tests can appear. Possible explanations for these highly varying correlations are: differences between the contents of the SON-R and other intelligence tests, differences in the test procedure of the SON-R and the various other tests, the very young age at which the children were tested and the great interval of time between the application of the tests. The SON-R 5Н-17 The revised version of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal intelligence test (Snijders, Tellegen & Laros, 1989) for children and adolescents between the ages of 5Н to 17 years consists of 7 subtests. In sequence of administration the 7 subtests are: Categories, Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns, Situations, Analogies and Stories. In Categories a child has to choose two out of five pictures, which are missing in a certain category of pictures. The task in Mosaics consists of copying figures with red/white squares. In Hidden Pictures the task is to find a given picture that is hidden several times in a bigger drawing. In Patterns a part of a particular pattern or line is missing: the child has to draw the missing part with a pencil. The task in Situations is to indicate the missing parts of drawings of concrete situations. In Analogies geometrical figures are presented with the problem format A : B = C : D; the child has to discover the principle behind the transformation A : B and apply it to figure C to find the correct figure D out of for alternatives. In Stories the child has to order a number of cards in such a way that they form a logical story. Categories, Situations and Analogies are multiple choice tests, while Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Stories are so-called ‘action’ tests. In action tests the solution has to be sought in an active manner which makes observation of behaviour possible. The SON-R 5Н-17 can be divided into four types of tests according to their contents: abstract reasoning tests (Categories & Analogies), concrete reasoning tests (Situations & Stories), spatial tests (Mosaics & Patterns) and perceptual tests (Hidden Pictures). Principal components analysis (PCA) has been performed on the subtest correlations to obtain empirical confirmation of the theoretical dimensions of the test. Although for the youngest age groups the four theoretical dimensions were supported by the loadings on the first four varimax rotated components, across all age groups the two component solution with a ‘reasoning’ and a ‘spatial’ component provided more consistent results. The SON-R 5Н-17 is administered individually; the average administration time amounts 1Н hours. The role of time scoring is kept to a minimum; only with the subtest Hidden Pictures an effective time is being used. For the other subtests sufficient time is allowed for the answering of each item. In the following two important aspects the administration procedure of the SON-R shows differences with the procedure used in traditional intelligence tests: (1) the providing of feedback following each item, and (2) the use of an adaptive procedure. The feedback given during the application of the SON-R 5Н-17 is restricted to informing the examinee whether the answer was right or wrong. The feedback clarifies the instructions and gives the child the opportunity to learn from his own errors and successes and to adjust his problem solving strategy. With the used test procedure of the SON-R each item becomes an opportunity to learn and adjust (Tellegen & Laros, 1993). The adaptive procedure is made possible by dividing the subtests in two or three parallel series of about 10 items; every child starts with the easiest item of the first series. Each series is broken off after two errors; the starting point for the next series is determined by the score on the preceding series. In this way, the administration of items is determined by the subjectДs individual performance and the presentation is limited to the most relevant items for each subject. On the average the number of items presented with the adaptive procedure is 50% of the total number of items in the subtests while the maximum number to presented amounts to about 60%. The standardization of the SON-R 5Н-17 is based on a nationwide sample of 1350 children and adolescents varying in age from 6 to 14 years. The reliability coefficient (alpha stratified) of the total score of the test increases from .90 at six years to .94 at fourteen years with a mean value of .93. The generalizability of the total score (alpha) increases from .81 at six years to .88 at fourteen years with a mean value of .85. The average reliability of the subtests is .76. The validity of the SON-R 5Н-17 is evident from the clear relationship with different indicators of school career such as school type, class repetition and school report marks. The mean multiple correlation of the SON-R with these indicators of school career amounts to .59. For children in the age group of 7 to 9 years the multiple correlation is .54, for children in the age group 10-11 years .60, and for children in the age group 13-14 years the multiple correlation increases to .63. Cross-cultural studies with the SON-R 2.5Н-7 Research in Australia The validity study with the SON-R 2.5Н-7 in Australia was executed in 1996 in Victoria under supervision of Jo Jenkinson of the Deakin University in co-operation with the University of Groningen (Jenkinson, Roberts, Dennehy & Tellegen, 1996; Tellegen, 1997). The study is based on 155 subjects, 72 boys and 83 girls, with a mean age of 4 years and 5 months (standard deviation 10 months). Within the group of 155 children three groups can be differentiated: children without specific handicaps (N=59); hearing impaired children (N=59), and children with a developmental retardation (N=37). In this research both the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence – Revised (WPPSI-R) and the SON-R 2.5Н-7 were administrated in changing order; the mean interval between applications was 20 days. The SON-R 2.5Н-7 was administered according to the standard test procedure by psychology students from the University of Groningen, while the WPSSI-R was administrated by Australian psychologists. The hearing impaired children and the children with a developmental retardation only did the performance scale of the WPPSI-R. Results The correlation of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 with the WPPSI-R in the total Australian sample amounts to .78. Within the three different groups the correlation between the performance scale of the WPSS-R and the SON-R 2.5Н-7 was .74, .74 and .75. Within the non-handicapped group the correlation of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 with the verbal scale (.54) is lower than the correlation with the performance scale (.74) of the WPPSI-R. The scores on the SON-R 2.5Н-7 are on average 5 points lower than the scores on the WPSSI-R. Table 2: Characteristics of the research with the SON-R outside The Netherlands _________________________________________________________________ SON-R 2.5Н-7 Australia Great-Britain United States ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ N of subjects 155 58 75/31/26/29/47 Age 4;5 (0;10) 6;3 (0;3) 5;1/4;7/4;7/5;6/4;7 Correlation with criterion test .78 (WPPSI-R PIQ) .87 (BAS 6 subt.) .59 (WPPSI-R FSIQ) .66 (K-ABC) .61 (MSCA) .47 (PPVT-R) .61 (PLS-3) _________________________________________________________________ SON-R 5Н-17 China Peru Brazil ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ N of subjects 302 160 82 Age 11;6 9;4 10;5 Correlation with criterion test - .77 (WISC-R FSIQ) .60 (school marks) Items with problems: Categories 6 3 10 Situations 3 2 4 Stories 0 0 0 _________________________________________________________________ Research in the USA The validation study executed in the USA (West Virginia) supervised by Stephen OДKeefe of the West-Virginia Graduate College implied the application of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 and five other cognitive tests. The tests that were applied were the following: the WPPSI-R, the Kaufman-ABC, the McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities (MSCA), the Peabody Picture and Vocabulary Test - Revised (PPVT-R) and the Preschool Language Scale-3 (PLS-3). The SON-R 2.5Н-7 was partly administrated by psychology students from the University of Groningen, partly by psychologists from West Virginia. The amount of time between the administration of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 and the other tests generally was very short; in the majority of the cases the other test was applied on the same day. The PLS-3 was not administrated during this study; the test scores on the PLS-3 were collected on another occasion and could be used in this research. The number of children that both made the SON-R 2.5Н-7 and another test varied from 26 (in case of the MSCA) to 75 (in case of the WPPSI-R). Results The SON-R 2.5Н-7 had a correlation of .59 with the total score on the WPPSI-R; the correlations with the performance and verbal scales were .60 and .43 respectively. The average age of the 75 children that did both tests was 5.1 years. The mean total score on the SON-R 2.5Н-7 was more than two points lower than the total score on the WPPSI-R (94.5 versus 96.8) and nearly four points lower than the performance scale of the WPPSI-R (94.5 versus 98.3). The SON-R 2.5Н-7 showed a correlation of .66 with the Kaufman-ABC. The correlation with the simultaneous scale was much higher than with the scale for sequential processing (.58 versus .29). The correlation with the nonverbal scale of the Kaufman-ABC amounted to .61. The average age of the 31 children that did both the Kaufman-ABC and the SON-R 2.5Н-7 was 4.6 years. With the general cognitive index of the MSCA the SON-R 2.5Н-7 showed a correlation of .61; the correlation with the verbal scale was .48; while the correlation with the perceptual performance scale amounted to .61. The average age of the 26 children that did both tests was 4.6 years. The correlation of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 with the PPVT-R was .47; the average age of the 29 children that did both tests was 5.5 years. With the total language score of the PLS-3 the SON-R 2.5Н-7 showed a correlation of .61; with the Auditory Comprehension Scale the correlation was .59, while the correlation with the Expressive Communication Scale amounted to .56. The average age of the 47 children who did both tests was 4.6 years. Research in Great Britain During this validation research in Great Britain which took place in 1996 and that was supervised by Julie Dockrell of the University of London, the SON-R 2.5Н-7 and the British Ability Scales (BAS) were both administrated. The BAS was administrated by psychology students from the University of London, and the SON-R was applied by psychology students from the University of Groningen. Both tests were applied in changing order to 58 children, 34 boys and 24 girls, from the first year of primary school. The mean age of the children was 6;3 years (standard deviation 3 months). The interval between test administrations varied from some days to some weeks. Within the total sample three groups of children can be distinguished: a group without specific handicaps (N=20), a group for which English is the second language (N=22), and a group with learning disabilities (N=16). Six subtests of the BAS were applied, the four subtests of the short version (Naming Vocabulary, Digit Recall, Similarities, and Matrices) and two extra nonverbal subtests (Block Design and Visual Recognition). Results The correlation of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 with the short version of the BAS is .80. When the two nonverbal subtests are included the correlation augments to .87. The correlation with the verbal part (three verbal subtests) of the shortened version of the BAS was .71, while the correlation with the performance part (three nonverbal subtests) amounted to .78. The correlations in the group of children without any handicaps are considerably lower than in the other two groups (.56 versus .76 and .78). In the total English sample the SON-R IQ-scores are 7 points lower than on the short form of the BAS. The difference in IQ-scores between the group of normal children and children with learning disabilities for the SON-R 2.5Н-7 is 40.8 points and for the short form of the BAS 42.8 points. Conclusions of the studies in Australia, the USA, and Great Britain In the three cross-cultural studies the correlations of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 with the performance scales of a number of criterion tests could be compared to the correlations with the verbal scales. In all three studies the correlation of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 with the performance scale of the criterion test was clearly stronger than with the verbal scale. In the Australian study the SON-R 2.5Н-7 showed correlations with the performance and verbal scales of the WPPSI-R of .74 and .54 respectively; in the study in the USA these correlations were .60 and .43. In the same study the SON-R 2.5Н-7 showed a correlation of .61 with the perceptual performance scale of the MSCA, and a correlation of .48 with the verbal scale of the MSCA. In the research in Great Britain the SON-R 2.5Н-7 showed a correlation with the performance part of the BAS of .78 and a correlation of .71 with the verbal part of the BAS. These correlations obtained in Australia, the USA and Great Britain support the convergent and the divergent validity of the SON-R 2.5Н-7. Cross-cultural Studies with the SON-R 5Н-17 Research in China Chinese psychology students in collaboration with Milly Judistera, a Dutch psychologist, executed the research with the SON-R 5Н-17 in China, which took place in 1996. The study was supervised in China by Professor Zhang Hou Can of the Beijing Normal University. This study was a pilot study as a preparation of the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5Н-17 for China. All 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-7 were administrated according to the standard test procedure by Chinese psychology students to a sample of 302 Chinese children, consisting of 165 boys and 137 girls. To make the administration of the test possible, the instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17 were translated into the Chinese language. The Chinese students were trained in the administration of the SON-R 5Н-17 by Milly Judistira with help of an English speaking Chinese psychology student as an interpreter. The Chinese subjects were tested in the following age с      !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxz§џџџ{|}~€groups: 6Н-year-olds (103), 11Н-year-olds (94), and 14Н-year-olds (105). The children came from Beijing (23), Tianjin (81), Miyun (77) and Guangrao (121). The sampling procedure used was not a random procedure; the schools were chosen on basis of existing contacts with the University of Beijing, and within the schools children were chosen by the teachers. Although the teachers claimed to have chosen the children in a random manner, there is no guarantee that this really was the case. The research results therefore have to be interpreted with some caution. Psychometric characteristics The generalizabilty coefficient (alpha) of the total score of the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Chinese sample increases from .76 at 6Н years to .82 at 14Н years with a mean value of .80. These values are lower than the ones found for the Dutch standardization sample; here the generalizability of the total score increased from .81 at 6Н years to .88 at 14Н years with a mean value of .85. The generalizability coefficient is computed by the usual coefficient alpha in which the subtests are the unit of analysis; the number of subtests and the mean correlation between the subtests determine this coefficient. The mean correlation between the 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 was lower for the three Chinese age groups than for the comparable age groups of the Dutch sample (.31, .40, and .42 versus .37, .50 and .51). The mean of the standardized total score obtained by the Chinese children was quite close to the mean standardized total score of the Dutch norm group (98.9 versus 100). The mean scores of the Chinese children on Categories, Situations and Stories, all subtests that use meaningful picture materials, were lower in comparison with the Dutch norm group (respectively 93.6, 91.6, and 95.3 versus 100). The mean of these three subtests amounts to 93.5. The mean scores of the Chinese children on Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies, all subtests using non-meaningful picture material such as geometrical forms, were 96.9, 101.9, 104.2 and 108.1. The mean of these four subtests amounts to 102.8 and is higher in comparison to the mean score of the four subtests in the Dutch norm group (100). The difference found in the Chinese sample between the mean score of the subtests with meaningful picture material (93.5) and the mean score of the subtests with non-meaningful picture material (102.8) is significant at the 5% level. This result is an indication that the Chinese children had more difficulties with the subtests that use meaningful picture materials than with the subtests using non-meaningful picture materials. The relative low scores of the Chinese children on Categories, Situations and Stories were conform to expectations beforehand; the meaningful pictures used in these subtests were not expected to be familiar to cultures very different from the Dutch culture. In one of the items of the subtest Categories, for instance, people leaving a church is shown; such a situation did appear not to be very familiar to Chinese children. The lower mean score on Mosaics (96.9 versus 100) does not correspond with earlier expectations since the item material of this subtest consist of abstract geometrical figures which according to Jensen (1980) reduces the probability of cultural bias. The Chinese children did not show any problems with the other two subtests containing abstract geometrical figures; on these subtests, Patterns and Analogies, they even showed higher mean scores than their Dutch colleagues (104.2 and 108.1 versus 100). The lower score on Mosaics might be a result of the fact that the majority of the Chinese children were not tested with the original version of the subtest Mosaics. Due to financial restrictions there was only one original SON-R 5Н-17 test available for the research in China; in order to be able to test various children in the same period of time a number of copies of the test were made. The squares of the copied version of Mosaics did not fit very well in the frame in which the mosaic patterns had to be copied. Probably, the use of test material, which was not standardized, has caused the lower score of the Chinese children on Mosaics. Factor analysis failed to show a clear similarity between the factor structure of the 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Chinese sample and in the Dutch standardization sample. In the Dutch sample Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with varimax rotation resulted in two clear factors: a ‘reasoning’ and a ‘spatial’ factor. Although in the youngest age groups four factors appeared (‘spatial’, ‘concrete reasoning’, ‘abstract reasoning’, and ‘perception’) the two factor solution offered better and more consistent results across all different age groups. In the Chinese sample PCA with varimax rotation did not provide the same results as in the Netherlands. In the Dutch research the two spatial subtests showed high loadings on the second factor (the ‘spatial’ factor) while in the Chinese study this only seems to be the case for the youngest group. Moreover, in the Dutch research Categories showed high loadings on the first factor (the ‘reasoning’ factor); but this was not the case for the eldest group of the Chinese sample. The results of the factor analysis suggest a lack of test equivalence of the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Chinese and the Dutch culture. These results, however, have to be interpreted with some caution because reservations can be made about the appropriateness of factor analysis as a method for assessing equivalence of test applications in different cultures. Hambleton & Bollwark, (1991) note in this respect that the disadvantage of factor analysis is that the results are sample dependent, since it is based on classical item statistics. Their conclusion also applies to other often used classical statistical methods to detect a possible cultural loading of a test that are sample dependent, like the comparison of p-values and the comparison of total test scores. All these methods presuppose the use of equal ability groups. Even in the case of non-equal ability groups researchers must still check that the ordering of item difficulties is the same in the two different cultures (Hambleton & Kanjee, 1995). Following the recommendation of Hambleton & Kanjee, the correlation coefficients between the ordering of the item difficulties in the two cultures have been calculated. The SpearmanДs rho correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the six subtests of the SON-R (one subtest, Hidden Pictures, does not consist of independent items so no correlations could be computed) obtained in the Chinese sample and in the Dutch sample are the following: .98 (Categories), .99 (Mosaics), .99 (Patterns), .98 (Situations), .99 (Analogies) & .98 (Stories). Although the correlations between the item difficulties in the two cultures are all very high, Categories, Situations, and Stories show a slightly lower correlation than the remaining subtests. This might be an indication of cultural bias of these subtests. The above-described psychometric characteristics of the SON-R 5Н-17 in this study with 302 Chinese children suggest that the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories might have a cultural bias. A next step in this study was an attempt to identify the sources of this possible cultural bias of the three subtests. Results of the judgmental procedure According to Hambleton (1993) both judgmental and statistical methods should be used in studies to determine the equivalence of a test in multiple languages or cultures. In this study the judgmental procedure consisted of the reviewing on the aspect of possible cultural bias of the test instructions, the testing format, the examples, and all the items of Categories, Situations and Stories for the Chinese population of children from 6 to 17 years of age. The reviewing took place during a group discussion with the Chinese psychology students. The test instructions, the testing format and the examples used in the SON-R 5Н-17 were judged by them as containing no cultural bias. The only aspect of the testing procedure that caused some problems for the Chinese administrators of the SON-R 5Н-17 was the providing of feedback after each item. Some students reported that they felt uncomfortable giving feedback because they believed that this might influence the emotions of the children. Possibly the problems with the provision of feedback is related to the fact that in the Chinese culture communication often occurs in an indirect manner. The results of the judgmental procedure with respect to the items of the three subtests are the following: 6 items of Categories (items 2b, 3b, 4b, 6a, 7a, and 9b) and 3 items of Situations (2b, 2c and 10b) were identified as being possibly culture specific. For the subtest Stories no culture specific items were identified. For these culture specific items new items have been developed that are adapted to the Chinese culture. A Chinese student of the art academy has drawn the adapted items. In the future standardization and validation research of the SON-R 5Н-17 in China, items that were identified as being culture specific will be replaced by adapted items. Research in Peru The validation study with the SON-R 5Н-17 in Peru took place in 1996 and was executed by two psychology students from the University of Groningen, and by Peruvian psychologists. The research was supervised in Peru by Veronica Bisso Cajas, from the Consortium of Catholic Centres of Education in Lima. This study served as a preparation of the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5Н-17 for Peru. All 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-7 were administrated according to the standard test procedure by the two Dutch psychology students and by ten Peruvian psychologists. To make the administration of the test possible, the instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17 were translated into Spanish. The Peruvian psychologists were trained in the administration procedure of the SON-R 5Н-17. The test was administrated to a sample of 160 Peruvian children, consisting of 79 boys and 81 girls. The age of the children varied from 6 years to 15 years with a mean of 9;4 years. All the subjects of the Peruvian sample lived in the city of Lima, the capital of Peru; 50% of the children came from State schools and 50% private schools. The State schools in Peru are fully supported by the government; children who visit these schools generally come from families with a low SES-level and often live in very poor circumstances. The private schools are partly financed by religious congregations and private persons; children who frequent these schools generally come from families with a high or moderately high SES-level. The sampling procedure used was only partially a random procedure; the schools were chosen on basis of existing contacts with the Consortium of Catholic Centres of Education, but within the schools children were selected at random. In this research there is an over-representation of children with moderate and high SES levels. The Peruvian sample cannot be considered as representative for Peru, nor for Lima. The results of this study, therefore, cannot simply be generalised to all of Peru and have to be interpreted with caution. Psychometric characteristics The results of this study show that the Peruvian children obtained a lower mean score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the children of the Dutch norm group (94.0 versus 100). The mean scores of the Peruvian children on Categories, Situations and Stories, the subtests which use meaningful picture material, were 97.1, 91.7 and 93.1. The mean of these three subtests amounts to 93.9. The mean scores of the Peruvian children on Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies, all subtests using non-meaningful picture materials, were 91.6, 92.2, 101.4, and 98.1. The mean of these four subtests amounts to 95.8. The difference between the mean score of the subtests with meaningful picture material (93.9) and the mean score of the subtests with non-meaningful picture material (95.8) is significant at the 5% level. This finding is in accordance with expectations beforehand; Peruvian children, like the Chinese children, showed more problems with the subtests containing meaningful pictures than with the subtests containing non-meaningful pictures. To check whether the ordering of item difficulties was the same in the Peruvian sample and the Dutch sample Spearman’s rho correlation coefficients were calculated. The correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Peruvian sample and in the Dutch norm sample are .97, .98, and .97. These correlations are based on 48 children from the total sample of Peruvian children. Note that the correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Peruvian and in the Dutch sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations between the item difficulties found in the Chinese and the Dutch sample. In addition to the SON-R 5Н-17 also a Spanish version of the WISC-R was administered to all 160 children of the Peruvian sample in order to obtain information about the validity of the SON-R 5Н-17 in Peru. Since there were no Peruvian norms available for the WISC-R, norm scores were used that are based on the standardization sample of the USA (Wechsler, 1974). The correlation of the SON-R 5Н-17 with the full scale of the WISC-R was .77, with the performance scale .74 and with the verbal scale .69. These correlations are slightly lower compared to those found in a study in the Netherlands with 35 children from an outdoor psychiatric university clinic (Tellegen & Laros, 1993b). In this study the correlation of the SON-R 5Н-17 with the full scale of the WISC-R was .80, with the performance scale .80 and with the verbal scale .66. The mean IQ-score of the Peruvian sample on the WISC-R was 96.7; the mean score on the verbal scale 94.3 and the mean score on the performance scale 100.2 These scores cannot simply be compared to the mean IQ-score on the SON-R 5Н-17 because the tests have been standardized in different years; the WISC-R was standardized in 1974 and the SON-R 5Н-17 in 1988. As Flynn (1987) has observed, norms on intelligence tests are becoming stricter during the years. In a recent study (Sattler, 1992) comparing the norms of the WISC-R with those of the most recent version of the Wechsler test for children, the WISC-III (Wechsler, 1991), the norm scores on the WISC-III appeared to be lower than the norm scores on the WISC-R. In the 17 years between the two standardizations (1974-1991) the norm scores for the full scale decreased 5.3 points, for the verbal scale 2.4 points, and for the performance scale 7.4 points. Based on the differences found between the norms of the WISC-R and the WISC-III one can correct the obtained scores for the differences in years of standardization of the WISC-R and the SON-R 5Н-17. After correction, the mean norm score on the WISC-R of the Peruvian sample becomes 92.3 for the full scale, 94.1 for the performance scale and 92.3 for the verbal scale. The Peruvian children obtain, after correction, a higher score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than on the WISC-R. Results of the judgmental procedure To identify culture specific items of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories a judgmental procedure was used. With the remaining subtests (Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns, Analogies) no judgmental procedure was used, because these subtests are less likely to be culture specific. When a child responded incorrectly on an item of Categories, Situations or Stories the examiner checked, after testing, whether the pictures used in the item were understood by the child. This procedure, however, has not been followed in a systematic way; not all the children, who responded incorrectly to an item, were asked if the pictures used in that particular were familiar to them. The difference with the judgmental procedure used in the Chinese study is that there the examiners (psychology students) were asked to judge the cultural loading of the items; in this study the examinees (children) were asked to give their judgement. The results of the judgmental procedure with respect to the items of the three subtests are the following: 3 items of Categories (items 1a, 2b, and 4a) and 2 items and one example of Situations (example A, and items 2c and 4b) were identified as being possibly culture specific. Research in Brazil The research in Brazil, which took place in 1996, was executed under the supervision of Jaap Laros of the University of Brasilia, one of the authors of the SON-R tests. Six psychology students of the above-mentioned university did the actual test administration at schools. To make the administration of the test possible, the test instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17 were translated into Portuguese. The Brazilian psychology students were trained in the administration of the SON-R 5Н-17 by their supervisor. The study was a preparation for the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5Н-17 for Brazil. In this Brazilian study the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories of the SON-R 5Н-17 were administered individually to a sample of 82 Brazilian children, consisting of 41 girls and 41 boys. The age of the children varied from 7 to 14 years with a mean of 10,4 years. All children came from 2 state schools from Brasilia, the capital of Brazil. The two schools differed in respect to the SES-level of their pupils; the 36 children from the first school generally came from families with a moderate SES-level, while the 46 children from the second school principally came from families with a low SES-level. The sampling procedure used was not a totally random procedure; the schools were selected on the basis of existing contacts with the University of Brasilia, but within the schools the children were selected at random, using only their age as a selection criterion. The Brazilian sample cannot be considered to be representative for Brazil, nor for Brasilia. The results of this study should therefore be interpreted with some caution. To gain additional information on possible cultural bias, the three subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 have been administered in a nonstandard fashion. Van de Vijver & Poortinga (1997) stress the importance of nonstandard administration of tests in cross-cultural studies to evaluate the adequacy of stimulus and response formats, and of the test administration procedure. In such a nonstandard test procedure it usually is very informative to ask examinees to motivate their responses. In the standard procedure of the SON-R 5Н-17 the subtests are divided into two or three parallel series of about 10 items; each child starts with the easiest item of the first series, but with which item of the second or third series is started, depends on the performance of the child on the previous series. In the nonstandard procedure used in this study the items were offered in order of increasing difficulty; the subtests Categories and Situations with 27 and 33 items were broken off after twelve errors, while the subtest Stories with 20 items was broken off after 8 errors. With the use of this nonstandard test procedure the children responded to much more items than would have been the case if the standard adaptive procedure had used. The average number of items administrated with the adaptive procedure is 50% of the total number of items; with the nonstandard procedure this number amounts to about 90% of the total number of items. Psychometric characteristics The reliability coefficients (alpha) for the three subtests in the Brazilian sample were as follows: .85 for Categories, .87 for Situations and .82 for Stories. When corrected for the influence of age, the corrected reliability coefficients are: .76 for Categories, .82 for Situations and .76 for Stories. These values of the reliability coefficients are quite similar to the values found in a Dutch sample of 415 subjects when the three subtests were administrated without an adaptive procedure (Laros & Tellegen, 1991, page 33). The results from this research indicate further that the Brazilian children obtained a lower mean total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 (based on the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories) in comparison to the Dutch norm group (96.2 versus 100). The mean scores of the Brazilian children for Categories (94.8) and Situations (95,0) are relatively low in comparison with the Dutch norm group (100); the mean score of the Brazilian sample on Stories (97.5) comes close to the mean score of their Dutch colleagues. The children of the school with a comparatively low SES-level seemed to have more difficulties with Categories and Situations than the children of the school with a higher SES-level. The mean score of the low SES-group (N=46) on the three subtests was 94.8 while the mean scores on the three subtests were as follows: Categories 92.9, Situations 92.5 and Stories 97.0. It can be concluded that Brazilian children had more problems with Categories and Situations than with Stories. This trend seems to get stronger for Brazilian children with a low SES-level. The Spearman’s rho correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Brazilian sample and in the Dutch norm sample are .97, .92, and .96. The relative low correlation coefficient for the subtest Situations might be an indication of item bias in this subtest, but might also reflect the different test administration procedures that were used in the Dutch and the Brazilian research. If the latter were the case, the use of the non-standard administration procedure would have had more effect on the item difficulties of Situations than on the item difficulties of the other two subtests. In addition to the administration of the three subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17, other data of the 82 Brazilian children were gathered in order to obtain information about the validity of the subtests. School marks on mathematics, science, and Portuguese were collected for every child of the Brazilian sample. The school marks give an indication of the school achievement of the children. The children were also evaluated on their motivation, cooperation and concentration by their schoolteachers and by the psychology students that administrated (a part of) the SON-R 5Н-17. Of the three subtests, the report marks showed the highest correlations with the subtest Categories: science (.61); mathematics (.59), and Portuguese (.38); they showed the lowest correlations with the subtest Stories: science (.26); mathematics (.36), and Portuguese (.29). The correlations of the report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 are as following: science (.52); mathematics (.49), and Portuguese (.38). The multiple correlation of the report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 amounts to .60. The correlations of report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Dutch norm sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations found in the Brazilian sample. Considering the fact that in the Brazilian study the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 was based on only three instead of all seven subtests, the correlations in this study are quite high. The judgment of the teachers on motivation, cooperation and concentration of their pupils correlated higher with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the judgment of the psychology students. When the judgment scores of the teachers and the psychology students were combined into a mean score, these scores showed a higher correlation with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the scores based on the judgment of the teachers alone. The correlation of the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 with the mean score on motivation is .40, with the mean score on cooperation .45, and with the mean score on concentration .19. The multiple correlation of the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 with the mean scores on motivation, cooperation and concentration is .50. Results of the judgmental procedure The judgmental procedure used in this research consisted of the following: when a child responded incorrectly on an example or an item the examiner checked, immediately after the incorrect answer, whether the child understood the pictures that were used in the item. This procedure was followed in a systematic way, and formed the basis on which conclusions were made regarding the cultural specificity of the items. For the subtest Categories the judgmental procedure implied that after each incorrectly answered item the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with eight figures. [Each item of the subtest Categories is build up out of eight figures; three figures define the category, and five figures are the alternatives from which the child has to choose two that pertain to the category]. In case of the subtest Situations the procedure implied that after each incorrectly answered item, the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with five to fourteen figures. The procedure implied for the subtest Stories that the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with four to seven figures for every incorrectly answered item. As a consequence of this time consuming test procedure the amount of time needed to administer the three subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 came close to an hour. The results obtained with this judgmental procedure indicate that the Brazilian children had no problems understanding the subtest instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17. On the basis of the answers that the children provided with respect to their (un)familiarity with the figures used in the items, 14 items were identified as being possibly culture-specific; 10 items of Categories (items 2b, 2c, 3a, 4a, 4b, 5c, 6a, 8a, 8c and 9c) and 4 items of Situations (items 2b, 3c, 4a, and 10b). The criterion which was used to classify an item as being possibly culture specific was the following: when one of the figures that form an item was indicated by more than 5% of the Brazilian sample as being unfamiliar an item was classified as being possibly culture specific. Maybe this criterion might be a little too strict, considering the large amount of items of the subtest Categories that were classified as possibly culture specific. In case of the subtest Categories twice as many figures used in the alternatives were unfamiliar to the Brazilian children than the figures that defined the category. With the subtest Situations, however, twice as many ‘main’ figures were identified as unfamiliar than the figures used in the alternatives. For the subtest Stories no adaptations for the Brazilian culture were found to be necessary. Conclusions of the studies in China, Peru and Brazil. In the cross-cultural validation studies in China and Peru, where all seven subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 were administrated, the average of the mean scores on the three subtests with meaningful picture materials (Categories, Situations and Stories) was significantly lower at 5% level than the average of the mean scores on the four remaining subtests that contain non-meaningful picture materials (Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies). This research finding is in accordance with our expectations beforehand that were partially based on the theoretical considerations of Jensen (1980) about culture-fair tests. This result indicates a possible cultural bias in the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories. Another indication of possible bias is given by the correlation between the item difficulties in the Dutch norm group and the item difficulties in different cultures. The correlation coeffcients give an indication of the extent in which the ordering of item difficulties is the same in the two different cultures. A different ordering of the items might indicate that the items do not have the same meaning for two different cultural groups. The Spearman’s rho correlation coefficients for the subtests Mosaics, Patterns, and Analogies in the Chinese study were all .99. The correlation coefficients for Categories in the Chinese, Peruvian, and Brazilian study are respectively .98, .97, and .97; for Situations .98, .98, and .92; for Stories .98, .97, and .96. Although all the correlation coefficients are quite high, the correlations for the three subtests Categories, Situations and Stories in which meaningful picture materials are used, are somewhat lower which might indicate possible bias in these subtests. The lowest correlations were found in the Brazilian sample, but there the nonstandard test procedure makes a straightforward comparison with the item difficulties in the Dutch sample problematic. The reliability coefficients of the subtests in the three studies are comparable with the coefficients found in the Dutch sample, although the values in the Dutch sample are somewhat higher. In the Chinese study, the only study where a factor analysis was performed, the resulting factor structure failed to show a clear similarity with the factor structure in the Dutch sample. This might be an indication of the cultural loading of some of the subtests. In the Peruvian and Brazilian study clear indications of the validity of the SON-R 5Н-17 were found. The SON-R 5Н-17 showed a relatively high correlation with the WISC-R (.77) in the Peruvian study. In the Brazilian study the standardized total score based on three subtests of the SON-R showed satisfactory correlations with school marks on science (.52); mathematics (.49), and Portuguese (.38). The correlations of report marks with the total score on the SON-R based on 7 subtests in the Dutch sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations found in the Brazilian sample. In the Brazilian study the total score on the SON-R, based on three subtests, correlated .40 with motivation, .45 with cooperation and .19 with concentration. In all three studies a judgmental procedure was used for the identification of item bias in the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories. In the Chinese study the Chinese psychology students who applied the SON-R 5Н-17 reviewed the items on the aspect of possible cultural bias. In the Peruvian and Brazilian study the children who responded incorrectly to an item were asked if the pictures that were used in that item were understood by them. As a result of this procedure 14 of the 33 items (42%) of the subtest Categories have been identified as possibly culture specific. One of these items has been identified as culture specific in all three studies (item 2b), 3 items were identified as biased in two studies (items 4a, 4b and 6a) and 9 items were identified as biased in just one study (items 1a, 2c, 3a, 3b, 5c, 7a, 8a, 8c, and 9c). For the subtest Situations 6 of the 33 items (18%) and one example were identified as possibly culture specific. Three of the items were identified in two different studies (items 2b, 2c, and 10b); the remaining 3 items were identified as biased in just one study (items 3c, 4a, 4b). The example that was identified as culture specific (example A) was identified in only one study. General Conclusions The research results obtained in various countries for both the SON-R 2.5Н-7 and the SON-R 5Н-17 indicate that both tests can be used in cultures that are different from the Dutch culture. The validity-coefficients of both SON-R tests encountered in various countries are comparable to the validity-coefficients found in the Dutch norm sample. For the SON-R 5Н-17, however, some adaptations will have to be made in the subtests Categories and Situations. For the subtest Categories 42% of the items will have be adapted, while for the subtest Situations 18% of the items and one example will have to be adapted. For the other subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 no adaptations have to be made. Although no specific research have been done to item bias of the SON-R 2.5Н-7, adaptations of this test seems to be less necessary. For this young age group the test uses only very simple pictures. In the construction phase of this test special attention was paid to possible item bias. The research result that immigrant children in the Netherlands had the same mean score on the subtests that use meaningful picture materials as on the subtests that use non-meaningful picture materials such as geometrical forms, is an empirical argument indicating the culture-fairness of the SON-R 2.5Н-7. Only future empirical research will tell whether the impression is correct that for cross-cultural use of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 no adaptations are necessary. References Anastasi, A. (1989). Psychological testing (6th edition). New York: Macmillan. Brouwer, A., Koster, M. & Veenstra, B. (1995). Validation of the Snijders-Oomen Test (SON-R2Н-7) for Dutch and Australian children with disabilities. Groningen: Internal Report, Department of Educational and Personality Psychology. Ceci, S.J. (1991). How much does schooling influence general intelligence and its cognitive components? A reassessment of the evidence. Developmental Psychology, 27, 703-722. Cooper, C.R. & Denner, J. (1998). 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Braun (Eds.), Test Validity (pp. 129-145). Hillsdale, New York: Lawrence Erlbaum. Horn, J., ten (1996). Validation research of the Snijders-Oomen nonverbal intelligence test (SON-R 2.5Н-7) in the USA. Groningen: Internal Report, Department of Educational and Personality Psychology. Hu, S. & Oakland, T. (1991). Global and regional perspectives on testing children and youth: an empirical study. International Journal of Psychology, 26, 329-344. Hulin, C.L. (1987). A psychometric theory of evaluations of item and scale translations – Fidelity across languages. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 18, 115-142. Jenkinson, J., Roberts, S., Dennehy, S. & Tellegen P. (1996). Validation of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal intelligence test – Revised 2Н-7 for Australian children with disabilities. Journal of Psycho-educational Assessment, 14, 276-286. Jensen, A.R. (1980). Bias in mental testing. New York: Free Press. Jensen, A.R. (1984). Test bias: Concepts and criticisms. In: C.R. Reynolds & R.T. Brown (Eds.), Perspectives on bias in mental testing. New York: Free Press. Judistira, E.M. (1996). A preliminary validation research with the SON-R 5Н-17 in China. Groningen: Internal Report, Department of Educational and Personality Psychology. Fan, X., Wilson, V.L. & Kapes, J.T. (1996). Ethnic group representation in test construction samples and test bias: the standardization fallacy revisited. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 56, 365-381. Laros, J.A. & Tellegen, P.J. (1991). Construction and validation of the SON-R 5Н-17, the Snijders-Oomen non-verbal intelligence test. Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff. Le Clerq M. & Holvast L. (1996). The SON-R 5Н-17 and the WISC-R applied to Peruvian school children. Groningen: Internal Report, Department of Educational and Personality Psychology. SWAP: 96-1227. Linden, W.J. van der, & Hambleton, R.K. [eds.] (1997). Handbook of Modern Item Response Theory. New York: Springer Verlag. Oakland, T., Wechsler, S., Bensuan, E. & Stafford, M. (1994). The construct of intelligence among Brazilian children – An exploratory study. School Psychology International, 15, 361- 370. Parmar, R.S. (1989). Cross-cultural transfer of non-verbal intelligence tests: an (in)validation study. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 59, 379-388. Poortinga, Y.H. (1995). Cultural bias in assessment: historical and thematic issues. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 11, 140-146. Sattler, J.M. (1992). Assessment of children, Revised and updated third edition. San Diego, CA: J.M. Sattler, Publisher, Inc. Sijtsma, K. & Molenaar, I. (1987). Reliability of test scores in nonparametric item response theory. Psychometrika, 52, 79-98. Snijders, J.Th., Tellegen, P.J. & Laros, J.A. (1989). 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""wa" "with""wa""e.g. "*"of the SON-R tests ">" of the verbal test meterials""language ""often ","there is no need for"" empiri""ir" "for""a ""as""by" "do ""which"*"performance on the "^"s because some of the pictures used seemed ra"^" Before presenting the results of these studi"R"The SON test was originally developped "&"by Snijders-Oomen""in 1943 "^" for use with deaf children. She intended to ""the use of "^"nguage. With subsequent revisions also norms "^" tests for younger and older children, the SO"Z"Н-7 (Tellegen et al., 1998) and the SON-R 5""Н-17 "^"(Snijders, Tellegen & Laros, 1989). In table "^"Н-17 also a test for pectual abilities is inc""ep"^" In the subtest Categories the subject has to"^"pictures and select two other pictures that b""parts"^"missing from a drawing and the subject has to""tories"<" to make a meaningful story."".....SON-R 5" "Н-17"".Brazil""..302""...11;6"*"Items with problems" "..6" "..3" "...-"".-""..""...160""...9;4","....77 (WISC-R FSIQ)" "...3" "...2" "...-""...82""...10;5""..60 (school "" marks)"" "" ""...10" "...4" "...-"": "": "8"._________________________"^"_____________________________________________"" "" "^"---------------------------------------------"^"---------------------------------------------""described""Th""-7"".5""n ""-R""-7""Th"" c"џџџџџџџџj€6‰6џџџџЦ6Э6џџџџЦ6Э6џџџџє7ћ7џџџџє7ћ7џџџџж8н8џџџџж8н8џџџџ|9ƒ9џџџџ|9ƒ9џџџџ=:D:џџџџ=:D:џџџџe;l;џџџџe;l;џџџџЗ;О;џџџџЗ;О;џџџџ ==џџџџ ==џџџџ‹>’>џџџџ‹>’>џџџџ-@4@џџџџ-@4@џџџџAAџџџџAAџџџџXB_BџџџџXB_BџџџџCCџџџџCCџџџџ~C…Cџџџџ~C…CџџџџИWПWџџџџИWПWџџџџљWXџџџџљWXџџџџ™Z Zџџџџ™Z Zџџџџ[ [џџџџ[ [џџџџd\k\џџџџd\k\џџџџ]]џџџџ]]џџџџr]y]џџџџr]y]џџџџќ]^џџџџќ]^џџџџы^ђ^џџџџы^ђ^џџџџБcИcџџџџБcИcџџџџЭdдdџџџџЭdдdџџџџe”eџџџџe”eџџџџвfйfџџџџвfйfџџџџFgMgџџџџFgMgџџџџJhQhџџџџJhQhџџџџ iiџџџџ iiџџџџ^jejџџџџ^jejџџџџЌjГjџџџџЌjГjџџџџАkЗkџџџџАkЗkџџџџLlSlџџџџLlSlџџџџњmnџџџџњmnџџџџШqЯqџџџџШqЯqџџџџxttџџџџxttџџџџDuKuџџџџDuKuџџџџіu§uџџџџіu§uџџџџvˆvџџџџvˆvџџџџHwOwџџџџHwOwџџџџx xџџџџx xџџџџ yyџџџџ yyџџџџ—їžїџџџџ—їžїџџџџJњQњџџџџJњQњџџџџMќTќџџџџMќTќџџџџЩќаќџџџџЩќаќџџџџQXџџџџQXџџџџ$+џџџџ$+џџџџјџџџџџјџџџџџзоџџџџзоџџџџ$*+*џџџџ+ +џџџџщ/№/џџџџџџџџџџџџ‹18:8џџџџE EџџџџE EџџџџКJСJџџџџКJСJџџџџsMzMџџџџsMzMџџџџХOЬOџџџџХOЬOџџџџњSTџџџџњSTџџџџдUлUџџџџдUлUџџџџrayaџџџџrayaџџџџSyZyџџџџSyZyџџџџьyѓyџџџџьyѓyџџџџиzпzџџџџиzпzџџџџ {{џџџџ {{џџџџ| |џџџџ| |џџџџ}|„|џџџџ}|„|џџџџЗОџџџџЗОџџџџ‚ ‚џџџџ‚ ‚џџџџі‹§‹џџџџі‹§‹џџџџŽŽџџџџŽŽџџџџњ‘’џџџџњ‘’џџџџ ™™џџџџ ™™џџџџ œЇœџџџџ œЇœџџџџKRџџџџKRџџџџф ы џџџџф ы џџџџ†ЁЁџџџџ†ЁЁџџџџчЂюЂџџџџчЂюЂџџџџЃЃџџџџЃЃџџџџ№ЃїЃџџџџ№ЃїЃџџџџkЄrЄџџџџkЄrЄџџџџуЉъЉџџџџуЉъЉџџџџ„А‹Аџџџџ„А‹Аџџџџ,Б3Бџџџџ,Б3БџџџџљБВџџџџљБВџџџџKГRГџџџџKГRГџџџџЂДЉДџџџџЂДЉДџџџџЕ ЕџџџџЕ ЕџџџџИИџџџџИИџџџџЙЙџџџџЙЙџџџџŒП“ПџџџџŒП“ПџџџџРРџџџџРРџџџџtР{РџџџџtР{РџџџџоРхРџџџџоРхРџџџџ§ФХџџџџ§ФХџџџџЌЦГЦџџџџЌЦГЦџџџџэЬєЬџџџџэЬєЬџџџџ}г„гџџџџ}г„гџџџџoеvеџџџџoеvеџџџџджлжџџџџджлжџџџџuз|зџџџџuз|зџџџџазззџџџџазззџџџџŒи“иџџџџŒи“иџџџџŠй‘йџџџџŠй‘йџџџџqкxкџџџџqкxкџџџџцкэкџџџџцкэкџџџџЇлЎлџџџџЇлЎлџџџџс сџџџџс сџџџџйсрсџџџџйсрсџџџџччџџџџччџџџџV№]№џџџџV№]№џџџџt№{№џџџџt№{№џџџџХѓЬѓџџџџХѓЬѓџџџџ,ј3јџџџџ,ј3јџџџџ;љBљџџџџ;љBљџџџџ_њfњџџџџ_њfњџџџџž Ѕ џџџџž Ѕ џџџџ# * џџџџ# * џџџџІ ­ џџџџІ ­ џџџџџџџџџџџџэєџџџџэєџџџџv}џџџџV*]*џџџџ+"+џџџџx--џџџџ"Н-""ye""(a"џџ іX~;}‚–29&,Œє LT;,@4LЫ^,@ЪЫР i$@ёџ$NormalmH<A@ђџЁ<Default Paragraph Font_фJџџџџІІwІxІyІzІŽІšІЇЇЇЇЇЇvЇwЇxЇyЇšЇЅЇ Ј Ј ЈЈЈЈ…Ј†Ј‡ЈˆЈ–ЈЁЈЉЉ Љ ЉЉ"ЉˆЉ‰ЉŠЉ‹ЉЌЉЗЉЊЊЊ Њз­и­х­њАћА ЕЕpКqКЃН      !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~€‚ƒ„…†‡ˆ‰Š‹ŒŽ‘’“”•–—˜™š›œžŸ ЁЂЃЄЅІЇЈЉЊЋЌ­ЎЏАБВГДЕЖЗИЙКЛМНОПРСТУФХЦЧШЩЪЫЬЭЮЯабвгдежзийклмнопрстуфхцчшщъыьэюя№ёђѓєѕіїјљњћќ§ўџ      !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~€‚ƒ„…†‡ˆ‰Š‹ŒŽ‘’“”•–—˜™š›œžŸ ЁЂЃЄЅІЇЈЉЊЋЌ­ЎЏАБВГДЕЖЗИЙКЛМНОПРСТУФХЦЧШЩЪЫЬЭЮЯабвгдежзийклмнопрстуфхцчшщъыьэюя№ёђѓєѕіїјљњћќ§ўџ                           ! " # $ % & ' ( ) * + , - . / 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : ; < = > ? @ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z [ \ ] ^ _ ` a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z { | } ~  €  ‚ ƒ „ … † ‡ ˆ ‰ Š ‹ Œ  Ž   ‘ ’ “ ” • – — ˜ ™ š › œ  ž Ÿ   Ё Ђ Ѓ Є Ѕ І Ї Ј Љ Њ Ћ Ќ ­ Ў Џ А Б В Г Д Е Ж З И Й К Л М Н О П Р С Т У Ф Х Ц Ч Ш Щ Ъ Ы Ь Э Ю Я а б в г д е ж з и й к л м н о п р с т у ф х ц ч ш щ ъ ы ь э ю я № ё ђ ѓ є ѕ і ї ј љ њ ћ ќ § ў џ                           ! " # $ % & ' ( ) * + , - . / 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : ; < = > ? @ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z [ \ ] ^ _ ` a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z { | } ~  €  ‚ ƒ „ … † ‡ ˆ ‰ Š ‹ Œ  Ž   ‘ ’ “ ” • – — ˜ ™ š › œ  ž Ÿ   Ё Ђ Ѓ Є Ѕ І Ї Ј Љ Њ Ћ Ќ ­ Ў Џ А Б В Г Д Е Ж З И Й К Л М Н О П Р С Т У Ф Х Ц Ч Ш Щ Ъ Ы Ь Э Ю Я а б в г д е ж з и й к л м н о п р с т у ф х ц ч ш щ ъ ы ь э ю я № ё ђ ѓ є ѕ і ї ј љ њ ћ ќ § ў џ                           ! 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44 ' PAGE 44  PAGE 44 . PAGE 44 PAGE 44 PAGE 44 z PAGE 44 s PAGE 44 PAGE 44 6 PAGE 44 PAGE 44 PAGE 44 generalizability PAGE 44 PAGE 44 PAGE 44 PAGE 44 PAGE 44 PAGE 44 norms PAGE 44 PAGE 44 generalizability total score .78 .85 ------------- PAGE 44 PAGE 45 --------- PAGE 45 ----------------- PAGE 45 Characteristics of the research with the SON-R outside The Netherlands ------------ PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 ests PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 Correlation with PAGE 45 criterion test PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 z PAGE 45 standardisations PAGE 3 i PAGE 3 in PAGE 3 PAGE 3 PAGE 3 i PAGE 3 PAGE 3 PAGE 3 of the SON-R tests PAGE 3 not primarily to be able to perform comparative studies across national, ethnic and cultural groups, butoften original test PAGE 3 e PAGE 3 As a check of the equivalence of the translated and original instrument the translated instrument is often back-translated into the source language. This checking procedure probably will reduce possible measurement inequivalence, but does not lead to guarantees that the two different language versions are psychometrically equivalent and can be compared legitimately (Hulin, 1987). for different cultures language as part of their content or testing format (nonverbal)back-process PAGE 3 PAGE 45 however, for these instruments PAGE 4 no empirical research PAGE 4 PAGE 4 in PAGE 4 PAGE 4 should be necessary. PAGE 5 in this respect PAGE 4 -sbecause of the fact PAGE 5 of PAGE 5 PAGE 5 that the i PAGE 6 v PAGE 6 subtests that PAGE 6 PAGE 45 PAGE 6 test intelligence PAGE 7 rather than in the subtests in which non-meaningful materials such as geometrical forms are used. PAGE 7 In the second part of this article a short description will be given of the SON-R tests. Part three will describe the validation studies done with the SON-R 2Н-7, the version for pre-school children, in Australia, the USA and in Great-Britain. In the fourth part cross-cultural studies with the SON-R 5Н-17 undertaken in China, Peru and Brazil will be summarised. In part five conclusions will be drawn on basis of the research data in reference to the question to what extent adaptations of the material of the SON-R tests (test instructions, testing format, examples, items) are required for cross-national and cross-cultural use. PAGE 44 PAGE 7 PAGE 45 p PAGE 7 PAGE 7 PAGE 7 PAGE 7 PAGE 7 PAGE 8 pe PAGE 8 PAGE 8 PAGE 8 PAGE 8 PAGE 45 PAGE 8 PAGE 8 PAGE 8 PAGE 8 tim PAGE 45 r PAGE 8 PAGE 8 elements PAGE 8 PAGE 8 ituations PAGE 8 PAGE 8 in the proper sequence SON-R 2Н-7 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 SON-R 5Н-17 SON-R 5Н-17 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 46 Characteristics of the SON-tests in the Netherlands SON-R 2Н-7 SON-R 5Н-17 age range 2;0  7;11 years 5;6  16;11 years N sample 1124 1350 N subtests 6 7 reasoning abilities Categories Categories Situations Situations Analogies Analogies ---- Stories spatial abilities Mosaics Mosaics Patterns Patterns Puzzles ---- perceptual abilities ---- Hidden Pictures administration time 50 min. 90 min. mean reliability subtests .72 .76 reliability total score .90 .93 generalizability total score .78 .85 Table 2 Characteristics of the research with the SON-R outside The Netherlands SON-R 2Н-7 Australia Great-Britain United States N of subjects 155 58 75/31/26/29/47 Age 4;5 (0;10) 6;3 (0;3) 5;1/4;7/4;7/5;6/4;7 Correlation with criterion test .78 (WPPSI-R PIQ) .87 (BAS 6 subt.) .59 (WPPSI-R FSIQ) .66 (K-ABC) .61 (MSCA) .47 (PPVT-R) .61 (PLS-3) SON-R 5Н-17 China Peru Brazil N of subjects 302 Age 11;6 Correlation with criterion test Items with problems Categories Situations Stories PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 China PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 PAGE 45 - PAGE 45 - PAGE 45 - PAGE 45 SON-R 5Н-17 Cross-cultural research with the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Tests. Cross-cultural research with the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Tests. Jaap A. Laros 1 and Peter J. Tellegen 2 1 University of Brasэlia, Brazil, 2 University of Groningen, The Netherlands Abstract The SON-R 2Н-7 and the SON-R 5Н-17 are the latest revisions of the Snijders-Oomen nonverbal intelligence test, originally developed in the Netherlands in 1943 for use with deaf children. The tests consist of 6 to 7 subtests mainly focussed on visual-spatial abilities and abstract and concrete reasoning. Research in the Netherlands indicates that the nonverbal SON-R tests are well suited for use with children of ethnic minorities. With traditional tests the cognitive abilities of minority children are often underestimated as a result of their lack of knowledge of the official language. Notwithstanding the favorite research results with minority children in The Netherlands, it cannot simply be assumed that the SON-R tests can be used unmodified in countries which are greatly different from The Netherlands. In this presentation we will discuss results obtained with the SON-R tests in Australia, the USA, Great Britain, China, Peru and Brazil. I Introduction With the latest revision and standardization in the Netherlands of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Tests, various cross-cultural validation studies have been initiated. The objective of these studies was to verify to which degree the SON-R tests can be used with cultures different from the cultures in Western Europe in general, and different from the cultures in the Netherlands in particular. In other words, the goal of these studies was to discern if, and to what extent adaptations of the material (e.g., test instructions, testing format, examples, items) of the SON-R tests are required for cross-national and cross-cultural use. The reason of the adaptation of the SON-R tests is to be able to assess in a fair way the construct of intelligence in multiple cultures. A crucial phase in the adaptation of conventional tests is the translation of the instrument from the source language into a target language. To obtain an equivalent test in another language or culture not only a translation is needed that preserves the meaning of the verbal test materials, but also additional changes may be necessary to insure the equivalence of the versions of the test in multiple languages or cultures, such as those affecting item format and testing procedures. (Hambleton, 1993). Close correspondence between the original version and the translated version is required before reliance can be placed on results based on translated tests. In addition to using effective translation practices, test users also need to examine the psychometric properties of translated tests (Ellis, 1995). The adaptation of nonverbal tests for multiple cultures does not include the difficult and often very problematic test translation phase and is therefore much less complicated than the adaptation process of (partly) verbal tests. The fact that the adaptation process of nonverbal tests is much less complicated than the one needed for intelligence tests which use written or spoken language is one of the great advantages of nonverbal intelligence tests. The circumstance that nonverbal intelligence tests often do not need translation, does not automatically mean that there is no need for empirical studies on the equivalence of their applications for different cultures. Van de Vijver and Poortinga (1997) noted that when a psychological instrument developed in one society is applied in a different cultural context, invariance of psychometric properties like reliability and validity cannot be merely assumed, but has to be empirically demonstrated. The occurrence of bias can change the psychometric properties of an instrument when it is used in a different culture. Bias can appear at various levels; at test-, subtest-, or at item-level. A test, subtest, or an item is biased if it does not measure the same psychological trait across cultural groups (Van de Vijver, 1998). Three different types of bias can be differentiated, construct bias, method bias and item bias (Van de Vijver & Poortinga, 1997). A test shows construct bias if the construct measured is not identical across different cultural groups. Method bias occurs as a consequence of nuisance variables due to method-related factors. Three sorts of method bias can be distinguished: sample bias, instrument bias and administration bias. Sample bias occurs when the samples are incomparable on aspects other than the target variable. Instrument bias is related to characteristics of the instrument that are not identical for different culture groups. An example of this kind of bias is stimulus familiarity. The third type of method bias occurs when there are problems related with the administration of a test. This type of bias can occur when communication problems arise because of the insufficient knowledge of the subject of the language that the examiner uses. Item bias occurs if persons with the same amount of the trait being estimated, but belonging to different groups have different probabilities of making a specific response to the item. The probability that administration bias will occur with a nonverbal intelligence test like the SON-R is low as that the instructions are given in a nonverbal or in a verbal way, dependent on the possibilities of communication of the subject. Moreover, the providing of feedback following each item and the  showing how to do it by the examiner reduces the chance of the occurrence of administration bias. Drenth (1975) has indicated the SON-test as an example of culture-reduced tests, meaning that these tests only measure a limited number of culturally determined skills that they do not intend to measure. Examples of culturally determined skills are: being able to use a pencil, being capable of working with numbers, and being able to understand the instructions. Drenth has argued that it is not essential for a culture-reduced test to produce similar score distributions in different cultural groups; the only condition for a culture-reduced test is that it should not reflect skill differences determined by cultural factors. Drenth defines a culture-fair test as a culture-reduced test for the particular groups under consideration. The conception of Jensen (1980) of a culture-reduced test differs slightly from DrenthДs conception: Jensen considers a test culture-reduced when the performance on this test is only to a limited extent influenced by culturally determined familiarity with the stimulus figures and response format. Jensen has formulated the following criteria for culture-reduced tests: (a) the test has to be a performance measure, (b) instructions should be given in mime to exclude the influence of language, (3) preliminary practice items should be provided, (4) items should not depend on time, (5) items should require abstract reasoning rather than factual information and (6) problems should be designed in such a way as to ensure subjects are unable to guess from memory of similar items encountered in the past. The SON-R tests do not satisfy all of the criteria of Jensen for culture-reduced tests because with one subtest of the SON-R 5Н-17 (Hidden Pictures) a time limit is being used. Jensen has also stated that the use of abstract geometrical figures reduces the likelihood of cultural bias. In the SON-R tests various subtests contain concrete, meaningful pictures instead of abstract, geometrical figures. The subtests using meaningful picture materials might be culture-specific. The research finding that immigrant children in the Netherlands (mainly children from Morocco, Turkey, Suriname and the Dutch Antilles) perform better on the SON-R tests than on traditional intelligence tests like the WISC-R and RAKIT (Laros & Tellegen, 1991; Tellegen, Winkel, Wijnberg-Williams & Laros, 1998) provides a positive empirical indication of the culture-fairness of the SON-R for the immigrant groups in the Dutch population. One of the reasons why immigrant children attain lower mean scores on traditional intelligence tests than on nonverbal intelligence tests like the SON-R is the relative strong reliance of these tests on verbal abilities and specific knowledge learned in school. This is especially the case with the so-called omnibus intelligence tests like the various Wechsler scales which contain subtests like Information and Vocabulary which presuppose specific knowledge learned in school (Helms-Lorenz & Van de Vijver, 1995). The fact that minority groups show lower means on a test, however, does not necessarily mean that a test is culturally biased. Van de Vijver & Poortinga (1992) argued that the desirability of cultural loadings in measurement procedures is determined by the intention of the test in question. If a particular test is intended to test knowledge gained during a course at school it is quite likely that culture-specific knowledge is tested. In this case, cultural loadings in tests are unavoidable and even desirable. In general a distinction can be made between generalizations about achievements and about aptitudes. In the latter case, cultural loadings are undesirable (Helms-Lorenz & Van de Vijver, 1995). A second research result with positive implications for the culture-fairness of the SON-R tests for the immigrant groups in the Netherlands is the finding that there is no relation between their length of stay in the Netherlands and their IQ-scores, indicating that performance on the SON-R is not dependent on knowledge of the Dutch language (Laros & Tellegen, 1991). Notwithstanding the existence of the positive indications of the culture-fairness of the SON-R tests, also some negative indications are available, especially in reference to the subtests of the SON-R in which concrete, meaningful picture materials are used instead of abstract geometrical figures. Our expectation before the start of the cross-cultural validation studies with the SON-R tests, was to encounter some bias in the subtests that use meaningful picture materials because some of the pictures used seemed rather specific for western cultures. Before presenting the results of these studies, a short description of the SON-R tests will be given. II Description of the SON-R tests The SON test was originally developed in 1943 by Snijders-Oomen for use with deaf children. She intended to measure a broad spectrum of intelligence functions without being dependent on the use of oral or written language. With subsequent revisions also norms and instructions for use with hearing subjects were developed. The latest revision comprises of separate tests for younger and older children, the SON-R 2Н-7 (Tellegen et al., 1998) and the SON-R 5Н-17 (Snijders, Tellegen & Laros, 1989). In table 1 some characteristics of the tests are presented. Most subtests are related to either reasoning abilities or spatial abilities while in the SON-R 5Н-17 also a test for perceptual abilities is included. In the subtest Categories the subject has to find the common element between three pictures and select two other pictures that belong to the same category. In Situations one or more parts are missing from a drawing and the subject has to select those parts from a number of alternatives to make the drawing a meaningful whole. In Analogies the transformation of an abstract element is shown and the subject has to perform the same transformation on another element by selecting the proper alternative. In Stories cards have to be ordered to make a meaningful story. The SON-R 2Н-7 The revised version of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Test (Tellegen et al., 1988) for children between the ages of 2Н to 7 years comprises 6 subtests. In sequence of administration the subtests are: Mosaics, Categories, Puzzles, Analogies, Situations and Patterns. In the subtest Mosaics the child is asked to copy different mosaic patterns with red/white squares. In the first part of the subtest Categories the child has to sort cards based on the category they belong; in the second part two out of five pictures have to be chosen, which are missing in a certain category of pictures. In the first part of Puzzles, three pieces have to be copied in a frame to resemble an example; in the second part the child is asked to form a whole from three to six puzzle pieces. In the first part of Analogies the child is required to sort three to five forms according to form, colour, and size into two compartments. In part two of Analogies a geometric figure changes in one or more aspects to form another figure. To obtain a similar transformation with a second figure, the child is asked to choose the correct alternative. In the fist part of Situations with items showing only the upper halves of four pictures, the child is asked to find the missing halves. In the second part of Situations the task is to indicate the missing parts of drawings of concrete situations. In Patterns the child is asked to copy several patterns with a pencil. The subtests Mosaics, Puzzles and Patterns reflect spatial abilities, while the remaining subtests Categories, Analogies and Situations are more directed to abstract and concrete reasoning abilities. The administration of the SON-R 2Н-7 occurs individually; the mean administration time of the SON-R 2Н-7 amounts to 50 minutes. A very important element of the instructions exist in the  showing how to do it of the examiner of a part of the items. Another very important aspect of the test administration is the feedback that the examiner offers after each item. The feedback offered with the SON-R 2Н-7 goes beyond the feedback given with the SON-R 5Н-17; the child is not only informed whether the answer was right or wrong, but the examiner helps the child to find the correct solution. Because of this aspect the SON-R 2Н-7 has more similarities with a learning potential test than with a traditional test of intelligence (Tellegen & Laros, 1993a). The standardization of the SON-R 2Н-7 is based on a nationwide sample of 1124 children varying in age from 2 years and 3 months to 7 years and three months. The reliability (alpha stratified) of the total score of the SON-R 2Н-7 increases from .86 at 2Н years to .92 at 7Н years with a mean value of .90. The generalizability of the total score (alpha) increases from .71 at 2Н years to .82 at 7Н years with a mean value of .78. The average reliability of the subtests is .72. The test-retest correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with an interval of 3 months is .79. Besides a total IQ-score on the SON-R 2Н-7 also scores on the Performance Scale and Reasoning Scale are being calculated. The score on the Performance Scale is based on the three performance subtests Mosaics, Puzzles and Patterns, and the score on the Reasoning Scale is based on the three reasoning subtests Categories, Analogies and Situations. The validity of the SON-R 2Н-7 has been investigated through various validation studies in the Netherlands and in other countries like Great Britain, the USA, and Australia by comparing the results on this test with results on other intelligence- and language development tests. The results of the studies outside the Netherlands will be described in the third part of this paper. The results on the SON-R 2Н-7 have been compared in the Netherlands with the following tests: the WISC-R, the WPPSI-R, the TONI-2, the Stutsman, the Kaufman-ABC, the BOS 2-30, the LDT, the RAKIT, the TOMAL, the DTVP-2 and the Reynell and Schlichting language development tests. The sample size of the various validation studies varies from 26 to 558 subjects; the mean sample size amounts to 118 subjects. The 21 correlations of the SON-R 2Н-7 with other non-verbal (intelligence) tests vary from .45 to .83 and have a mean value of .65. The 12 correlations with general intelligence measures vary from .54 to .87 with a mean of .65. The 19 correlations of the SON-R 2Н-7 with measures for verbal ability and verbal intelligence vary from .20 to .71 and have a mean value of .48. With some of the general intelligence tests it is possible to calculate the correlation with the performance scale, the verbal scale and with the total score. In all of these cases the correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the performance scale was higher than the correlation with the verbal scale. These diverse validation studies support the divergent and convergent validity of the SON-R 2Н-7, but the highly varying correlations imply that substantial differences between the scores on the SON-R 2Н-7 and on other intelligence tests can appear. Possible explanations for these highly varying correlations are: differences between the contents of the SON-R and other intelligence tests, differences in the test procedure of the SON-R and the various other tests, the very young age at which the children were tested and the great interval of time between the application of the tests. The SON-R 5Н-17 The revised version of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal intelligence test (Snijders, Tellegen & Laros, 1989) for children and adolescents between the ages of 5Н to 17 years consists of 7 subtests. In sequence of administration the 7 subtests are: Categories, Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns, Situations, Analogies and Stories. In Categories a child has to choose two out of five pictures, which are missing in a certain category of pictures. The task in Mosaics consists of copying figures with red/white squares. In Hidden Pictures the task is to find a given picture that is hidden several times in a bigger drawing. In Patterns a part of a particular pattern or line is missing: the child has to draw the missing part with a pencil. The task in Situations is to indicate the missing parts of drawings of concrete situations. In Analogies geometrical figures are presented with the problem format A : B = C : D; the child has to discover the principle behind the transformation A : B and apply it to figure C to find the correct figure D out of for alternatives. In Stories the child has to order a number of cards in such a way that they form a logical story. Categories, Situations and Analogies are multiple choice tests, while Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Stories are so-called  action tests. In action tests the solution has to be sought in an active manner which makes observation of behaviour possible. The SON-R 5Н-17 can be divided into four types of tests according to their contents: abstract reasoning tests (Categories & Analogies), concrete reasoning tests (Situations & Stories), spatial tests (Mosaics & Patterns) and perceptual tests (Hidden Pictures). Principal components analysis (PCA) has been performed on the subtest correlations to obtain empirical confirmation of the theoretical dimensions of the test. Although for the youngest age groups the four theoretical dimensions were supported by the loadings on the first four varimax rotated components, across all age groups the two component solution with a  reasoning and a  spatial component provided more consistent results. The SON-R 5Н-17 is administered individually; the average administration time amounts 1Н hours. The role of time scoring is kept to a minimum; only with the subtest Hidden Pictures an effective time is being used. For the other subtests sufficient time is allowed for the answering of each item. In the following two important aspects the administration procedure of the SON-R shows differences with the procedure used in traditional intelligence tests: (1) the providing of feedback following each item, and (2) the use of an adaptive procedure. The feedback given during the application of the SON-R 5Н-17 is restricted to informing the examinee whether the answer was right or wrong. The feedback clarifies the instructions and gives the child the opportunity to learn from his own errors and successes and to adjust his problem solving strategy. With the used test procedure of the SON-R each item becomes an opportunity to learn and adjust (Tellegen & Laros, 1993). The adaptive procedure is made possible by dividing the subtests in two or three parallel series of about 10 items; every child starts with the easiest item of the first series. Each series is broken off after two errors; the starting point for the next series is determined by the score on the preceding series. In this way, the administration of items is determined by the subjectДs individual performance and the presentation is limited to the most relevant items for each subject. On the average the number of items presented with the adaptive procedure is 50% of the total number of items in the subtests while the maximum number to presented amounts to about 60%. The standardization of the SON-R 5Н-17 is based on a nationwide sample of 1350 children and adolescents varying in age from 6 to 14 years. The reliability coefficient (alpha stratified) of the total score of the test increases from .90 at six years to .94 at fourteen years with a mean value of .93. The generalizability of the total score (alpha) increases from .81 at six years to .88 at fourteen years with a mean value of .85. The average reliability of the subtests is .76. The validity of the SON-R 5Н-17 is evident from the clear relationship with different indicators of school career such as school type, class repetition and school report marks. The mean multiple correlation of the SON-R with these indicators of school career amounts to .59. For children in the age group of 7 to 9 years the multiple correlation is .54, for children in the age group 10-11 years .60, and for children in the age group 13-14 years the multiple correlation increases to .63. III Cross-cultural studies with the SON-R 2Н-7 Research in Australia The validity study with the SON-R 2Н-7 in Australia was executed in 1996 in Victoria under supervision of Jo Jenkinson of the Deakin University in co-operation with the University of Groningen (Jenkinson, Roberts, Dennehy & Tellegen, 1996; Tellegen, 1997). The study is based on 155 subjects, 72 boys and 83 girls, with a mean age of 4 years and 5 months (standard deviation 10 months). Within the group of 155 children three groups can be differentiated: children without specific handicaps (N=59); hearing impaired children (N=59), and children with a developmental retardation (N=37). In this research both the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence  Revised (WPPSI-R) and the SON-R 2Н-7 were administrated in changing order; the mean interval between applications was 20 days. The SON-R 2Н-7 was administered according to the standard test procedure by psychology students from the University of Groningen, while the WPSSI-R was administrated by Australian psychologists. The hearing impaired children and the children with a developmental retardation only did the performance scale of the WPPSI-R. Results The correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the WPPSI-R in the total Australian sample amounts to .78. Within the three different groups the correlation between the performance scale of the WPSS-R and the SON-R 2Н-7 was .74, .74 and .75. Within the non-handicapped group the correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the verbal scale (.54) is lower than the correlation with the performance scale (.74) of the WPPSI-R. The scores on the SON-R 2Н-7 are on average 5 points lower than the scores on the WPSSI-R. Research in the USA The validation study executed in the USA (West Virginia) supervised by Stephen OДKeefe of the West-Virginia Graduate College implied the application of the SON-R 2Н-7 and five other cognitive tests. The tests that were applied were the following: the WPPSI-R, the Kaufman-ABC, the McCarthy Scales of Children s Abilities (MSCA), the Peabody Picture and Vocabulary Test - Revised (PPVT-R) and the Preschool Language Scale-3 (PLS-3). The SON-R 2Н-7 was partly administrated by psychology students from the University of Groningen, partly by psychologists from West Virginia. The amount of time between the administration of the SON-R 2Н-7 and the other tests generally was very short; in the majority of the cases the other test was applied on the same day. The PLS-3 was not administrated during this study; the test scores on the PLS-3 were collected on another occasion and could be used in this research. The number of children that both made the SON-R 2Н-7 and another test varied from 26 (in case of the MSCA) to 75 (in case of the WPPSI-R). Results The SON-R 2Н-7 had a correlation of .59 with the total score on the WPPSI-R; the correlations with the performance and verbal scales were .60 and .43 respectively. The average age of the 75 children that did both tests was 5.1 years. The mean total score on the SON-R 2Н-7 was more than two points lower than the total score on the WPPSI-R (94.5 versus 96.8) and nearly four points lower than the performance scale of the WPPSI-R (94.5 versus 98.3). The SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation of .66 with the Kaufman-ABC. The correlation with the simultaneous scale was much higher than with the scale for sequential processing (.58 versus .29). The correlation with the nonverbal scale of the Kaufman-ABC amounted to .61. The average age of the 31 children that did both the Kaufman-ABC and the SON-R 2Н-7 was 4.6 years. With the general cognitive index of the MSCA the SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation of .61; the correlation with the verbal scale was .48; while the correlation with the perceptual performance scale amounted to .61. The average age of the 26 children that did both tests was 4.6 years. The correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the PPVT-R was .47; the average age of the 29 children that did both tests was 5.5 years. With the total language score of the PLS-3 the SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation of .61; with the Auditory Comprehension Scale the correlation was .59, while the correlation with the Expressive Communication Scale amounted to .56. The average age of the 47 children who did both tests was 4.6 years. Research in Great Britain During this validation research in Great Britain which took place in 1996 and that was supervised by Julie Dockrell of the University of London, the SON-R 2Н-7 and the British Ability Scales (BAS) were both administrated. The BAS was administrated by psychology students from the University of London, and the SON-R was applied by psychology students from the University of Groningen. Both tests were applied in changing order to 58 children, 34 boys and 24 girls, from the first year of primary school. The mean age of the children was 6;3 years (standard deviation 3 months). The interval between test administrations varied from some days to some weeks. Within the total sample three groups of children can be distinguished: a group without specific handicaps (N=20), a group for which English is the second language (N=22), and a group with learning disabilities (N=16). Six subtests of the BAS were applied, the four subtests of the short version (Naming Vocabulary, Digit Recall, Similarities, and Matrices) and two extra nonverbal subtests (Block Design and Visual Recognition). Results The correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the short version of the BAS is .80. When the two nonverbal subtests are included the correlation augments to .87. The correlation with the verbal part (three verbal subtests) of the shortened version of the BAS was .71, while the correlation with the performance part (three nonverbal subtests) amounted to .78. The correlations in the group of children without any handicaps are considerably lower than in the other two groups (.56 versus .76 and .78). In the total English sample the SON-R IQ-scores are 7 points lower than on the short form of the BAS. The difference in IQ-scores between the group of normal children and children with learning disabilities for the SON-R 2Н-7 is 40.8 points and for the short form of the BAS 42.8 points. Conclusions of the studies in Australia, the USA, and Great Britain In the three cross-cultural studies the correlations of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the performance scales of a number of criterion tests could be compared to the correlations with the verbal scales. In all three studies the correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the performance scale of the criterion test was clearly stronger than with the verbal scale. In the Australian study the SON-R 2Н-7 showed correlations with the performance and verbal scales of the WPPSI-R of .74 and .54 respectively; in the study in the USA these correlations were .60 and .43. In the same study the SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation of .61 with the perceptual performance scale of the MSCA, and a correlation of .48 with the verbal scale of the MSCA. In the research in Great Britain the SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation with the performance part of the BAS of .78 and a correlation of .71 with the verbal part of the BAS. These correlations obtained in Australia, the USA and Great Britain support the convergent and the divergent validity of the SON-R 2Н-7. IV Cross-cultural Studies with the SON-R 5Н-17 Research in China Chinese psychology students in collaboration with Milly Judistera, a Dutch psychologist, executed the research with the SON-R 5Н-17 in China, which took place in 1996. The study was supervised in China by Professor Zhang Hou Can of the Beijing Normal University. This study was a pilot study as a preparation of the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5Н-17 for China. All 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-7 were administrated according to the standard test procedure by Chinese psychology students to a sample of 302 Chinese children, consisting of 165 boys and 137 girls. To make the administration of the test possible, the instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17 were translated into the Chinese language. The Chinese students were trained in the administration of the SON-R 5Н-17 by Milly Judistira with help of an English speaking Chinese psychology student as an interpreter. The Chinese subjects were tested in the following age groups: 6Н-year-olds (103), 11Н-year-olds (94), and 14Н-year-olds (105). The children came from Beijing (23), Tianjin (81), Miyun (77) and Guangrao (121). The sampling procedure used was not a random procedure; the schools were chosen on basis of existing contacts with the University of Beijing, and within the schools children were chosen by the teachers. Although the teachers claimed to have chosen the children in a random manner, there is no guarantee that this really was the case. The research results therefore have to be interpreted with some caution. Psychometric characteristics The generalizabilty coefficient (alpha) of the total score of the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Chinese sample increases from .76 at 6Н years to .82 at 14Н years with a mean value of .80. These values are lower than the ones found for the Dutch standardization sample; here the generalizability of the total score increased from .81 at 6Н years to .88 at 14Н years with a mean value of .85. The generalizability coefficient is computed by the usual coefficient alpha in which the subtests are the unit of analysis; the number of subtests and the mean correlation between the subtests determine this coefficient. The mean correlation between the 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 was lower for the three Chinese age groups than for the comparable age groups of the Dutch sample (.31, .40, and .42 versus .37, .50 and .51). The mean of the standardized total score obtained by the Chinese children was quite close to the mean standardized total score of the Dutch norm group (98.9 versus 100). The mean scores of the Chinese children on Categories, Situations and Stories, all subtests that use meaningful picture materials, were lower in comparison with the Dutch norm group (respectively 93.6, 91.6, and 95.3 versus 100). The mean of these three subtests amounts to 93.5. The mean scores of the Chinese children on Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies, all subtests using non-meaningful picture material such as geometrical forms, were 96.9, 101.9, 104.2 and 108.1. The mean of these four subtests amounts to 102.8 and is higher in comparison to the mean score of the four subtests in the Dutch norm group (100). The difference found in the Chinese sample between the mean score of the subtests with meaningful picture material (93.5) and the mean score of the subtests with non-meaningful picture material (102.8) is significant at the 5% level. This result is an indication that the Chinese children had more difficulties with the subtests that use meaningful picture materials than with the subtests using non-meaningful picture materials. The relative low scores of the Chinese children on Categories, Situations and Stories were conform to expectations beforehand; the meaningful pictures used in these subtests were not expected to be familiar to cultures very different from the Dutch culture. In one of the items of the subtest Categories, for instance, people leaving a church is shown; such a situation did appear not to be very familiar to Chinese children. The lower mean score on Mosaics (96.9 versus 100) does not correspond with earlier expectations since the item material of this subtest consist of abstract geometrical figures which according to Jensen (1980) reduces the probability of cultural bias. The Chinese children did not show any problems with the other two subtests containing abstract geometrical figures; on these subtests, Patterns and Analogies, they even showed higher mean scores than their Dutch colleagues (104.2 and 108.1 versus 100). The lower score on Mosaics might be a result of the fact that the majority of the Chinese children were not tested with the original version of the subtest Mosaics. Due to financial restrictions there was only one original SON-R 5Н-17 test available for the research in China; in order to be able to test various children in the same period of time a number of copies of the test were made. The squares of the copied version of Mosaics did not fit very well in the frame in which the mosaic patterns had to be copied. Probably, the use of test material, which was not standardized, has caused the lower score of the Chinese children on Mosaics. Factor analysis failed to show a clear similarity between the factor structure of the 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Chinese sample and in the Dutch standardization sample. In the Dutch sample Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with varimax rotation resulted in two clear factors: a  reasoning and a  spatial factor. Although in the youngest age groups four factors appeared ( spatial ,  concrete reasoning ,  abstract reasoning , and  perception ) the two factor solution offered better and more consistent results across all different age groups. In the Chinese sample PCA with varimax rotation did not provide the same results as in the Netherlands. In the Dutch research the two spatial subtests showed high loadings on the second factor (the  spatial factor) while in the Chinese study this only seems to be the case for the youngest group. Moreover, in the Dutch research Categories showed high loadings on the first factor (the  reasoning factor); but this was not the case for the eldest group of the Chinese sample. The results of the factor analysis suggest a lack of test equivalence of the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Chinese and the Dutch culture. These results, however, have to be interpreted with some caution because reservations can be made about the appropriateness of factor analysis as a method for assessing equivalence of test applications in different cultures. Hambleton & Bollwark, (1991) note in this respect that the disadvantage of factor analysis is that the results are sample dependent, since it is based on classical item statistics. Their conclusion also applies to other often used classical statistical methods to detect a possible cultural loading of a test that are sample dependent, like the comparison of p-values and the comparison of total test scores. All these methods presuppose the use of equal ability groups. Even in the case of non-equal ability groups researchers must still check that the ordering of item difficulties is the same in the two different cultures (Hambleton & Kanjee, 1995). Following the recommendation of Hambleton & Kanjee, the correlation coefficients between the ordering of the item difficulties in the two cultures have been calculated. The SpearmanДs rho correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the six subtests of the SON-R (one subtest, Hidden Pictures, does not consist of independent items so no correlations could be computed) obtained in the Chinese sample and in the Dutch sample are the following: .98 (Categories), .99 (Mosaics), .99 (Patterns), .98 (Situations), .99 (Analogies) & .98 (Stories). Although the correlations between the item difficulties in the two cultures are all very high, Categories, Situations, and Stories show a slightly lower correlation than the remaining subtests. This might be an indication of cultural bias of these subtests. The above-described psychometric characteristics of the SON-R 5Н-17 in this study with 302 Chinese children suggest that the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories might have a cultural bias. A next step in this study was an attempt to identify the sources of this possible cultural bias of the three subtests. Results of the judgmental procedure According to Hambleton (1993) both judgmental and statistical methods should be used in studies to determine the equivalence of a test in multiple languages or cultures. In this study the judgmental procedure consisted of the reviewing on the aspect of possible cultural bias of the test instructions, the testing format, the examples, and all the items of Categories, Situations and Stories for the Chinese population of children from 6 to 17 years of age. The reviewing took place during a group discussion with the Chinese psychology students. The test instructions, the testing format and the examples used in the SON-R 5Н-17 were judged by them as containing no cultural bias. The only aspect of the testing procedure that caused some problems for the Chinese administrators of the SON-R 5Н-17 was the providing of feedback after each item. Some students reported that they felt uncomfortable giving feedback because they believed that this might influence the emotions of the children. Possibly the problems with the provision of feedback is related to the fact that in the Chinese culture communication often occurs in an indirect manner. The results of the judgmental procedure with respect to the items of the three subtests are the following: 6 items of Categories (items 2b, 3b, 4b, 6a, 7a, and 9b) and 3 items of Situations (2b, 2c and 10b) were identified as being possibly culture specific. For the subtest Stories no culture specific items were identified. For these culture specific items new items have been developed that are adapted to the Chinese culture. A Chinese student of the art academy has drawn the adapted items. In the future standardization and validation research of the SON-R 5Н-17 in China the items that were identified as being culture specific will be replaced by the adapted items. Research in Peru The validation study with the SON-R 5Н-17 in Peru took place in 1996 and was executed by two psychology students from the University of Groningen, and by Peruvian psychologists. The research was supervised in Peru by Veronica Bisso Cajas, from the Consortium of Catholic Centres of Education in Lima. This study served as a preparation of the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5Н-17 for Peru. All 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-7 were administrated according to the standard test procedure by the two Dutch psychology students and by ten Peruvian psychologists. To make the administration of the test possible, the instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17 were translated into Spanish. The Peruvian psychologists were trained in the administration procedure of the SON-R 5Н-17. The test was administrated to a sample of 160 Peruvian children, consisting of 79 boys and 81 girls. The age of the children varied from 6 years to 15 years with a mean of 9;4 years. All the subjects of the Peruvian sample lived in the city of Lima, the capital of Peru; 50% of the children came from State schools and 50% private schools. The State schools in Peru are fully supported by the government; children who visit these schools generally come from families with a low SES-level and often live in very poor circumstances. The private schools are partly financed by religious congregations and private persons; children who frequent these schools generally come from families with a high or moderately high SES-level. The sampling procedure used was only partially a random procedure; the schools were chosen on basis of existing contacts with the Consortium of Catholic Centres of Education, but within the schools children were selected at random. In this research there is an over-representation of children with moderate and high SES levels. The Peruvian sample cannot be considered as representative for Peru, nor for Lima. The results of this study, therefore, cannot simply be generalised to all of Peru and have to be interpreted with caution. Psychometric characteristics The results of this study show that the Peruvian children obtained a lower mean score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the children of the Dutch norm group (94.0 versus 100). The mean scores of the Peruvian children on Categories, Situations and Stories, the subtests which use meaningful picture material, were 97.1, 91.7 and 93.1. The mean of these three subtests amounts to 93.9. The mean scores of the Peruvian children on Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies, all subtests using non-meaningful picture materials, were 91.6, 92.2, 101.4, and 98.1. The mean of these four subtests amounts to 95.8. The difference between the mean score of the subtests with meaningful picture material (93.9) and the mean score of the subtests with non-meaningful picture material (95.8) is significant at the 5% level. This finding is in accordance with expectations beforehand; Peruvian children, like the Chinese children, showed more problems with the subtests containing meaningful pictures than with the subtests containing non-meaningful pictures. To check whether the ordering of item difficulties was the same in the Peruvian sample and the Dutch sample Spearman s rho correlation coefficients were calculated. The correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Peruvian sample and in the Dutch norm sample are .97, .98, and .97. These correlations are based on 48 children from the total sample of Peruvian children. Note that the correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Peruvian and in the Dutch sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations between the item difficulties found in the Chinese and the Dutch sample. In addition to the SON-R 5Н-17 also a Spanish version of the WISC-R was administered to all 160 children of the Peruvian sample in order to obtain information about the validity of the SON-R 5Н-17 in Peru. Since there were no Peruvian norms available for the WISC-R, norm scores were used that are based on the standardization sample of the USA (Wechsler, 1974). The correlation of the SON-R 5Н-17 with the full scale of the WISC-R was .77, with the performance scale .74 and with the verbal scale .69. These correlations are slightly lower compared to those found in a study in the Netherlands with 35 children from an outdoor psychiatric university clinic (Tellegen & Laros, 1993b). In this study the correlation of the SON-R 5Н-17 with the full scale of the WISC-R was .80, with the performance scale .80 and with the verbal scale .66. The mean IQ-score of the Peruvian sample on the WISC-R was 96.7; the mean score on the verbal scale 94.3 and the mean score on the performance scale 100.2 These scores cannot simply be compared to the mean IQ-score on the SON-R 5Н-17 because the tests have been standardized in different years; the WISC-R was standardized in 1974 and the SON-R 5Н-17 in 1988. As Flynn (1987) has observed, norms on intelligence tests are becoming stricter during the years. In a recent study (Sattler, 1992) comparing the norms of the WISC-R with those of the most recent version of the Wechsler test for children, the WISC-III (Wechsler, 1991), the norm scores on the WISC-III appeared to be lower than the norm scores on the WISC-R. In the 17 years between the two standardizations (1974-1991) the norm scores for the full scale decreased 5.3 points, for the verbal scale 2.4 points, and for the performance scale 7.4 points. Based on the differences found between the norms of the WISC-R and the WISC-III one can correct the obtained scores for the differences in years of standardization of the WISC-R and the SON-R 5Н-17. After correction, the mean norm score on the WISC-R of the Peruvian sample becomes 92.3 for the full scale, 94.1 for the performance scale and 92.3 for the verbal scale. The Peruvian children obtain, after correction, a higher score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than on the WISC-R. Results of the judgmental procedure To identify culture specific items of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories a judgmental procedure was used. With the remaining subtests (Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns, Analogies) no judgmental procedure was used, because these subtests are less likely to be culture specific. When a child responded incorrectly on an item of Categories, Situations or Stories the examiner checked, after testing, whether the pictures used in the item were understood by the child. This procedure, however, has not been followed in a systematic way; not all the children, who responded incorrectly to an item, were asked if the pictures used in that particular were familiar to them. The difference with the judgmental procedure used in the Chinese study is that there the examiners (psychology students) were asked to judge the cultural loading of the items; in this study the examinees (children) were asked to give their judgement. The results of the judgmental procedure with respect to the items of the three subtests are the following: 3 items of Categories (items 1a, 2b, and 4a) and 2 items and one example of Situations (example A, and items 2c and 4b) were identified as being possibly culture specific. Research in Brazil The research in Brazil, which took place in 1996, was executed under the supervision of Jaap Laros of the University of Brasilia, one of the authors of the SON-R tests. Six psychology students of the above-mentioned university did the actual test administration at schools. To make the administration of the test possible, the test instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17 were translated into Portuguese. The Brazilian psychology students were trained in the administration of the SON-R 5Н-17 by their supervisor. The study was a preparation for the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5Н-17 for Brazil. In this Brazilian study the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories of the SON-R 5Н-17 were administered individually to a sample of 82 Brazilian children, consisting of 41 girls and 41 boys. The age of the children varied from 7 to 14 years with a mean of 10,4 years. All children came from 2 state schools from Brasilia, the capital of Brazil. The two schools differed in respect to the SES-level of their pupils; the 36 children from the first school generally came from families with a moderate SES-level, while the 46 children from the second school principally came from families with a low SES-level. The sampling procedure used was not a totally random procedure; the schools were selected on the basis of existing contacts with the University of Brasilia, but within the schools the children were selected at random, using only their age as a selection criterion. The Brazilian sample cannot be considered to be representative for Brazil, nor for Brasilia. The results of this study should therefore be interpreted with some caution. To gain additional information on possible cultural bias, the three subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 have been administered in a nonstandard fashion. Van de Vijver & Poortinga (1997) stress the importance of nonstandard administration of tests in cross-cultural studies to evaluate the adequacy of stimulus and response formats, and of the test administration procedure. In such a nonstandard test procedure it usually is very informative to ask examinees to motivate their responses. In the standard procedure of the SON-R 5Н-17 the subtests are divided into two or three parallel series of about 10 items; each child starts with the easiest item of the first series, but with which item of the second or third series is started, depends on the performance of the child on the previous series. In the nonstandard procedure used in this study the items were offered in order of increasing difficulty; the subtests Categories and Situations with 27 and 33 items were broken off after twelve errors, while the subtest Stories with 20 items was broken off after 8 errors. With the use of this nonstandard test procedure the children responded to much more items than would have been the case if the standard adaptive procedure had used. The average number of items administrated with the adaptive procedure is 50% of the total number of items; with the nonstandard procedure this number amounts to about 90% of the total number of items. Psychometric characteristics The reliability coefficients (alpha) for the three subtests in the Brazilian sample were as follows: .85 for Categories, .87 for Situations and .82 for Stories. When corrected for the influence of age, the corrected reliability coefficients are: .76 for Categories, .82 for Situations and .76 for Stories. These values of the reliability coefficients are quite similar to the values found in a Dutch sample of 415 subjects when the three subtests were administrated without an adaptive procedure (Laros & Tellegen, 1991, page 33). The results from this research indicate further that the Brazilian children obtained a lower mean total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 (based on the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories) in comparison to the Dutch norm group (96.2 versus 100). The mean scores of the Brazilian children for Categories (94.8) and Situations (95,0) are relatively low in comparison with the Dutch norm group (100); the mean score of the Brazilian sample on Stories (97.5) comes close to the mean score of their Dutch colleagues. The children of the school with a comparatively low SES-level seemed to have more difficulties with Categories and Situations than the children of the school with a higher SES-level. The mean score of the low SES-group (N=46) on the three subtests was 94.8 while the mean scores on the three subtests were as follows: Categories 92.9, Situations 92.5 and Stories 97.0. It can be concluded that Brazilian children had more problems with Categories and Situations than with Stories. This trend seems to get stronger for Brazilian children with a low SES-level. The Spearman s rho correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Brazilian sample and in the Dutch norm sample are .97, .92, and .96. The relative low correlation coefficient for the subtest Situations might be an indication of item bias in this subtest, but might also reflect the different test administration procedures that were used in the Dutch and the Brazilian research. If the latter were the case, the use of the non-standard administration procedure would have had more effect on the item difficulties of Situations than on the item difficulties of the other two subtests. In addition to the administration of the three subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17, other data of the 82 Brazilian children were gathered in order to obtain information about the validity of the subtests. School marks on mathematics, science, and Portuguese were collected for every child of the Brazilian sample. The school marks give an indication of the school achievement of the children. The children were also evaluated on their motivation, cooperation and concentration by their schoolteachers and by the psychology students that administrated (a part of) the SON-R 5Н-17. Of the three subtests, the report marks showed the highest correlations with the subtest Categories: science (.61); mathematics (.59), and Portuguese (.38); they showed the lowest correlations with the subtest Stories: science (.26); mathematics (.36), and Portuguese (.29). The correlations of the report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 are as following: science (.52); mathematics (.49), and Portuguese (.38). The multiple correlation of the report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 amounts to .60. The correlations of report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Dutch norm sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations found in the Brazilian sample. Considering the fact that in the Brazilian study the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 was based on only three instead of all seven subtests, the correlations in this study are quite high. The judgment of the teachers on motivation, cooperation and concentration of their pupils correlated higher with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the judgment of the psychology students. When the judgment scores of the teachers and the psychology students were combined into a mean score, these scores showed a higher correlation with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the scores based on the judgment of the teachers alone. The correlation of the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 with the mean score on motivation is .40, with the mean score on cooperation .45, and with the mean score on concentration .19. The multiple correlation of the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 with the mean scores on motivation, cooperation and concentration is .50. Results of the judgmental procedure The judgmental procedure used in this research consisted of the following: when a child responded incorrectly on an example or an item the examiner checked, immediately after the incorrect answer, whether the child understood the pictures that were used in the item. This procedure was followed in a systematic way, and formed the basis on which conclusions were made regarding the cultural specificity of the items. For the subtest Categories the judgmental procedure implied that after each incorrectly answered item the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with eight figures. [Each item of the subtest Categories is build up out of eight figures; three figures define the category, and five figures are the alternatives from which the child has to choose two that pertain to the category]. In case of the subtest Situations the procedure implied that after each incorrectly answered item, the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with five to fourteen figures. The procedure implied for the subtest Stories that the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with four to seven figures for every incorrectly answered item. As a consequence of this time consuming test procedure the amount of time needed to administer the three subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 came close to an hour. The results obtained with this judgmental procedure indicate that the Brazilian children had no problems understanding the subtest instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17. On the basis of the answers that the children provided with respect to their (un)familiarity with the figures used in the items, 14 items were identified as being possibly culture-specific; 10 items of Categories (items 2b, 2c, 3a, 4a, 4b, 5c, 6a, 8a, 8c and 9c) and 4 items of Situations (items 2b, 3c, 4a, and 10b). The criterion which was used to classify an item as being possibly culture specific was the following: when one of the figures that form an item was indicated by more than 5% of the Brazilian sample as being unfamiliar an item was classified as being possibly culture specific. Maybe this criterion might be a little too strict, considering the large amount of items of the subtest Categories that were classified as possibly culture specific. In case of the subtest Categories twice as many figures used in the alternatives were unfamiliar to the Brazilian children than the figures that defined the category. With the subtest Situations, however, twice as many  main figures were identified as unfamiliar than the figures used in the alternatives. For the subtest Stories no adaptations for the Brazilian culture were found to be necessary. Conclusions of the studies in China, Peru and Brazil. In the cross-cultural validation studies in China and Peru, where all seven subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 were administrated, the average of the mean scores on the three subtests with meaningful picture materials (Categories, Situations and Stories) was significantly lower at 5% level than the average of the mean scores on the four remaining subtests that contain non-meaningful picture materials (Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies). This research finding is in accordance with our expectations beforehand that were partially based on the theoretical considerations of Jensen (1980) about culture-fair tests. This result indicates a possible cultural bias in the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories. Another indication of possible bias is given by the correlation between the item difficulties in the Dutch norm group and the item difficulties in different cultures. The correlation coeffcients give an indication of the extent in which the ordering of item difficulties is the same in the two different cultures. A different ordering of the items might indicate that the items do not have the same meaning for two different cultural groups. The Spearman s rho correlation coefficients for the subtests Mosaics, Patterns, and Analogies in the Chinese study were all .99. The correlation coefficients for Categories in the Chinese, Peruvian, and Brazilian study are respectively .98, .97, and .97; for Situations .98, .98, and .92; for Stories .98, .97, and .96. Although all the correlation coefficients are quite high, the correlations for the three subtests Categories, Situations and Stories in which meaningful picture materials are used, are somewhat lower which might indicate possible bias in these subtests. The lowest correlations were found in the Brazilian sample, but there the nonstandard test procedure makes a straightforward comparison with the item difficulties in the Dutch sample problematic. The reliability coefficients of the subtests in the three studies are comparable with the coefficients found in the Dutch sample, although the values in the Dutch sample are somewhat higher. In the Chinese study, the only study where a factor analysis was performed, the resulting factor structure failed to show a clear similarity with the factor structure in the Dutch sample. This might be an indication of the cultural loading of some of the subtests. In the Peruvian and Brazilian study clear indications of the validity of the SON-R 5Н-17 were found. The SON-R 5Н-17 showed a relatively high correlation with the WISC-R (.77) in the Peruvian study. In the Brazilian study the standardized total score based on three subtests of the SON-R showed satisfactory correlations with school marks on science (.52); mathematics (.49), and Portuguese (.38). The correlations of report marks with the total score on the SON-R based on 7 subtests in the Dutch sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations found in the Brazilian sample. In the Brazilian study the total score on the SON-R, based on three subtests, correlated .40 with motivation, .45 with cooperation and .19 with concentration. In all three studies a judgmental procedure was used for the identification of item bias in the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories. In the Chinese study the Chinese psychology students who applied the SON-R 5Н-17 reviewed the items on the aspect of possible cultural bias. In the Peruvian and Brazilian study the children who responded incorrectly to an item were asked if the pictures that were used in that item were understood by them. As a result of this procedure 14 of the 33 items (42%) of the subtest Categories have been identified as possibly culture specific. One of these items has been identified as culture specific in all three studies (item 2b), 3 items were identified as biased in two studies (items 4a, 4b and 6a) and 9 items were identified as biased in just one study (items 1a, 2c, 3a, 3b, 5c, 7a, 8a, 8c, and 9c). For the subtest Situations 6 of the 33 items (18%) and one example were identified as possibly culture specific. Three of the items were identified in two different studies (items 2b, 2c, and 10b); the remaining 3 items were identified as biased in just one study (items 3c, 4a, 4b). The example that was identified as culture specific (example A) was identified in only one study. V General Conclusions The research results obtained in various countries for both the SON-R 2Н-7 and the SON-R 5Н-17 indicate that both tests can be used in cultures that are different from the Dutch culture. The validity-coefficients of both SON-R tests encountered in various countries are comparable to the validity-coefficients found in the Dutch norm sample. For the SON-R 5Н-17, however, some adaptations will have to be made in the subtests Categories and Situations. For the subtest Categories 42% of the items will have be adapted, while for the subtest Situations 18% of the items and one example will have to be adapted. For the other subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 no adaptations have to be made. Although no specific research have been done to item bias of the SON-R 2Н-7, adaptations of this test seems to be less necessary. For this young age group the test uses only very simple pictures. In the construction phase of this test special attention was paid to possible item bias. The research result that immigrant children in the Netherlands had the same mean score on the subtests that use meaningful picture materials as on the subtests that use non-meaningful picture materials such as geometrical forms, is an empirical argument indicating the culture-fairness of the SON-R 2Н-7. Only future empirical research will tell whether the impression is correct that for cross-cultural use of the SON-R 2Н-7 no adaptations are necessary. VI References Anastasi, A. (1989). Psychological testing (6th edition). New York: Macmillan. Brouwer, A., Koster, M. & Veenstra, B. (1995). Validation of the Snijders-Oomen Test (SON-R2Н-7) for Dutch and Australian children with disabilities. Groningen: Internal Report, Department of Educational and Personality Psychology. Ceci, S.J. (1991). How much does schooling influence general intelligence and its cognitive components? A reassessment of the evidence. Developmental Psychology, 27, 703-722. Cooper, C.R. & Denner, J. (1998). 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Table 1 Characteristics of the SON-tests in the Netherlands SON-R 2Н-7 SON-R 5Н-17 age range 2;0  7;11 years 5;6  16;11 years N sample 1124 1350 N subtests 6 7 reasoning abilities Categories Categories Situations Situations Analogies Analogies ---- Stories spatial abilities Mosaics Mosaics Patterns Patterns Puzzles ---- perceptual abilities ---- Hidden Pictures administration time 50 min. 90 min. mean reliability subtests .72 .76 reliability total score .90 .93 generalizability total score .78 .85 Table 2 Characteristics of the research with the SON-R outside The Netherlands SON-R 2Н-7 Australia Great-Britain United States N of subjects 155 58 75/31/26/29/47 Age 4;5 (0;10) 6;3 (0;3) 5;1/4;7/4;7/5;6/4;7 Correlation with criterion test .78 (WPPSI-R PIQ) .87 (BAS 6 subt.) .59 (WPPSI-R FSIQ) .66 (K-ABC) .61 (MSCA) .47 (PPVT-R) .61 (PLS-3) SON-R 5Н-17 China Peru Brazil N of subjects 302 160 82 Age 11;6 9;4 10;5 Correlation with criterion test - .77 (WISC-R FSIQ) .60 (school marks) Items with problems: Categories 6 3 10 Situations 3 2 4 Stories 0 0 0 W PAGE 18 With the latest revision and standardization in the Netherlands of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Tests, various cross-cultural validation studies have been initiated. The objective of these studies was to verify to which degree the SON-R tests can be used with cultures different from the cultures in Western Europe in general, and different from the cultures in the Netherlands in particular. In other words, the goal of these studies was to discern if, and to what extent adaptations of the material (e.g., test instructions, testing format, examples, items) of the SON-R tests are required for cross-national and cross-cultural use. The reason of the adaptation of the SON-R tests is to be able to assess in a fair way the construct of intelligence in multiple cultures. I A crucial phase in the adaptation of conventional tests is the translation of the instrument from the source language into a target language. To obtain an equivalent test in another language or culture not only a translation is needed that preserves the meaning of the verbal test materials, but also additional changes may be necessary to insure the equivalence of the versions of the test in multiple languages or cultures, such as those affecting item format and testing procedures. (Hambleton, 1993). Close correspondence between the original version and the translated version is required before reliance can be placed on results based on translated tests. In addition to using effective translation practices, test users also need to examine the psychometric properties of translated tests (Ellis, 1995). The adaptation of nonverbal tests for multiple cultures does not include the difficult and often very problematic test translation phase and is therefore much less complicated than the adaptation process of (partly) verbal tests. PAGE 18 The fact that the adaptation process of nonverbal tests is much less complicated than the one needed for intelligence tests which use written or spoken language is one of the great advantages of nonverbal intelligence tests. The circumstance that nonverbal intelligence tests often do not need translation, does not automatically mean that there is no need for empirical studies on the equivalence of their applications for different cultures. Van de Vijver and Poortinga (1997) noted that when a psychological instrument developed in one society is applied in a different cultural context, invariance of psychometric properties like reliability and validity cannot be merely assumed, but has to be empirically demonstrated. The occurrence of bias can change the psychometric properties of an instrument when it is used in a different culture. Bias can appear at various levels; at test-, subtest-, or at item-level. A test, subtest, or an item is biased if it does not measure the same psychological trait across cultural groups (Van de Vijver, 1998). Three different types of bias can be differentiated, construct bias, method bias and item bias (Van de Vijver & Poortinga, 1997). A test shows construct bias if the construct measured is not identical across different cultural groups. Method bias occurs as a consequence of nuisance variables due to method-related factors. Three sorts of method bias can be distinguished: sample bias, instrument bias and administration bias. Sample bias occurs when the samples are incomparable on aspects other than the target variable. Instrument bias is related to characteristics of the instrument that are not identical for different culture groups. An example of this kind of bias is stimulus familiarity. The third type of method bias occurs when there are problems related with the administration of a test. This type of bias can occur when communication problems arise because of the insufficient knowledge of the subject of the language that the examiner uses. Item bias occurs if persons with the same amount of the trait being estimated, but belonging to different groups have different probabilities of making a specific response to the item. PAGE 1 The probability that administration bias will occur with a nonverbal intelligence test like the SON-R is low as that the instructions are given in a nonverbal or in a verbal way, dependent on the possibilities of communication of the subject. Moreover, the providing of feedback following each item and the  showing how to do it by the examiner reduces the chance of the occurrence of administration bias. PAGE 2 The research finding that immigrant children in the Netherlands (mainly children from Morocco, Turkey, Suriname and the Dutch Antilles) perform better on the SON-R tests than on traditional intelligence tests like the WISC-R and RAKIT (Laros & Tellegen, 1991; Tellegen, Winkel, Wijnberg-Williams & Laros, 1998) provides a positive empirical indication of the culture-fairness of the SON-R for the immigrant groups in the Dutch population. One of the reasons why immigrant children attain lower mean scores on traditional intelligence tests than on nonverbal intelligence tests like the SON-R is the relative strong reliance of these tests on verbal abilities and specific knowledge learned in school. This is especially the case with the so-called omnibus intelligence tests like the various Wechsler scales which contain subtests like Information and Vocabulary which presuppose specific knowledge learned in school (Helms-Lorenz & Van de Vijver, 1995). The fact that minority groups show lower means on a test, however, does not necessarily mean that a test is culturally biased. Van de Vijver & Poortinga (1992) argued that the desirability of cultural loadings in measurement procedures is determined by the intention of the test in question. If a particular test is intended to test knowledge gained during a course at school it is quite likely that culture-specific knowledge is tested. In this case, cultural loadings in tests are unavoidable and even desirable. In general a distinction can be made between generalizations about achievements and about aptitudes. In the latter case, cultural loadings are undesirable (Helms-Lorenz & Van de Vijver, 1995). PAGE 2 PAGE 3 A second research result with positive implications for the culture-fairness of the PAGE 14 Notwithstanding the existence of the positive indications of the culture-fairness of the SON-R tests, also some negative indications are available, especially in reference to the subtests of the SON-R in which concrete, meaningful picture materials are used instead of abstract geometrical figures. Our expectation before the start of the cross-cultural validation studies with the SON-R tests, was to encounter some bias in the subtests that use meaningful picture materials because some of the pictures used seemed rather specific for western cultures. Before presenting the results of these studies, a short description of the SON-R tests will be given. PAGE 3 II PAGE 15 Table 1 Characteristics of the SON-tests in the Netherlands SON-R 2Н-7 SON-R 5Н-17 age range 2;0  7;11 years 5;6  16;11 years N sample 1124 1350 N subtests 6 7 reasoning abilities Categories Categories Situations Situations Analogies Analogies ---- Stories spatial abilities Mosaics Mosaics Patterns Patterns Puzzles ---- perceptual abilities ---- Hidden Pictures administration time 50 min. 90 min. mean reliability subtests .72 .76 reliability total score .90 .93 generalizability total score .78 .85 PAGE 4 Table 1 PAGE 4 Characteristics of the SON-tests in the Netherlands PAGE 4 PAGE 4 Table 1: Characteristics of the SON-tests in the Netherlands Characteristics of the SON-tests in the Netherlands The SON-R 2Н-7 The revised version of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Test (Tellegen et al., 1988) for children between the ages of 2Н to 7 years comprises 6 subtests. In sequence of administration the subtests are: Mosaics, Categories, Puzzles, Analogies, Situations and Patterns. In the subtest Mosaics the child is asked to copy different mosaic patterns with red/white squares. In the first part of the subtest Categories the child has to sort cards based on the category they belong; in the second part two out of five pictures have to be chosen, which are missing in a certain category of pictures. In the first part of Puzzles, three pieces have to be copied in a frame to resemble an example; in the second part the child is asked to form a whole from three to six puzzle pieces. In the first part of Analogies the child is required to sort three to five forms according to form, colour, and size into two compartments. In part two of Analogies a geometric figure changes in one or more aspects to form another figure. To obtain a similar transformation with a second figure, the child is asked to choose the correct alternative. In the fist part of Situations with items showing only the upper halves of four pictures, the child is asked to find the missing halves. In the second part of Situations the task is to indicate the missing parts of drawings of concrete situations. In Patterns the child is asked to copy several patterns with a pencil. The subtests Mosaics, Puzzles and Patterns reflect spatial abilities, while the remaining subtests Categories, Analogies and Situations are more directed to abstract and concrete reasoning abilities. PAGE 5 PAGE 5 The administration of the SON-R 2Н-7 occurs individually; the mean administration time of the SON-R 2Н-7 amounts to 50 minutes. A very important element of the instructions exist in the  showing how to do it of the examiner of a part of the items. Another very important aspect of the test administration is the feedback that the examiner offers after each item. The feedback offered with the SON-R 2Н-7 goes beyond the feedback given with the SON-R 5Н-17; the child is not only informed whether the answer was right or wrong, but the examiner helps the child to find the correct solution. Because of this aspect the SON-R 2Н-7 has more similarities with a learning potential test than with a traditional test of intelligence (Tellegen & Laros, 1993a). PAGE 5 The standardization of the SON-R 2Н-7 is based on a nationwide sample of 1124 children varying in age from 2 years and 3 months to 7 years and three months. The reliability (alpha stratified) of the total score of the SON-R 2Н-7 increases from .86 at 2Н years to .92 at 7Н years with a mean value of .90. The generalizability of the total score (alpha) increases from .71 at 2Н years to .82 at 7Н years with a mean value of .78. The average reliability of the subtests is .72. The test-retest correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with an interval of 3 months is .79. Besides a total IQ-score on the SON-R 2Н-7 also scores on the Performance Scale and Reasoning Scale are being calculated. The score on the Performance Scale is based on the three performance subtests Mosaics, Puzzles and Patterns, and the score on the Reasoning Scale is based on the three reasoning subtests Categories, Analogies and Situations. PAGE 5 The validity of the SON-R 2Н-7 has been investigated through various validation studies in the Netherlands and in other countries like Great Britain, the USA, and Australia by comparing the results on this test with results on other intelligence- and language development tests. The results of the studies outside the Netherlands will be described in the third part of this paper. PAGE 5 The results on the SON-R 2Н-7 have been compared in the Netherlands with the following tests: the WISC-R, the WPPSI-R, the TONI-2, the Stutsman, the Kaufman-ABC, the BOS 2-30, the LDT, the RAKIT, the TOMAL, the DTVP-2 and the Reynell and Schlichting language development tests. The sample size of the various validation studies varies from 26 to 558 subjects; the mean sample size amounts to 118 subjects. PAGE 5 These diverse validation studies support the divergent and convergent validity of the SON-R 2Н-7, but the highly varying correlations imply that substantial differences between the scores on the SON-R 2Н-7 and on other intelligence tests can appear. Possible explanations for these highly varying correlations are: differences between the contents of the SON-R and other intelligence tests, differences in the test procedure of the SON-R and the various other tests, the very young age at which the children were tested and the great interval of time between the application of the tests. PAGE 5 The SON-R 5Н-17 The revised version of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal intelligence test (Snijders, Tellegen & Laros, 1989) for children and adolescents between the ages of 5Н to 17 years consists of 7 subtests. In sequence of administration the 7 subtests are: Categories, Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns, Situations, Analogies and Stories. In Categories a child has to choose two out of five pictures, which are missing in a certain category of pictures. The task in Mosaics consists of copying figures with red/white squares. In Hidden Pictures the task is to find a given picture that is hidden several times in a bigger drawing. In Patterns a part of a particular pattern or line is missing: the child has to draw the missing part with a pencil. The task in Situations is to indicate the missing parts of drawings of concrete situations. In Analogies geometrical figures are presented with the problem format A : B = C : D; the child has to discover the principle behind the transformation A : B and apply it to figure C to find the correct figure D out of for alternatives. In Stories the child has to order a number of cards in such a way that they form a logical story. Categories, Situations and Analogies are multiple choice tests, while Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Stories are so-called  action tests. In action tests the solution has to be sought in an active manner which makes observation of behaviour possible. The SON-R 5Н-17 can be divided into four types of tests according to their contents: abstract reasoning tests (Categories & Analogies), concrete reasoning tests (Situations & Stories), spatial tests (Mosaics & Patterns) and perceptual tests (Hidden Pictures). Principal components analysis (PCA) has been performed on the subtest correlations to obtain empirical confirmation of the theoretical dimensions of the test. Although for the youngest age groups the four theoretical dimensions were supported by the loadings on the first four varimax rotated components, across all age groups the two component solution with a  reasoning and a  spatial component provided more consistent results. PAGE 6 The SON-R 5Н-17 is administered individually; the average administration time amounts 1Н hours. The role of time scoring is kept to a minimum; only with the subtest Hidden Pictures an effective time is being used. For the other subtests sufficient time is allowed for the answering of each item. In the following two important aspects the administration procedure of the SON-R shows differences with the procedure used in traditional intelligence tests: (1) the providing of feedback following each item, and (2) the use of an adaptive procedure. The feedback given during the application of the SON-R 5Н-17 is restricted to informing the examinee whether the answer was right or wrong. The feedback clarifies the instructions and gives the child the opportunity to learn from his own errors and successes and to adjust his problem solving strategy. With the used test procedure of the SON-R each item becomes an opportunity to learn and adjust (Tellegen & Laros, 1993). PAGE 6 The adaptive procedure is made possible by dividing the subtests in two or three parallel series of about 10 items; every child starts with the easiest item of the first series. Each series is broken off after two errors; the starting point for the next series is determined by the score on the preceding series. In this way, the administration of items is determined by the subjectДs individual performance and the presentation is limited to the most relevant items for each subject. On the average the number of items presented with the adaptive procedure is 50% of the total number of items in the subtests while the maximum number to presented amounts to about 60%. PAGE 7 The standardization of the SON-R 5Н-17 is based on a nationwide sample of 1350 children and adolescents varying in age from 6 to 14 years. The reliability coefficient (alpha stratified) of the total score of the test increases from .90 at six years to .94 at fourteen years with a mean value of .93. The generalizability of the total score (alpha) increases from .81 at six years to .88 at fourteen years with a mean value of .85. The average reliability of the subtests is .76. The validity of the SON-R 5Н-17 is evident from the clear relationship with different indicators of school career such as school type, class repetition and school report marks. The mean multiple correlation of the SON-R with these indicators of school career amounts to .59. For children in the age group of 7 to 9 years the multiple correlation is .54, for children in the age group 10-11 years .60, and for children in the age group 13-14 years the multiple correlation increases to .63. PAGE 7 III PAGE 12 The validity study with the SON-R 2Н-7 in Australia was executed in 1996 in Victoria under supervision of Jo Jenkinson of the Deakin University in co-operation with the University of Groningen (Jenkinson, Roberts, Dennehy & Tellegen, 1996; Tellegen, 1997). The correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the WPPSI-R in the total Australian sample amounts to .78. Within the three different groups the correlation between the performance scale of the WPSS-R and the SON-R 2Н-7 was .74, .74 and .75. Within the non-handicapped group the correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the verbal scale (.54) is lower than the correlation with the performance scale (.74) of the WPPSI-R. The scores on the SON-R 2Н-7 are on average 5 points lower than the scores on the WPSSI-R. The validation study executed in the USA (West Virginia) supervised by Stephen OДKeefe of the West-Virginia Graduate College implied the application of the SON-R 2Н-7 and five other cognitive tests. The tests that were applied were the following: the WPPSI-R, the Kaufman-ABC, the McCarthy Scales of Children s Abilities (MSCA), the Peabody Picture and Vocabulary Test - Revised (PPVT-R) and the Preschool Language Scale-3 (PLS-3). The SON-R 2Н-7 had a correlation of .59 with the total score on the WPPSI-R; the correlations with the performance and verbal scales were .60 and .43 respectively. The average age of the 75 children that did both tests was 5.1 years. The mean total score on the SON-R 2Н-7 was more than two points lower than the total score on the WPPSI-R (94.5 versus 96.8) and nearly four points lower than the performance scale of the WPPSI-R (94.5 versus 98.3). The SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation of .66 with the Kaufman-ABC. The correlation with the simultaneous scale was much higher than with the scale for sequential processing (.58 versus .29). The correlation with the nonverbal scale of the Kaufman-ABC amounted to .61. The average age of the 31 children that did both the Kaufman-ABC and the SON-R 2Н-7 was 4.6 years. PAGE 8 With the general cognitive index of the MSCA the SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation of .61; the correlation with the verbal scale was .48; while the correlation with the perceptual performance scale amounted to .61. The average age of the 26 children that did both tests was 4.6 years. PAGE 8 The correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the PPVT-R was .47; the average age of the 29 children that did both tests was 5.5 years. PAGE 8 With the total language score of the PLS-3 the SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation of .61; with the Auditory Comprehension Scale the correlation was .59, while the correlation with the Expressive Communication Scale amounted to .56. The average age of the 47 children who did both tests was 4.6 years. PAGE 9 During this validation research in Great Britain which took place in 1996 and that was supervised by Julie Dockrell of the University of London, the SON-R 2Н-7 and the British Ability Scales (BAS) were both administrated. The BAS was administrated by psychology students from the University of London, and the SON-R was applied by psychology students from the University of Groningen. Both tests were applied in changing order to 58 children, 34 boys and 24 girls, from the first year of primary school. The mean age of the children was 6;3 years (standard deviation 3 months). The interval between test administrations varied from some days to some weeks. Within the total sample three groups of children can be distinguished: a group without specific handicaps (N=20), a group for which English is the second language (N=22), and a group with learning disabilities (N=16). The correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the short version of the BAS is .80. When the two nonverbal subtests are included the correlation augments to .87. The correlation with the verbal part (three verbal subtests) of the shortened version of the BAS was .71, while the correlation with the performance part (three nonverbal subtests) amounted to .78. The correlations in the group of children without any handicaps are considerably lower than in the other two groups (.56 versus .76 and .78). In the total English sample the SON-R IQ-scores are 7 points lower than on the short form of the BAS. The difference in IQ-scores between the group of normal children and children with learning disabilities for the SON-R 2Н-7 is 40.8 points and for the short form of the BAS 42.8 points. In the three cross-cultural studies the correlations of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the performance scales of a number of criterion tests could be compared to the correlations with the verbal scales. In all three studies the correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the performance scale of the criterion test was clearly stronger than with the verbal scale. In the Australian study the SON-R 2Н-7 showed correlations with the performance and verbal scales of the WPPSI-R of .74 and .54 respectively; in the study in the USA these correlations were .60 and .43. In the same study the SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation of .61 with the perceptual performance scale of the MSCA, and a correlation of .48 with the verbal scale of the MSCA. In the research in Great Britain the SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation with the performance part of the BAS of .78 and a correlation of .71 with the verbal part of the BAS. These correlations obtained in Australia, the USA and Great Britain support the convergent and the divergent validity of the SON-R 2Н-7. IV PAGE 9 Chinese psychology students in collaboration with Milly Judistera, a Dutch psychologist, executed the research with the SON-R 5Н-17 in China, which took place in 1996. The study was supervised in China by Professor Zhang Hou Can of the Beijing Normal University. This study was a pilot study as a preparation of the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5Н-17 for China. The generalizabilty coefficient (alpha) of the total score of the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Chinese sample increases from .76 at 6Н years to .82 at 14Н years with a mean value of .80. These values are lower than the ones found for the Dutch standardization sample; here the generalizability of the total score increased from .81 at 6Н years to .88 at 14Н years with a mean value of .85. The generalizability coefficient is computed by the usual coefficient alpha in which the subtests are the unit of analysis; the number of subtests and the mean correlation between the subtests determine this coefficient. The mean correlation between the 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 was lower for the three Chinese age groups than for the comparable age groups of the Dutch sample (.31, .40, and .42 versus .37, .50 and .51). The mean of the standardized total score obtained by the Chinese children was quite close to the mean standardized total score of the Dutch norm group (98.9 versus 100). The mean scores of the Chinese children on Categories, Situations and Stories, all subtests that use meaningful picture materials, were lower in comparison with the Dutch norm group (respectively 93.6, 91.6, and 95.3 versus 100). The mean of these three subtests amounts to 93.5. The mean scores of the Chinese children on Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies, all subtests using non-meaningful picture material such as geometrical forms, were 96.9, 101.9, 104.2 and 108.1. The mean of these four subtests amounts to 102.8 and is higher in comparison to the mean score of the four subtests in the Dutch norm group (100). The difference found in the Chinese sample between the mean score of the subtests with meaningful picture material (93.5) and the mean score of the subtests with non-meaningful picture material (102.8) is significant at the 5% level. This result is an indication that the Chinese children had more difficulties with the subtests that use meaningful picture materials than with the subtests using non-meaningful picture materials. PAGE 12 The relative low scores of the Chinese children on Categories, Situations and Stories were conform to expectations beforehand; the meaningful pictures used in these subtests were not expected to be familiar to cultures very different from the Dutch culture. In one of the items of the subtest Categories, for instance, people leaving a church is shown; such a situation did appear not to be very familiar to Chinese children. PAGE 10 Factor analysis failed to show a clear similarity between the factor structure of the 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Chinese sample and in the Dutch standardization sample. In the Dutch sample Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with varimax rotation resulted in two clear factors: a  reasoning and a  spatial factor. Although in the youngest age groups four factors appeared ( spatial ,  concrete reasoning ,  abstract reasoning , and  perception ) the two factor solution offered better and more consistent results across all different age groups. In the Chinese sample PCA with varimax rotation did not provide the same results as in the Netherlands. In the Dutch research the two spatial subtests showed high loadings on the second factor (the  spatial factor) while in the Chinese study this only seems to be the case for the youngest group. Moreover, in the Dutch research Categories showed high loadings on the first factor (the  reasoning factor); but this was not the case for the eldest group of the Chinese sample. The results of the factor analysis suggest a lack of test equivalence of the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Chinese and the Dutch culture. These results, however, have to be interpreted with some caution because reservations can be made about the appropriateness of factor analysis as a method for assessing equivalence of test applications in different cultures. Hambleton & Bollwark, (1991) note in this respect that the disadvantage of factor analysis is that the results are sample dependent, since it is based on classical item statistics. Their conclusion also applies to other often used classical statistical methods to detect a possible cultural loading of a test that are sample dependent, like the comparison of p-values and the comparison of total test scores. All these methods presuppose the use of equal ability groups. Even in the case of non-equal ability groups researchers must still check that the ordering of item difficulties is the same in the two different cultures (Hambleton & Kanjee, 1995). Following the recommendation of Hambleton & Kanjee, the correlation coefficients between the ordering of the item difficulties in the two cultures have been calculated. The SpearmanДs rho correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the six subtests of the SON-R (one subtest, Hidden Pictures, does not consist of independent items so no correlations could be computed) obtained in the Chinese sample and in the Dutch sample are the following: .98 (Categories), .99 (Mosaics), .99 (Patterns), .98 (Situations), .99 (Analogies) & .98 (Stories). Although the correlations between the item difficulties in the two cultures are all very high, Categories, Situations, and Stories show a slightly lower correlation than the remaining subtests. This might be an indication of cultural bias of these subtests. PAGE 19 PAGE 11 PAGE 11 The above-described psychometric characteristics of the SON-R 5Н-17 in this study with 302 Chinese children suggest that the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories might have a cultural bias. A next step in this study was an attempt to identify the sources of this possible cultural bias of the three subtests. PAGE 12 According to Hambleton (1993) both judgmental and statistical methods should be used in studies to determine the equivalence of a test in multiple languages or cultures. In this study the judgmental procedure consisted of the reviewing on the aspect of possible cultural bias of the test instructions, the testing format, the examples, and all the items of Categories, Situations and Stories for the Chinese population of children from 6 to 17 years of age. The reviewing took place during a group discussion with the Chinese psychology students. The test instructions, the testing format and the examples used in the SON-R 5Н-17 were judged by them as containing no cultural bias. The only aspect of the testing procedure that caused some problems for the Chinese administrators of the SON-R 5Н-17 was the providing of feedback after each item. Some students reported that they felt uncomfortable giving feedback because they believed that this might influence the emotions of the children. Possibly the problems with the provision of feedback is related to the fact that in the Chinese culture communication often occurs in an indirect manner. The results of the judgmental procedure with respect to the items of the three subtests are the following: 6 items of Categories (items 2b, 3b, 4b, 6a, 7a, and 9b) and 3 items of Situations (2b, 2c and 10b) were identified as being possibly culture specific. For the subtest Stories no culture specific items were identified. PAGE 19 The validation study with the SON-R 5Н-17 in Peru took place in 1996 and was executed by two psychology students from the University of Groningen, and by Peruvian psychologists. The research was supervised in Peru by Veronica Bisso Cajas, from the Consortium of Catholic Centres of Education in Lima. This study served as a preparation of the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5Н-17 for Peru. All 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-7 were administrated according to the standard test procedure by the two Dutch psychology students and by ten Peruvian psychologists. To make the administration of the test possible, the instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17 were translated into Spanish. The Peruvian psychologists were trained in the administration procedure of the SON-R 5Н-17. PAGE 13 The test was administrated to a sample of 160 Peruvian children, consisting of 79 boys and 81 girls. The age of the children varied from 6 years to 15 years with a mean of 9;4 years. All the subjects of the Peruvian sample lived in the city of Lima, the capital of Peru; 50% of the children came from State schools and 50% private schools. The State schools in Peru are fully supported by the government; children who visit these schools generally come from families with a low SES-level and often live in very poor circumstances. The private schools are partly financed by religious congregations and private persons; children who frequent these schools generally come from families with a high or moderately high SES-level. The sampling procedure used was only partially a random procedure; the schools were chosen on basis of existing contacts with the Consortium of Catholic Centres of Education, but within the schools children were selected at random. In this research there is an over-representation of children with moderate and high SES levels. The Peruvian sample cannot be considered as representative for Peru, nor for Lima. The results of this study, therefore, cannot simply be generalised to all of Peru and have to be interpreted with caution. PAGE 13 The results of this study show that the Peruvian children obtained a lower mean score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the children of the Dutch norm group (94.0 versus 100). To check whether the ordering of item difficulties was the same in the Peruvian sample and the Dutch sample Spearman s rho correlation coefficients were calculated. The correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Peruvian sample and in the Dutch norm sample are .97, .98, and .97. These correlations are based on 48 children from the total sample of Peruvian children. Note that the correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Peruvian and in the Dutch sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations between the item difficulties found in the Chinese and the Dutch sample. PAGE 13 In addition to the SON-R 5Н-17 also a Spanish version of the WISC-R was administered to all 160 children of the Peruvian sample in order to obtain information about the validity of the SON-R 5Н-17 in Peru. Since there were no Peruvian norms available for the WISC-R, norm scores were used that are based on the standardization sample of the USA (Wechsler, 1974). PAGE 14 The correlation of the SON-R 5Н-17 with the full scale of the WISC-R was .77, with the performance scale .74 and with the verbal scale .69. These correlations are slightly lower compared to those found in a study in the Netherlands with 35 children from an outdoor psychiatric university clinic (Tellegen & Laros, 1993b). In this study the correlation of the SON-R 5Н-17 with the full scale of the WISC-R was .80, with the performance scale .80 and with the verbal scale .66. PAGE 14 The mean IQ-score of the Peruvian sample on the WISC-R was 96.7; the mean score on the verbal scale 94.3 and the mean score on the performance scale 100.2 These scores cannot simply be compared to the mean IQ-score on the SON-R 5Н-17 because the tests have been standardized in different years; the WISC-R was standardized in 1974 and the SON-R 5Н-17 in 1988. As Flynn (1987) has observed, norms on intelligence tests are becoming stricter during the years. In a recent study (Sattler, 1992) comparing the norms of the WISC-R with those of the most recent version of the Wechsler test for children, the WISC-III (Wechsler, 1991), the norm scores on the WISC-III appeared to be lower than the norm scores on the WISC-R. In the 17 years between the two standardizations (1974-1991) the norm scores for the full scale decreased 5.3 points, for the verbal scale 2.4 points, and for the performance scale 7.4 points. Based on the differences found between the norms of the WISC-R and the WISC-III one can correct the obtained scores for the differences in years of standardization of the WISC-R and the SON-R 5Н-17. After correction, the mean norm score on the WISC-R of the Peruvian sample becomes 92.3 for the full scale, 94.1 for the performance scale and 92.3 for the verbal scale. The Peruvian children obtain, after correction, a higher score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than on the WISC-R. PAGE 14 To identify culture specific items of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories a judgmental procedure was used. With the remaining subtests (Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns, Analogies) no judgmental procedure was used, because these subtests are less likely to be culture specific. When a child responded incorrectly on an item of Categories, Situations or Stories the examiner checked, after testing, whether the pictures used in the item were understood by the child. This procedure, however, has not been followed in a systematic way; not all the children, who responded incorrectly to an item, were asked if the pictures used in that particular were familiar to them. The difference with the judgmental procedure used in the Chinese study is that there the examiners (psychology students) were asked to judge the cultural loading of the items; in this study the examinees (children) were asked to give their judgement. The results of the judgmental procedure with respect to the items of the three subtests are the following: 3 items of Categories (items 1a, 2b, and 4a) and 2 items and one example of Situations (example A, and items 2c and 4b) were identified as being possibly culture specific. PAGE 15 The research in Brazil, which took place in 1996, was executed under the supervision of Jaap Laros of the University of Brasilia, one of the authors of the SON-R tests. Six psychology students of the above-mentioned university did the actual test administration at schools. To make the administration of the test possible, the test instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17 were translated into Portuguese. The Brazilian psychology students were trained in the administration of the SON-R 5Н-17 by their supervisor. The study was a preparation for the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5Н-17 for Brazil. In this Brazilian study the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories of the SON-R 5Н-17 were administered individually to a sample of 82 Brazilian children, consisting of 41 girls and 41 boys. The age of the children varied from 7 to 14 years with a mean of 10,4 years. All children came from 2 state schools from Brasilia, the capital of Brazil. The two schools differed in respect to the SES-level of their pupils; the 36 children from the first school generally came from families with a moderate SES-level, while the 46 children from the second school principally came from families with a low SES-level. The sampling procedure used was not a totally random procedure; the schools were selected on the basis of existing contacts with the University of Brasilia, but within the schools the children were selected at random, using only their age as a selection criterion. The Brazilian sample cannot be considered to be representative for Brazil, nor for Brasilia. The results of this study should therefore be interpreted with some caution. PAGE 15 To gain additional information on possible cultural bias, the three subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 have been administered in a nonstandard fashion. Van de Vijver & Poortinga (1997) stress the importance of nonstandard administration of tests in cross-cultural studies to evaluate the adequacy of stimulus and response formats, and of the test administration procedure. In such a nonstandard test procedure it usually is very informative to ask examinees to motivate their responses. In the standard procedure of the SON-R 5Н-17 the subtests are divided into two or three parallel series of about 10 items; each child starts with the easiest item of the first series, but with which item of the second or third series is started, depends on the performance of the child on the previous series. In the nonstandard procedure used in this study the items were offered in order of increasing difficulty; the subtests Categories and Situations with 27 and 33 items were broken off after twelve errors, while the subtest Stories with 20 items was broken off after 8 errors. With the use of this nonstandard test procedure the children responded to much more items than would have been the case if the standard adaptive procedure had used. The average number of items administrated with the adaptive procedure is 50% of the total number of items; with the nonstandard procedure this number amounts to about 90% of the total number of items. PAGE 15 The reliability coefficients (alpha) for the three subtests in the Brazilian sample were as follows: .85 for Categories, .87 for Situations and .82 for Stories. When corrected for the influence of age, the corrected reliability coefficients are: .76 for Categories, .82 for Situations and .76 for Stories. These values of the reliability coefficients are quite similar to the values found in a Dutch sample of 415 subjects when the three subtests were administrated without an adaptive procedure (Laros & Tellegen, 1991, page 33). The results from this research indicate further that the Brazilian children obtained a lower mean total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 (based on the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories) in comparison to the Dutch norm group (96.2 versus 100). The mean scores of the Brazilian children for Categories (94.8) and Situations (95,0) are relatively low in comparison with the Dutch norm group (100); the mean score of the Brazilian sample on Stories (97.5) comes close to the mean score of their Dutch colleagues. The children of the school with a comparatively low SES-level seemed to have more difficulties with Categories and Situations than the children of the school with a higher SES-level. The mean score of the low SES-group (N=46) on the three subtests was 94.8 while the mean scores on the three subtests were as follows: Categories 92.9, Situations 92.5 and Stories 97.0. It can be concluded that Brazilian children had more problems with Categories and Situations than with Stories. This trend seems to get stronger for Brazilian children with a low SES-level. PAGE 16 The Spearman s rho correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Brazilian sample and in the Dutch norm sample are .97, .92, and .96. The relative low correlation coefficient for the subtest Situations might be an indication of item bias in this subtest, but might also reflect the different test administration procedures that were used in the Dutch and the Brazilian research. If the latter were the case, the use of the non-standard administration procedure would have had more effect on the item difficulties of Situations than on the item difficulties of the other two subtests. PAGE 16 In addition to the administration of the three subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17, other data of the 82 Brazilian children were gathered in order to obtain information about the validity of the subtests. School marks on mathematics, science, and Portuguese were collected for every child of the Brazilian sample. The school marks give an indication of the school achievement of the children. The children were also evaluated on their motivation, cooperation and concentration by their schoolteachers and by the psychology students that administrated (a part of) the SON-R 5Н-17. PAGE 16 Of the three subtests, the report marks showed the highest correlations with the subtest Categories: science (.61); mathematics (.59), and Portuguese (.38); they showed the lowest correlations with the subtest Stories: science (.26); mathematics (.36), and Portuguese (.29). The correlations of the report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 are as following: science (.52); mathematics (.49), and Portuguese (.38). The multiple correlation of the report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 amounts to .60. The correlations of report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Dutch norm sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations found in the Brazilian sample. Considering the fact that in the Brazilian study the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 was based on only three instead of all seven subtests, the correlations in this study are quite high. PAGE 16 The judgment of the teachers on motivation, cooperation and concentration of their pupils correlated higher with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the judgment of the psychology students. When the judgment scores of the teachers and the psychology students were combined into a mean score, these scores showed a higher correlation with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the scores based on the judgment of the teachers alone. The correlation of the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 with the mean score on motivation is .40, with the mean score on cooperation .45, and with the mean score on concentration .19. The multiple correlation of the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 with the mean scores on motivation, cooperation and concentration is .50. PAGE 17 The judgmental procedure used in this research consisted of the following: when a child responded incorrectly on an example or an item the examiner checked, immediately after the incorrect answer, whether the child understood the pictures that were used in the item. This procedure was followed in a systematic way, and formed the basis on which conclusions were made regarding the cultural specificity of the items. For the subtest Categories the judgmental procedure implied that after each incorrectly answered item the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with eight figures. [Each item of the subtest Categories is build up out of eight figures; three figures define the category, and five figures are the alternatives from which the child has to choose two that pertain to the category]. In case of the subtest Situations the procedure implied that after each incorrectly answered item, the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with five to fourteen figures. The procedure implied for the subtest Stories that the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with four to seven figures for every incorrectly answered item. As a consequence of this time consuming test procedure the amount of time needed to administer the three subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 came close to an hour. The results obtained with this judgmental procedure indicate that the Brazilian children had no problems understanding the subtest instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17. On the basis of the answers that the children provided with respect to their (un)familiarity with the figures used in the items, 14 items were identified as being possibly culture-specific; 10 items of Categories (items 2b, 2c, 3a, 4a, 4b, 5c, 6a, 8a, 8c and 9c) and 4 items of Situations (items 2b, 3c, 4a, and 10b). The criterion which was used to classify an item as being possibly culture specific was the following: when one of the figures that form an item was indicated by more than 5% of the Brazilian sample as being unfamiliar an item was classified as being possibly culture specific. Maybe this criterion might be a little too strict, considering the large amount of items of the subtest Categories that were classified as possibly culture specific. PAGE 17 In case of the subtest Categories twice as many figures used in the alternatives were unfamiliar to the Brazilian children than the figures that defined the category. With the subtest Situations, however, twice as many  main figures were identified as unfamiliar than the figures used in the alternatives. For the subtest Stories no adaptations for the Brazilian culture were found to be necessary. PAGE 17 In the cross-cultural validation studies in China and Peru, where all seven subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 were administrated, the average of the mean scores on the three subtests with meaningful picture materials (Categories, Situations and Stories) was significantly lower at 5% level than the average of the mean scores on the four remaining subtests that contain non-meaningful picture materials (Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies). This research finding is in accordance with our expectations beforehand that were partially based on the theoretical considerations of Jensen (1980) about culture-fair tests. This result indicates a possible cultural bias in the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories. Another indication of possible bias is given by the correlation between the item difficulties in the Dutch norm group and the item difficulties in different cultures. The correlation coeffcients give an indication of the extent in which the ordering of item difficulties is the same in the two different cultures. A different ordering of the items might indicate that the items do not have the same meaning for two different cultural groups. The Spearman s rho correlation coefficients for the subtests Mosaics, Patterns, and Analogies in the Chinese study were all .99. The correlation coefficients for Categories in the Chinese, Peruvian, and Brazilian study are respectively .98, .97, and .97; for Situations .98, .98, and .92; for Stories .98, .97, and .96. Although all the correlation coefficients are quite high, the correlations for the three subtests Categories, Situations and Stories in which meaningful picture materials are used, are somewhat lower which might indicate possible bias in these subtests. The lowest correlations were found in the Brazilian sample, but there the nonstandard test procedure makes a straightforward comparison with the item difficulties in the Dutch sample problematic. PAGE 18 The reliability coefficients of the subtests in the three studies are comparable with the coefficients found in the Dutch sample, although the values in the Dutch sample are somewhat higher. PAGE 18 PAGE 18 The reliability coefficients of the subtests in the three studies are comparable with the coefficients found in the Dutch sample, although the values in the Dutch sample are somewhat higher. In the Chinese study, the only study where a factor analysis was performed, the resulting factor structure failed to show a clear similarity with the factor structure in the Dutch sample. This might be an indication of the cultural loading of some of the subtests. In the Peruvian and Brazilian study clear indications of the validity of the SON-R 5Н-17 were found. The SON-R 5Н-17 showed a relatively high correlation with the WISC-R (.77) in the Peruvian study. In the Brazilian study the standardized total score based on three subtests of the SON-R showed satisfactory correlations with school marks on science (.52); mathematics (.49), and Portuguese (.38). The correlations of report marks with the total score on the SON-R based on 7 subtests in the Dutch sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations found in the Brazilian sample. In the Brazilian study the total score on the SON-R, based on three subtests, correlated .40 with motivation, .45 with cooperation and .19 with concentration. PAGE 19 In all three studies a judgmental procedure was used for the identification of item bias in the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories. In the Chinese study the Chinese psychology students who applied the SON-R 5Н-17 reviewed the items on the aspect of possible cultural bias. In the Peruvian and Brazilian study the children who responded incorrectly to an item were asked if the pictures that were used in that item were understood by them. As a result of this procedure 14 of the 33 items (42%) of the subtest Categories have been identified as possibly culture specific. One of these items has been identified as culture specific in all three studies (item 2b), 3 items were identified as biased in two studies (items 4a, 4b and 6a) and 9 items were identified as biased in just one study (items 1a, 2c, 3a, 3b, 5c, 7a, 8a, 8c, and 9c). For the subtest Situations 6 of the 33 items (18%) and one example were identified as possibly culture specific. Three of the items were identified in two different studies (items 2b, 2c, and 10b); the remaining 3 items were identified as biased in just one study (items 3c, 4a, 4b). The example that was identified as culture specific (example A) was identified in only one study. PAGE 19 V The research results obtained in various countries for both the SON-R 2Н-7 and the SON-R 5Н-17 indicate that both tests can be used in cultures that are different from the Dutch culture. The validity-coefficients of both SON-R tests encountered in various countries are comparable to the validity-coefficients found in the Dutch norm sample. For the SON-R 5Н-17, however, some adaptations will have to be made in the subtests Categories and Situations. For the subtest Categories 42% of the items will have be adapted, while for the subtest Situations 18% of the items and one example will have to be adapted. For the other subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 no adaptations have to be made. PAGE 19 Although no specific research have been done to item bias of the SON-R 2Н-7, adaptations of this test seems to be less necessary. For this young age group the test uses only very simple pictures. In the construction phase of this test special attention was paid to possible item bias. The research result that immigrant children in the Netherlands had the same mean score on the subtests that use meaningful picture materials as on the subtests that use non-meaningful picture materials such as geometrical forms, is an empirical argument indicating the culture-fairness of the SON-R 2Н-7. Only future empirical research will tell whether the impression is correct that for cross-cultural use of the SON-R 2Н-7 no adaptations are necessary. PAGE 19 VI Table 2 Characteristics of the research with the SON-R outside The Netherlands SON-R 2Н-7 Australia Great-Britain United States N of subjects 155 58 75/31/26/29/47 Age 4;5 (0;10) 6;3 (0;3) 5;1/4;7/4;7/5;6/4;7 Correlation with criterion test .78 (WPPSI-R PIQ) .87 (BAS 6 subt.) .59 (WPPSI-R FSIQ) .66 (K-ABC) .61 (MSCA) .47 (PPVT-R) .61 (PLS-3) SON-R 5Н-17 China Peru Brazil N of subjects 302 160 82 Age 11;6 9;4 10;5 Correlation with criterion test - .77 (WISC-R FSIQ) .60 (school marks) Items with problems: Categories 6 3 10 Situations 3 2 4 Stories 0 0 0 PAGE 24 Table 2 Characteristics of the research with the SON-R outside The Netherlands SON-R 2Н-7 Australia Great-Britain United States N of subjects 155 58 75/31/26/29/47 Age 4;5 (0;10) 6;3 (0;3) 5;1/4;7/4;7/5;6/4;7 Correlation with criterion test .78 (WPPSI-R PIQ) .87 (BAS 6 subt.) .59 (WPPSI-R FSIQ) .66 (K-ABC) .61 (MSCA) .47 (PPVT-R) .61 (PLS-3) SON-R 5Н-17 China Peru Brazil N of subjects 302 160 82 Age 11;6 9;4 10;5 Correlation with criterion test - .77 (WISC-R FSIQ) .60 (school marks) Items with problems: Categories 6 3 10 Situations 3 2 4 Stories 0 0 0 PAGE 24 PAGE 20 Table 2 The correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the WPPSI-R in the total Australian sample amounts to .78. Within the three different groups the correlation between the performance scale of the WPSS-R and the SON-R 2Н-7 was .74, .74 and .75. Within the non-handicapped group the correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the verbal scale (.54) is lower than the correlation with the performance scale (.74) of the WPPSI-R. The scores on the SON-R 2Н-7 are on average 5 points lower than the scores on the WPSSI-R. Table 2 PAGE 10 PAGE 8 PAGE 8 Table 2: Characteristics of the research with the SON-R outside The Netherlands Characteristics of the research with the SON-R outside The Netherlands PAGE 8 SON-R 2Н-7 PAGE 20 PAGE 20 PAGE 10 _____________- PAGE 8 PAGE 10 PAGE 8 PAGE 8 PAGE 10 _________________________________________________________________ PAGE 20 _________________________________________________________________ PAGE 8 PAGE 8 PAGE 8 PAGE 24 en Nonverbal Intelligence Tests. PAGE 23 The conception of Jensen (1980) of a culture-reduced test differs slightly from DrenthДs conception: Jensen considers a test culture-reduced when the performance on this test is only to a limited extent influenced by culturally determined familiarity with the stimulus figures and response format. Jensen has formulated the following criteria for culture-reduced tests: (a) the test has to be a performance measure, (b) instructions should be given in mime to exclude the influence of language, (3) preliminary practice items should be provided, (4) items should not depend on time, (5) items should require abstract reasoning rather than factual information and (6) problems should be designed in such a way as to ensure subjects are unable to guess from memory of similar items encountered in the past. The SON-R tests do not satisfy all of the criteria of Jensen for culture-reduced tests because with one subtest of the SON-R 5Н-17 (Hidden Pictures) a time limit is being used. Jensen has also stated that the use of abstract geometrical figures reduces the likelihood of cultural bias. In the SON-R tests various subtests contain concrete, meaningful pictures instead of abstract, geometrical figures. The subtests using meaningful picture materials might be culture-specific. PAGE 1 PAGE 2 The 21 correlations of the SON-R 2Н-7 with other non-verbal (intelligence) tests vary from .45 to .83 and have a mean value of .65. The 12 correlations with general intelligence measures vary from .54 to .87 with a mean of .65. The 19 correlations of the SON-R 2Н-7 with measures for verbal ability and verbal intelligence vary from .20 to .71 and have a mean value of .48. With some of the general intelligence tests it is possible to calculate the correlation with the performance scale, the verbal scale and with the total score. In all of these cases the correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the performance scale was higher than the correlation with the verbal scale. PAGE 5 PAGE 6 PAGE 10 ------ PAGE 8 PAGE 8 The SON-R 2Н-7 was partly administrated by psychology students from the University of Groningen, partly by psychologists from West Virginia. The amount of time between the administration of the SON-R 2Н-7 and the other tests generally was very short; in the majority of the cases the other test was applied on the same day. The PLS-3 was not administrated during this study; the test scores on the PLS-3 were collected on another occasion and could be used in this research. The number of children that both made the SON-R 2Н-7 and another test varied from 26 (in case of the MSCA) to 75 (in case of the WPPSI-R). PAGE 20 Six subtests of the BAS were applied, the four subtests of the short version (Naming Vocabulary, Digit Recall, Similarities, and Matrices) and two extra nonverbal subtests (Block Design and Visual Recognition). PAGE 9 All 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-7 were administrated according to the standard test procedure by Chinese psychology students to a sample of 302 Chinese children, consisting of 165 boys and 137 girls. To make the administration of the test possible, the instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17 were translated into the Chinese language. The Chinese students were trained in the administration of the SON-R 5Н-17 by Milly Judistira with help of an English speaking Chinese psychology student as an interpreter. PAGE 10 The Chinese subjects were tested in the following age groups: 6Н-year-olds (103), 11Н-year-olds (94), and 14Н-year-olds (105). The children came from Beijing (23), Tianjin (81), Miyun (77) and Guangrao (121). The sampling procedure used was not a random procedure; the schools were chosen on basis of existing contacts with the University of Beijing, and within the schools children were chosen by the teachers. Although the teachers claimed to have chosen the children in a random manner, there is no guarantee that this really was the case. The research results therefore have to be interpreted with some caution. PAGE 11 The lower mean score on Mosaics (96.9 versus 100) does not correspond with earlier expectations since the item material of this subtest consist of abstract geometrical figures which according to Jensen (1980) reduces the probability of cultural bias. The Chinese children did not show any problems with the other two subtests containing abstract geometrical figures; on these subtests, Patterns and Analogies, they even showed higher mean scores than their Dutch colleagues (104.2 and 108.1 versus 100). The lower score on Mosaics might be a result of the fact that the majority of the Chinese children were not tested with the original version of the subtest Mosaics. Due to financial restrictions there was only one original SON-R 5Н-17 test available for the research in China; in order to be able to test various children in the same period of time a number of copies of the test were made. The squares of the copied version of Mosaics did not fit very well in the frame in which the mosaic patterns had to be copied. Probably, the use of test material, which was not standardized, has caused the lower score of the Chinese children on Mosaics. PAGE 11 For these culture specific items new items have been developed that are adapted to the Chinese culture. A Chinese student of the art academy has drawn the adapted items. In the future standardization and validation research of the SON-R 5Н-17 in China the items that were identified as being culture specific will be replaced by the adapted items. PAGE 12 the PAGE 13 the PAGE 13 The results of this study show that the Peruvian children obtained a lower mean score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the children of the Dutch norm group (94.0 versus 100). The mean scores of the Peruvian children on Categories, Situations and Stories, the subtests which use meaningful picture material, were 97.1, 91.7 and 93.1. The mean of these three subtests amounts to 93.9. The mean scores of the Peruvian children on Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies, all subtests using non-meaningful picture materials, were 91.6, 92.2, 101.4, and 98.1. The mean of these four subtests amounts to 95.8. The difference between the mean score of the subtests with meaningful picture material (93.9) and the mean score of the subtests with non-meaningful picture material (95.8) is significant at the 5% level. This finding is in accordance with expectations beforehand; Peruvian children, like the Chinese children, showed more problems with the subtests containing meaningful pictures than with the subtests containing non-meaningful pictures. PAGE 23 indicated PAGE 20 Drenth (1975) has described the SON-test as an example of culture-reduced tests, meaning that these tests only measure a limited number of culturally determined skills that they do not intend to measure. Examples of culturally determined skills are: being able to use a pencil, being capable of working with numbers, and being able to understand the instructions. Drenth has argued that it is not essential for a culture-reduced test to produce similar score distributions in different cultural groups; the only condition for a culture-reduced test is that it should not reflect skill differences determined by cultural factors. Drenth defines a culture-fair test as a culture-reduced test for the particular groups under consideration. PAGE 2 PAGE 2 The SON-R 2Н PAGE 23 -7 and the SON-R 5Н PAGE 23 Н PAGE 4 n et al., 1998) and the SON-R 5Н PAGE 4 -R 2Н PAGE 4 -7 SON-R 5Н PAGE 4 The SON-R 2Н PAGE 4 children between the ages of 2Н PAGE 4 SON-R 2.5-7 and the SON-R 5.5-17 are the latest revisions of the Snijders-Oomen nonverbal intelligence test, originally developed in the Netherlands in 1943 for use with deaf children. The tests consist of 6 to 7 subtests mainly focussed on visual-spatial abilities and abstract and concrete reasoning. Research in the Netherlands indicates that the nonverbal SON-R tests are well suited for use with children of ethnic minorities. With traditional tests the cognitive abilities of minority children are often underestimated as a result of their lack of knowledge of the official language. Notwithstanding the favorite research results with minority children in The Netherlands, it cannot simply be assumed that the SON-R tests can be used unmodified in countries which are greatly different from The Netherlands. In this presentation we will discuss results obtained with the SON-R tests in Australia, the USA, Great Britain, China, Peru and Brazil. Introduction With the latest revision and standardization in the Netherlands of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Tests, various cross-cultural validation studies have been initiated. The objective of these studies was to verify to which degree the SON-R tests can be used with cultures different from the cultures in Western Europe in general, and different from the cultures in the Netherlands in particular. In other words, the goal of these studies was to discern if, and to what extent adaptations of the material (e.g., test instructions, testing format, examples, items) of the SON-R tests are required for cross-national and cross-cultural use. The reason of the adaptation of the SON-R tests is to be able to assess in a fair way the construct of intelligence in multiple cultures. A crucial phase in the adaptation of conventional tests is the translation of the instrument from the source language into a target language. To obtain an equivalent test in another language or culture not only a translation is needed that preserves the meaning of the verbal test materials, but also additional changes may be necessary to insure the equivalence of the versions of the test in multiple languages or cultures, such as those affecting item format and testing procedures. (Hambleton, 1993). Close correspondence between the original version and the translated version is required before reliance can be placed on results based on translated tests. In addition to using effective translation practices, test users also need to examine the psychometric properties of translated tests (Ellis, 1995). The adaptation of nonverbal tests for multiple cultures does not include the difficult and often very problematic test translation phase and is therefore much less complicated than the adaptation process of (partly) verbal tests. The fact that the adaptation process of nonverbal tests is much less complicated than the one needed for intelligence tests which use written or spoken language is one of the great advantages of nonverbal intelligence tests. The circumstance that nonverbal intelligence tests often do not need translation, does not automatically mean that there is no need for empirical studies on the equivalence of their applications for different cultures. Van de Vijver and Poortinga (1997) noted that when a psychological instrument developed in one society is applied in a different cultural context, invariance of psychometric properties like reliability and validity cannot be merely assumed, but has to be empirically demonstrated. The occurrence of bias can change the psychometric properties of an instrument when it is used in a different culture. Bias can appear at various levels; at test-, subtest-, or at item-level. A test, subtest, or an item is biased if it does not measure the same psychological trait across cultural groups (Van de Vijver, 1998). Three different types of bias can be differentiated, construct bias, method bias and item bias (Van de Vijver & Poortinga, 1997). A test shows construct bias if the construct measured is not identical across different cultural groups. Method bias occurs as a consequence of nuisance variables due to method-related factors. Three sorts of method bias can be distinguished: sample bias, instrument bias and administration bias. Sample bias occurs when the samples are incomparable on aspects other than the target variable. Instrument bias is related to characteristics of the instrument that are not identical for different culture groups. An example of this kind of bias is stimulus familiarity. The third type of method bias occurs when there are problems related with the administration of a test. This type of bias can occur when communication problems arise because of the insufficient knowledge of the subject of the language that the examiner uses. Item bias occurs if persons with the same amount of the trait being estimated, but belonging to different groups have different probabilities of making a specific response to the item. The probability that administration bias will occur with a nonverbal intelligence test like the SON-R is low as that the instructions are given in a nonverbal or in a verbal way, dependent on the possibilities of communication of the subject. Moreover, the providing of feedback following each item and the  showing how to do it by the examiner reduces the chance of the occurrence of administration bias. Drenth (1975) has described the SON-test as an example of culture-reduced tests, meaning that these tests only measure a limited number of culturally determined skills that they do not intend to measure. Examples of culturally determined skills are: being able to use a pencil, being capable of working with numbers, and being able to understand the instructions. Drenth has argued that it is not essential for a culture-reduced test to produce similar score distributions in different cultural groups; the only condition for a culture-reduced test is that it should not reflect skill differences determined by cultural factors. Drenth defines a culture-fair test as a culture-reduced test for the particular groups under consideration. The conception of Jensen (1980) of a culture-reduced test differs slightly from DrenthДs conception: Jensen considers a test culture-reduced when the performance on this test is only to a limited extent influenced by culturally determined familiarity with the stimulus figures and response format. Jensen has formulated the following criteria for culture-reduced tests: (a) the test has to be a performance measure, (b) instructions should be given in mime to exclude the influence of language, (3) preliminary practice items should be provided, (4) items should not depend on time, (5) items should require abstract reasoning rather than factual information and (6) problems should be designed in such a way as to ensure subjects are unable to guess from memory of similar items encountered in the past. The SON-R tests do not satisfy all of the criteria of Jensen for culture-reduced tests because with one subtest of the SON-R 5Н-17 (Hidden Pictures) a time limit is being used. Jensen has also stated that the use of abstract geometrical figures reduces the likelihood of cultural bias. In the SON-R tests various subtests contain concrete, meaningful pictures instead of abstract, geometrical figures. The subtests using meaningful picture materials might be culture-specific. The research finding that immigrant children in the Netherlands (mainly children from Morocco, Turkey, Suriname and the Dutch Antilles) perform better on the SON-R tests than on traditional intelligence tests like the WISC-R and RAKIT (Laros & Tellegen, 1991; Tellegen, Winkel, Wijnberg-Williams & Laros, 1998) provides a positive empirical indication of the culture-fairness of the SON-R for the immigrant groups in the Dutch population. One of the reasons why immigrant children attain lower mean scores on traditional intelligence tests than on nonverbal intelligence tests like the SON-R is the relative strong reliance of these tests on verbal abilities and specific knowledge learned in school. This is especially the case with the so-called omnibus intelligence tests like the various Wechsler scales which contain subtests like Information and Vocabulary which presuppose specific knowledge learned in school (Helms-Lorenz & Van de Vijver, 1995). The fact that minority groups show lower means on a test, however, does not necessarily mean that a test is culturally biased. Van de Vijver & Poortinga (1992) argued that the desirability of cultural loadings in measurement procedures is determined by the intention of the test in question. If a particular test is intended to test knowledge gained during a course at school it is quite likely that culture-specific knowledge is tested. In this case, cultural loadings in tests are unavoidable and even desirable. In general a distinction can be made between generalizations about achievements and about aptitudes. In the latter case, cultural loadings are undesirable (Helms-Lorenz & Van de Vijver, 1995). A second research result with positive implications for the culture-fairness of the SON-R tests for the immigrant groups in the Netherlands is the finding that there is no relation between their length of stay in the Netherlands and their IQ-scores, indicating that performance on the SON-R is not dependent on knowledge of the Dutch language (Laros & Tellegen, 1991). Notwithstanding the existence of the positive indications of the culture-fairness of the SON-R tests, also some negative indications are available, especially in reference to the subtests of the SON-R in which concrete, meaningful picture materials are used instead of abstract geometrical figures. Our expectation before the start of the cross-cultural validation studies with the SON-R tests, was to encounter some bias in the subtests that use meaningful picture materials because some of the pictures used seemed rather specific for western cultures. Before presenting the results of these studies, a short description of the SON-R tests will be given. Description of the SON-R tests The SON test was originally developed in 1943 by Snijders-Oomen for use with deaf children. She intended to measure a broad spectrum of intelligence functions without being dependent on the use of oral or written language. With subsequent revisions also norms and instructions for use with hearing subjects were developed. The latest revision comprises of separate tests for younger and older children, the SON-R 2.5-7 (Tellegen et al., 1998) and the SON-R 5.5-17 (Snijders, Tellegen & Laros, 1989). In table 1 some characteristics of the tests are presented. Table 1: Characteristics of the SON-tests in the Netherlands SON-R 2.5-7 SON-R 5.5-17 age range 2;0  7;11 years 5;6  16;11 years N sample 1124 1350 N subtests 6 7 reasoning abilities Categories Categories Situations Situations Analogies Analogies ---- Stories spatial abilities Mosaics Mosaics Patterns Patterns Puzzles ---- perceptual abilities ---- Hidden Pictures administration time 50 min. 90 min. mean reliability subtests .72 .76 reliability total score .90 .93 generalizability total score .78 .85 Most subtests are related to either reasoning abilities or spatial abilities while in the SON-R 5Н-17 also a test for perceptual abilities is included. In the subtest Categories the subject has to find the common element between three pictures and select two other pictures that belong to the same category. In Situations one or more parts are missing from a drawing and the subject has to select those parts from a number of alternatives to make the drawing a meaningful whole. In Analogies the transformation of an abstract element is shown and the subject has to perform the same transformation on another element by selecting the proper alternative. In Stories cards have to be ordered to make a meaningful story. The SON-R 2.5-7 The revised version of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Test (Tellegen et al., 1988) for children between the ages of 2.5 to 7 years comprises 6 subtests. In sequence of administration the subtests are: Mosaics, Categories, Puzzles, Analogies, Situations and Patterns. In the subtest Mosaics the child is asked to copy different mosaic patterns with red/white squares. In the first part of the subtest Categories the child has to sort cards based on the category they belong; in the second part two out of five pictures have to be chosen, which are missing in a certain category of pictures. In the first part of Puzzles, three pieces have to be copied in a frame to resemble an example; in the second part the child is asked to form a whole from three to six puzzle pieces. In the first part of Analogies the child is required to sort three to five forms according to form, colour, and size into two compartments. In part two of Analogies a geometric figure changes in one or more aspects to form another figure. To obtain a similar transformation with a second figure, the child is asked to choose the correct alternative. In the fist part of Situations with items showing only the upper halves of four pictures, the child is asked to find the missing halves. In the second part of Situations the task is to indicate the missing parts of drawings of concrete situations. In Patterns the child is asked to copy several patterns with a pencil. The subtests Mosaics, Puzzles and Patterns reflect spatial abilities, while the remaining subtests Categories, Analogies and Situations are more directed to abstract and concrete reasoning abilities. The administration of the SON-R 2Н-7 occurs individually; the mean administration time of the SON-R 2Н-7 amounts to 50 minutes. A very important element of the instructions exist in the  showing how to do it of the examiner of a part of the items. Another very important aspect of the test administration is the feedback that the examiner offers after each item. The feedback offered with the SON-R 2Н-7 goes beyond the feedback given with the SON-R 5Н-17; the child is not only informed whether the answer was right or wrong, but the examiner helps the child to find the correct solution. Because of this aspect the SON-R 2Н-7 has more similarities with a learning potential test than with a traditional test of intelligence (Tellegen & Laros, 1993a). The standardization of the SON-R 2Н-7 is based on a nationwide sample of 1124 children varying in age from 2 years and 3 months to 7 years and three months. The reliability (alpha stratified) of the total score of the SON-R 2Н-7 increases from .86 at 2Н years to .92 at 7Н years with a mean value of .90. The generalizability of the total score (alpha) increases from .71 at 2Н years to .82 at 7Н years with a mean value of .78. The average reliability of the subtests is .72. The test-retest correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with an interval of 3 months is .79. Besides a total IQ-score on the SON-R 2Н-7 also scores on the Performance Scale and Reasoning Scale are being calculated. The score on the Performance Scale is based on the three performance subtests Mosaics, Puzzles and Patterns, and the score on the Reasoning Scale is based on the three reasoning subtests Categories, Analogies and Situations. The validity of the SON-R 2Н-7 has been investigated through various validation studies in the Netherlands and in other countries like Great Britain, the USA, and Australia by comparing the results on this test with results on other intelligence- and language development tests. The results of the studies outside the Netherlands will be described in the third part of this paper. The results on the SON-R 2Н-7 have been compared in the Netherlands with the following tests: the WISC-R, the WPPSI-R, the TONI-2, the Stutsman, the Kaufman-ABC, the BOS 2-30, the LDT, the RAKIT, the TOMAL, the DTVP-2 and the Reynell and Schlichting language development tests. The sample size of the various validation studies varies from 26 to 558 subjects; the mean sample size amounts to 118 subjects. The 21 correlations of the SON-R 2Н-7 with other non-verbal (intelligence) tests vary from .45 to .83 and have a mean value of .65. The 12 correlations with general intelligence measures vary from .54 to .87 with a mean of .65. The 19 correlations of the SON-R 2Н-7 with measures for verbal ability and verbal intelligence vary from .20 to .71 and have a mean value of .48. With some of the general intelligence tests it is possible to calculate the correlation with the performance scale, the verbal scale and with the total score. In all of these cases the correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the performance scale was higher than the correlation with the verbal scale. These diverse validation studies support the divergent and convergent validity of the SON-R 2Н-7, but the highly varying correlations imply that substantial differences between the scores on the SON-R 2Н-7 and on other intelligence tests can appear. Possible explanations for these highly varying correlations are: differences between the contents of the SON-R and other intelligence tests, differences in the test procedure of the SON-R and the various other tests, the very young age at which the children were tested and the great interval of time between the application of the tests. The SON-R 5Н-17 The revised version of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal intelligence test (Snijders, Tellegen & Laros, 1989) for children and adolescents between the ages of 5Н to 17 years consists of 7 subtests. In sequence of administration the 7 subtests are: Categories, Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns, Situations, Analogies and Stories. In Categories a child has to choose two out of five pictures, which are missing in a certain category of pictures. The task in Mosaics consists of copying figures with red/white squares. In Hidden Pictures the task is to find a given picture that is hidden several times in a bigger drawing. In Patterns a part of a particular pattern or line is missing: the child has to draw the missing part with a pencil. The task in Situations is to indicate the missing parts of drawings of concrete situations. In Analogies geometrical figures are presented with the problem format A : B = C : D; the child has to discover the principle behind the transformation A : B and apply it to figure C to find the correct figure D out of for alternatives. In Stories the child has to order a number of cards in such a way that they form a logical story. Categories, Situations and Analogies are multiple choice tests, while Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Stories are so-called  action tests. In action tests the solution has to be sought in an active manner which makes observation of behaviour possible. The SON-R 5Н-17 can be divided into four types of tests according to their contents: abstract reasoning tests (Categories & Analogies), concrete reasoning tests (Situations & Stories), spatial tests (Mosaics & Patterns) and perceptual tests (Hidden Pictures). Principal components analysis (PCA) has been performed on the subtest correlations to obtain empirical confirmation of the theoretical dimensions of the test. Although for the youngest age groups the four theoretical dimensions were supported by the loadings on the first four varimax rotated components, across all age groups the two component solution with a  reasoning and a  spatial component provided more consistent results. The SON-R 5Н-17 is administered individually; the average administration time amounts 1Н hours. The role of time scoring is kept to a minimum; only with the subtest Hidden Pictures an effective time is being used. For the other subtests sufficient time is allowed for the answering of each item. In the following two important aspects the administration procedure of the SON-R shows differences with the procedure used in traditional intelligence tests: (1) the providing of feedback following each item, and (2) the use of an adaptive procedure. The feedback given during the application of the SON-R 5Н-17 is restricted to informing the examinee whether the answer was right or wrong. The feedback clarifies the instructions and gives the child the opportunity to learn from his own errors and successes and to adjust his problem solving strategy. With the used test procedure of the SON-R each item becomes an opportunity to learn and adjust (Tellegen & Laros, 1993). The adaptive procedure is made possible by dividing the subtests in two or three parallel series of about 10 items; every child starts with the easiest item of the first series. Each series is broken off after two errors; the starting point for the next series is determined by the score on the preceding series. In this way, the administration of items is determined by the subjectДs individual performance and the presentation is limited to the most relevant items for each subject. On the average the number of items presented with the adaptive procedure is 50% of the total number of items in the subtests while the maximum number to presented amounts to about 60%. The standardization of the SON-R 5Н-17 is based on a nationwide sample of 1350 children and adolescents varying in age from 6 to 14 years. The reliability coefficient (alpha stratified) of the total score of the test increases from .90 at six years to .94 at fourteen years with a mean value of .93. The generalizability of the total score (alpha) increases from .81 at six years to .88 at fourteen years with a mean value of .85. The average reliability of the subtests is .76. The validity of the SON-R 5Н-17 is evident from the clear relationship with different indicators of school career such as school type, class repetition and school report marks. The mean multiple correlation of the SON-R with these indicators of school career amounts to .59. For children in the age group of 7 to 9 years the multiple correlation is .54, for children in the age group 10-11 years .60, and for children in the age group 13-14 years the multiple correlation increases to .63. Cross-cultural studies with the SON-R 2Н-7 Research in Australia The validity study with the SON-R 2Н-7 in Australia was executed in 1996 in Victoria under supervision of Jo Jenkinson of the Deakin University in co-operation with the University of Groningen (Jenkinson, Roberts, Dennehy & Tellegen, 1996; Tellegen, 1997). The study is based on 155 subjects, 72 boys and 83 girls, with a mean age of 4 years and 5 months (standard deviation 10 months). Within the group of 155 children three groups can be differentiated: children without specific handicaps (N=59); hearing impaired children (N=59), and children with a developmental retardation (N=37). In this research both the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence  Revised (WPPSI-R) and the SON-R 2Н-7 were administrated in changing order; the mean interval between applications was 20 days. The SON-R 2Н-7 was administered according to the standard test procedure by psychology students from the University of Groningen, while the WPSSI-R was administrated by Australian psychologists. The hearing impaired children and the children with a developmental retardation only did the performance scale of the WPPSI-R. Results The correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the WPPSI-R in the total Australian sample amounts to .78. Within the three different groups the correlation between the performance scale of the WPSS-R and the SON-R 2Н-7 was .74, .74 and .75. Within the non-handicapped group the correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the verbal scale (.54) is lower than the correlation with the performance scale (.74) of the WPPSI-R. The scores on the SON-R 2Н-7 are on average 5 points lower than the scores on the WPSSI-R. Table 2: Characteristics of the research with the SON-R outside The Netherlands _________________________________________________________________ SON-R 2Н-7 Australia Great-Britain United States ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ N of subjects 155 58 75/31/26/29/47 Age 4;5 (0;10) 6;3 (0;3) 5;1/4;7/4;7/5;6/4;7 Correlation with criterion test .78 (WPPSI-R PIQ) .87 (BAS 6 subt.) .59 (WPPSI-R FSIQ) .66 (K-ABC) .61 (MSCA) .47 (PPVT-R) .61 (PLS-3) _________________________________________________________________ SON-R 5Н-17 China Peru Brazil ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ N of subjects 302 160 82 Age 11;6 9;4 10;5 Correlation with criterion test - .77 (WISC-R FSIQ) .60 (school marks) Items with problems: Categories 6 3 10 Situations 3 2 4 Stories 0 0 0 _________________________________________________________________ Research in the USA The validation study executed in the USA (West Virginia) supervised by Stephen OДKeefe of the West-Virginia Graduate College implied the application of the SON-R 2Н-7 and five other cognitive tests. The tests that were applied were the following: the WPPSI-R, the Kaufman-ABC, the McCarthy Scales of Children s Abilities (MSCA), the Peabody Picture and Vocabulary Test - Revised (PPVT-R) and the Preschool Language Scale-3 (PLS-3). The SON-R 2Н-7 was partly administrated by psychology students from the University of Groningen, partly by psychologists from West Virginia. The amount of time between the administration of the SON-R 2Н-7 and the other tests generally was very short; in the majority of the cases the other test was applied on the same day. The PLS-3 was not administrated during this study; the test scores on the PLS-3 were collected on another occasion and could be used in this research. The number of children that both made the SON-R 2Н-7 and another test varied from 26 (in case of the MSCA) to 75 (in case of the WPPSI-R). Results The SON-R 2Н-7 had a correlation of .59 with the total score on the WPPSI-R; the correlations with the performance and verbal scales were .60 and .43 respectively. The average age of the 75 children that did both tests was 5.1 years. The mean total score on the SON-R 2Н-7 was more than two points lower than the total score on the WPPSI-R (94.5 versus 96.8) and nearly four points lower than the performance scale of the WPPSI-R (94.5 versus 98.3). The SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation of .66 with the Kaufman-ABC. The correlation with the simultaneous scale was much higher than with the scale for sequential processing (.58 versus .29). The correlation with the nonverbal scale of the Kaufman-ABC amounted to .61. The average age of the 31 children that did both the Kaufman-ABC and the SON-R 2Н-7 was 4.6 years. With the general cognitive index of the MSCA the SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation of .61; the correlation with the verbal scale was .48; while the correlation with the perceptual performance scale amounted to .61. The average age of the 26 children that did both tests was 4.6 years. The correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the PPVT-R was .47; the average age of the 29 children that did both tests was 5.5 years. With the total language score of the PLS-3 the SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation of .61; with the Auditory Comprehension Scale the correlation was .59, while the correlation with the Expressive Communication Scale amounted to .56. The average age of the 47 children who did both tests was 4.6 years. Research in Great Britain During this validation research in Great Britain which took place in 1996 and that was supervised by Julie Dockrell of the University of London, the SON-R 2Н-7 and the British Ability Scales (BAS) were both administrated. The BAS was administrated by psychology students from the University of London, and the SON-R was applied by psychology students from the University of Groningen. Both tests were applied in changing order to 58 children, 34 boys and 24 girls, from the first year of primary school. The mean age of the children was 6;3 years (standard deviation 3 months). The interval between test administrations varied from some days to some weeks. Within the total sample three groups of children can be distinguished: a group without specific handicaps (N=20), a group for which English is the second language (N=22), and a group with learning disabilities (N=16). Six subtests of the BAS were applied, the four subtests of the short version (Naming Vocabulary, Digit Recall, Similarities, and Matrices) and two extra nonverbal subtests (Block Design and Visual Recognition). Results The correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the short version of the BAS is .80. When the two nonverbal subtests are included the correlation augments to .87. The correlation with the verbal part (three verbal subtests) of the shortened version of the BAS was .71, while the correlation with the performance part (three nonverbal subtests) amounted to .78. The correlations in the group of children without any handicaps are considerably lower than in the other two groups (.56 versus .76 and .78). In the total English sample the SON-R IQ-scores are 7 points lower than on the short form of the BAS. The difference in IQ-scores between the group of normal children and children with learning disabilities for the SON-R 2Н-7 is 40.8 points and for the short form of the BAS 42.8 points. Conclusions of the studies in Australia, the USA, and Great Britain In the three cross-cultural studies the correlations of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the performance scales of a number of criterion tests could be compared to the correlations with the verbal scales. In all three studies the correlation of the SON-R 2Н-7 with the performance scale of the criterion test was clearly stronger than with the verbal scale. In the Australian study the SON-R 2Н-7 showed correlations with the performance and verbal scales of the WPPSI-R of .74 and .54 respectively; in the study in the USA these correlations were .60 and .43. In the same study the SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation of .61 with the perceptual performance scale of the MSCA, and a correlation of .48 with the verbal scale of the MSCA. In the research in Great Britain the SON-R 2Н-7 showed a correlation with the performance part of the BAS of .78 and a correlation of .71 with the verbal part of the BAS. These correlations obtained in Australia, the USA and Great Britain support the convergent and the divergent validity of the SON-R 2Н-7. Cross-cultural Studies with the SON-R 5Н-17 Research in China Chinese psychology students in collaboration with Milly Judistera, a Dutch psychologist, executed the research with the SON-R 5Н-17 in China, which took place in 1996. The study was supervised in China by Professor Zhang Hou Can of the Beijing Normal University. This study was a pilot study as a preparation of the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5Н-17 for China. All 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-7 were administrated according to the standard test procedure by Chinese psychology students to a sample of 302 Chinese children, consisting of 165 boys and 137 girls. To make the administration of the test possible, the instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17 were translated into the Chinese language. The Chinese students were trained in the administration of the SON-R 5Н-17 by Milly Judistira with help of an English speaking Chinese psychology student as an interpreter. The Chinese subjects were tested in the following age groups: 6Н-year-olds (103), 11Н-year-olds (94), and 14Н-year-olds (105). The children came from Beijing (23), Tianjin (81), Miyun (77) and Guangrao (121). The sampling procedure used was not a random procedure; the schools were chosen on basis of existing contacts with the University of Beijing, and within the schools children were chosen by the teachers. Although the teachers claimed to have chosen the children in a random manner, there is no guarantee that this really was the case. The research results therefore have to be interpreted with some caution. Psychometric characteristics The generalizabilty coefficient (alpha) of the total score of the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Chinese sample increases from .76 at 6Н years to .82 at 14Н years with a mean value of .80. These values are lower than the ones found for the Dutch standardization sample; here the generalizability of the total score increased from .81 at 6Н years to .88 at 14Н years with a mean value of .85. The generalizability coefficient is computed by the usual coefficient alpha in which the subtests are the unit of analysis; the number of subtests and the mean correlation between the subtests determine this coefficient. The mean correlation between the 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 was lower for the three Chinese age groups than for the comparable age groups of the Dutch sample (.31, .40, and .42 versus .37, .50 and .51). The mean of the standardized total score obtained by the Chinese children was quite close to the mean standardized total score of the Dutch norm group (98.9 versus 100). The mean scores of the Chinese children on Categories, Situations and Stories, all subtests that use meaningful picture materials, were lower in comparison with the Dutch norm group (respectively 93.6, 91.6, and 95.3 versus 100). The mean of these three subtests amounts to 93.5. The mean scores of the Chinese children on Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies, all subtests using non-meaningful picture material such as geometrical forms, were 96.9, 101.9, 104.2 and 108.1. The mean of these four subtests amounts to 102.8 and is higher in comparison to the mean score of the four subtests in the Dutch norm group (100). The difference found in the Chinese sample between the mean score of the subtests with meaningful picture material (93.5) and the mean score of the subtests with non-meaningful picture material (102.8) is significant at the 5% level. This result is an indication that the Chinese children had more difficulties with the subtests that use meaningful picture materials than with the subtests using non-meaningful picture materials. The relative low scores of the Chinese children on Categories, Situations and Stories were conform to expectations beforehand; the meaningful pictures used in these subtests were not expected to be familiar to cultures very different from the Dutch culture. In one of the items of the subtest Categories, for instance, people leaving a church is shown; such a situation did appear not to be very familiar to Chinese children. The lower mean score on Mosaics (96.9 versus 100) does not correspond with earlier expectations since the item material of this subtest consist of abstract geometrical figures which according to Jensen (1980) reduces the probability of cultural bias. The Chinese children did not show any problems with the other two subtests containing abstract geometrical figures; on these subtests, Patterns and Analogies, they even showed higher mean scores than their Dutch colleagues (104.2 and 108.1 versus 100). The lower score on Mosaics might be a result of the fact that the majority of the Chinese children were not tested with the original version of the subtest Mosaics. Due to financial restrictions there was only one original SON-R 5Н-17 test available for the research in China; in order to be able to test various children in the same period of time a number of copies of the test were made. The squares of the copied version of Mosaics did not fit very well in the frame in which the mosaic patterns had to be copied. Probably, the use of test material, which was not standardized, has caused the lower score of the Chinese children on Mosaics. Factor analysis failed to show a clear similarity between the factor structure of the 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Chinese sample and in the Dutch standardization sample. In the Dutch sample Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with varimax rotation resulted in two clear factors: a  reasoning and a  spatial factor. Although in the youngest age groups four factors appeared ( spatial ,  concrete reasoning ,  abstract reasoning , and  perception ) the two factor solution offered better and more consistent results across all different age groups. In the Chinese sample PCA with varimax rotation did not provide the same results as in the Netherlands. In the Dutch research the two spatial subtests showed high loadings on the second factor (the  spatial factor) while in the Chinese study this only seems to be the case for the youngest group. Moreover, in the Dutch research Categories showed high loadings on the first factor (the  reasoning factor); but this was not the case for the eldest group of the Chinese sample. The results of the factor analysis suggest a lack of test equivalence of the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Chinese and the Dutch culture. These results, however, have to be interpreted with some caution because reservations can be made about the appropriateness of factor analysis as a method for assessing equivalence of test applications in different cultures. Hambleton & Bollwark, (1991) note in this respect that the disadvantage of factor analysis is that the results are sample dependent, since it is based on classical item statistics. Their conclusion also applies to other often used classical statistical methods to detect a possible cultural loading of a test that are sample dependent, like the comparison of p-values and the comparison of total test scores. All these methods presuppose the use of equal ability groups. Even in the case of non-equal ability groups researchers must still check that the ordering of item difficulties is the same in the two different cultures (Hambleton & Kanjee, 1995). Following the recommendation of Hambleton & Kanjee, the correlation coefficients between the ordering of the item difficulties in the two cultures have been calculated. The SpearmanДs rho correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the six subtests of the SON-R (one subtest, Hidden Pictures, does not consist of independent items so no correlations could be computed) obtained in the Chinese sample and in the Dutch sample are the following: .98 (Categories), .99 (Mosaics), .99 (Patterns), .98 (Situations), .99 (Analogies) & .98 (Stories). Although the correlations between the item difficulties in the two cultures are all very high, Categories, Situations, and Stories show a slightly lower correlation than the remaining subtests. This might be an indication of cultural bias of these subtests. The above-described psychometric characteristics of the SON-R 5Н-17 in this study with 302 Chinese children suggest that the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories might have a cultural bias. A next step in this study was an attempt to identify the sources of this possible cultural bias of the three subtests. Results of the judgmental procedure According to Hambleton (1993) both judgmental and statistical methods should be used in studies to determine the equivalence of a test in multiple languages or cultures. In this study the judgmental procedure consisted of the reviewing on the aspect of possible cultural bias of the test instructions, the testing format, the examples, and all the items of Categories, Situations and Stories for the Chinese population of children from 6 to 17 years of age. The reviewing took place during a group discussion with the Chinese psychology students. The test instructions, the testing format and the examples used in the SON-R 5Н-17 were judged by them as containing no cultural bias. The only aspect of the testing procedure that caused some problems for the Chinese administrators of the SON-R 5Н-17 was the providing of feedback after each item. Some students reported that they felt uncomfortable giving feedback because they believed that this might influence the emotions of the children. Possibly the problems with the provision of feedback is related to the fact that in the Chinese culture communication often occurs in an indirect manner. The results of the judgmental procedure with respect to the items of the three subtests are the following: 6 items of Categories (items 2b, 3b, 4b, 6a, 7a, and 9b) and 3 items of Situations (2b, 2c and 10b) were identified as being possibly culture specific. For the subtest Stories no culture specific items were identified. For these culture specific items new items have been developed that are adapted to the Chinese culture. A Chinese student of the art academy has drawn the adapted items. In the future standardization and validation research of the SON-R 5Н-17 in China, items that were identified as being culture specific will be replaced by adapted items. Research in Peru The validation study with the SON-R 5Н-17 in Peru took place in 1996 and was executed by two psychology students from the University of Groningen, and by Peruvian psychologists. The research was supervised in Peru by Veronica Bisso Cajas, from the Consortium of Catholic Centres of Education in Lima. This study served as a preparation of the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5Н-17 for Peru. All 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-7 were administrated according to the standard test procedure by the two Dutch psychology students and by ten Peruvian psychologists. To make the administration of the test possible, the instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17 were translated into Spanish. The Peruvian psychologists were trained in the administration procedure of the SON-R 5Н-17. The test was administrated to a sample of 160 Peruvian children, consisting of 79 boys and 81 girls. The age of the children varied from 6 years to 15 years with a mean of 9;4 years. All the subjects of the Peruvian sample lived in the city of Lima, the capital of Peru; 50% of the children came from State schools and 50% private schools. The State schools in Peru are fully supported by the government; children who visit these schools generally come from families with a low SES-level and often live in very poor circumstances. The private schools are partly financed by religious congregations and private persons; children who frequent these schools generally come from families with a high or moderately high SES-level. The sampling procedure used was only partially a random procedure; the schools were chosen on basis of existing contacts with the Consortium of Catholic Centres of Education, but within the schools children were selected at random. In this research there is an over-representation of children with moderate and high SES levels. The Peruvian sample cannot be considered as representative for Peru, nor for Lima. The results of this study, therefore, cannot simply be generalised to all of Peru and have to be interpreted with caution. Psychometric characteristics The results of this study show that the Peruvian children obtained a lower mean score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the children of the Dutch norm group (94.0 versus 100). The mean scores of the Peruvian children on Categories, Situations and Stories, the subtests which use meaningful picture material, were 97.1, 91.7 and 93.1. The mean of these three subtests amounts to 93.9. The mean scores of the Peruvian children on Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies, all subtests using non-meaningful picture materials, were 91.6, 92.2, 101.4, and 98.1. The mean of these four subtests amounts to 95.8. The difference between the mean score of the subtests with meaningful picture material (93.9) and the mean score of the subtests with non-meaningful picture material (95.8) is significant at the 5% level. This finding is in accordance with expectations beforehand; Peruvian children, like the Chinese children, showed more problems with the subtests containing meaningful pictures than with the subtests containing non-meaningful pictures. To check whether the ordering of item difficulties was the same in the Peruvian sample and the Dutch sample Spearman s rho correlation coefficients were calculated. The correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Peruvian sample and in the Dutch norm sample are .97, .98, and .97. These correlations are based on 48 children from the total sample of Peruvian children. Note that the correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Peruvian and in the Dutch sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations between the item difficulties found in the Chinese and the Dutch sample. In addition to the SON-R 5Н-17 also a Spanish version of the WISC-R was administered to all 160 children of the Peruvian sample in order to obtain information about the validity of the SON-R 5Н-17 in Peru. Since there were no Peruvian norms available for the WISC-R, norm scores were used that are based on the standardization sample of the USA (Wechsler, 1974). The correlation of the SON-R 5Н-17 with the full scale of the WISC-R was .77, with the performance scale .74 and with the verbal scale .69. These correlations are slightly lower compared to those found in a study in the Netherlands with 35 children from an outdoor psychiatric university clinic (Tellegen & Laros, 1993b). In this study the correlation of the SON-R 5Н-17 with the full scale of the WISC-R was .80, with the performance scale .80 and with the verbal scale .66. The mean IQ-score of the Peruvian sample on the WISC-R was 96.7; the mean score on the verbal scale 94.3 and the mean score on the performance scale 100.2 These scores cannot simply be compared to the mean IQ-score on the SON-R 5Н-17 because the tests have been standardized in different years; the WISC-R was standardized in 1974 and the SON-R 5Н-17 in 1988. As Flynn (1987) has observed, norms on intelligence tests are becoming stricter during the years. In a recent study (Sattler, 1992) comparing the norms of the WISC-R with those of the most recent version of the Wechsler test for children, the WISC-III (Wechsler, 1991), the norm scores on the WISC-III appeared to be lower than the norm scores on the WISC-R. In the 17 years between the two standardizations (1974-1991) the norm scores for the full scale decreased 5.3 points, for the verbal scale 2.4 points, and for the performance scale 7.4 points. Based on the differences found between the norms of the WISC-R and the WISC-III one can correct the obtained scores for the differences in years of standardization of the WISC-R and the SON-R 5Н-17. After correction, the mean norm score on the WISC-R of the Peruvian sample becomes 92.3 for the full scale, 94.1 for the performance scale and 92.3 for the verbal scale. The Peruvian children obtain, after correction, a higher score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than on the WISC-R. Results of the judgmental procedure To identify culture specific items of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories a judgmental procedure was used. With the remaining subtests (Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns, Analogies) no judgmental procedure was used, because these subtests are less likely to be culture specific. When a child responded incorrectly on an item of Categories, Situations or Stories the examiner checked, after testing, whether the pictures used in the item were understood by the child. This procedure, however, has not been followed in a systematic way; not all the children, who responded incorrectly to an item, were asked if the pictures used in that particular were familiar to them. The difference with the judgmental procedure used in the Chinese study is that there the examiners (psychology students) were asked to judge the cultural loading of the items; in this study the examinees (children) were asked to give their judgement. The results of the judgmental procedure with respect to the items of the three subtests are the following: 3 items of Categories (items 1a, 2b, and 4a) and 2 items and one example of Situations (example A, and items 2c and 4b) were identified as being possibly culture specific. Research in Brazil The research in Brazil, which took place in 1996, was executed under the supervision of Jaap Laros of the University of Brasilia, one of the authors of the SON-R tests. Six psychology students of the above-mentioned university did the actual test administration at schools. To make the administration of the test possible, the test instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17 were translated into Portuguese. The Brazilian psychology students were trained in the administration of the SON-R 5Н-17 by their supervisor. The study was a preparation for the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5Н-17 for Brazil. In this Brazilian study the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories of the SON-R 5Н-17 were administered individually to a sample of 82 Brazilian children, consisting of 41 girls and 41 boys. The age of the children varied from 7 to 14 years with a mean of 10,4 years. All children came from 2 state schools from Brasilia, the capital of Brazil. The two schools differed in respect to the SES-level of their pupils; the 36 children from the first school generally came from families with a moderate SES-level, while the 46 children from the second school principally came from families with a low SES-level. The sampling procedure used was not a totally random procedure; the schools were selected on the basis of existing contacts with the University of Brasilia, but within the schools the children were selected at random, using only their age as a selection criterion. The Brazilian sample cannot be considered to be representative for Brazil, nor for Brasilia. The results of this study should therefore be interpreted with some caution. To gain additional information on possible cultural bias, the three subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 have been administered in a nonstandard fashion. Van de Vijver & Poortinga (1997) stress the importance of nonstandard administration of tests in cross-cultural studies to evaluate the adequacy of stimulus and response formats, and of the test administration procedure. In such a nonstandard test procedure it usually is very informative to ask examinees to motivate their responses. In the standard procedure of the SON-R 5Н-17 the subtests are divided into two or three parallel series of about 10 items; each child starts with the easiest item of the first series, but with which item of the second or third series is started, depends on the performance of the child on the previous series. In the nonstandard procedure used in this study the items were offered in order of increasing difficulty; the subtests Categories and Situations with 27 and 33 items were broken off after twelve errors, while the subtest Stories with 20 items was broken off after 8 errors. With the use of this nonstandard test procedure the children responded to much more items than would have been the case if the standard adaptive procedure had used. The average number of items administrated with the adaptive procedure is 50% of the total number of items; with the nonstandard procedure this number amounts to about 90% of the total number of items. Psychometric characteristics The reliability coefficients (alpha) for the three subtests in the Brazilian sample were as follows: .85 for Categories, .87 for Situations and .82 for Stories. When corrected for the influence of age, the corrected reliability coefficients are: .76 for Categories, .82 for Situations and .76 for Stories. These values of the reliability coefficients are quite similar to the values found in a Dutch sample of 415 subjects when the three subtests were administrated without an adaptive procedure (Laros & Tellegen, 1991, page 33). The results from this research indicate further that the Brazilian children obtained a lower mean total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 (based on the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories) in comparison to the Dutch norm group (96.2 versus 100). The mean scores of the Brazilian children for Categories (94.8) and Situations (95,0) are relatively low in comparison with the Dutch norm group (100); the mean score of the Brazilian sample on Stories (97.5) comes close to the mean score of their Dutch colleagues. The children of the school with a comparatively low SES-level seemed to have more difficulties with Categories and Situations than the children of the school with a higher SES-level. The mean score of the low SES-group (N=46) on the three subtests was 94.8 while the mean scores on the three subtests were as follows: Categories 92.9, Situations 92.5 and Stories 97.0. It can be concluded that Brazilian children had more problems with Categories and Situations than with Stories. This trend seems to get stronger for Brazilian children with a low SES-level. The Spearman s rho correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Brazilian sample and in the Dutch norm sample are .97, .92, and .96. The relative low correlation coefficient for the subtest Situations might be an indication of item bias in this subtest, but might also reflect the different test administration procedures that were used in the Dutch and the Brazilian research. If the latter were the case, the use of the non-standard administration procedure would have had more effect on the item difficulties of Situations than on the item difficulties of the other two subtests. In addition to the administration of the three subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17, other data of the 82 Brazilian children were gathered in order to obtain information about the validity of the subtests. School marks on mathematics, science, and Portuguese were collected for every child of the Brazilian sample. The school marks give an indication of the school achievement of the children. The children were also evaluated on their motivation, cooperation and concentration by their schoolteachers and by the psychology students that administrated (a part of) the SON-R 5Н-17. Of the three subtests, the report marks showed the highest correlations with the subtest Categories: science (.61); mathematics (.59), and Portuguese (.38); they showed the lowest correlations with the subtest Stories: science (.26); mathematics (.36), and Portuguese (.29). The correlations of the report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 are as following: science (.52); mathematics (.49), and Portuguese (.38). The multiple correlation of the report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 amounts to .60. The correlations of report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Dutch norm sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations found in the Brazilian sample. Considering the fact that in the Brazilian study the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 was based on only three instead of all seven subtests, the correlations in this study are quite high. The judgment of the teachers on motivation, cooperation and concentration of their pupils correlated higher with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the judgment of the psychology students. When the judgment scores of the teachers and the psychology students were combined into a mean score, these scores showed a higher correlation with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the scores based on the judgment of the teachers alone. The correlation of the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 with the mean score on motivation is .40, with the mean score on cooperation .45, and with the mean score on concentration .19. The multiple correlation of the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 with the mean scores on motivation, cooperation and concentration is .50. Results of the judgmental procedure The judgmental procedure used in this research consisted of the following: when a child responded incorrectly on an example or an item the examiner checked, immediately after the incorrect answer, whether the child understood the pictures that were used in the item. This procedure was followed in a systematic way, and formed the basis on which conclusions were made regarding the cultural specificity of the items. For the subtest Categories the judgmental procedure implied that after each incorrectly answered item the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with eight figures. [Each item of the subtest Categories is build up out of eight figures; three figures define the category, and five figures are the alternatives from which the child has to choose two that pertain to the category]. In case of the subtest Situations the procedure implied that after each incorrectly answered item, the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with five to fourteen figures. The procedure implied for the subtest Stories that the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with four to seven figures for every incorrectly answered item. As a consequence of this time consuming test procedure the amount of time needed to administer the three subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 came close to an hour. The results obtained with this judgmental procedure indicate that the Brazilian children had no problems understanding the subtest instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17. On the basis of the answers that the children provided with respect to their (un)familiarity with the figures used in the items, 14 items were identified as being possibly culture-specific; 10 items of Categories (items 2b, 2c, 3a, 4a, 4b, 5c, 6a, 8a, 8c and 9c) and 4 items of Situations (items 2b, 3c, 4a, and 10b). The criterion which was used to classify an item as being possibly culture specific was the following: when one of the figures that form an item was indicated by more than 5% of the Brazilian sample as being unfamiliar an item was classified as being possibly culture specific. Maybe this criterion might be a little too strict, considering the large amount of items of the subtest Categories that were classified as possibly culture specific. In case of the subtest Categories twice as many figures used in the alternatives were unfamiliar to the Brazilian children than the figures that defined the category. With the subtest Situations, however, twice as many  main figures were identified as unfamiliar than the figures used in the alternatives. For the subtest Stories no adaptations for the Brazilian culture were found to be necessary. Conclusions of the studies in China, Peru and Brazil. In the cross-cultural validation studies in China and Peru, where all seven subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 were administrated, the average of the mean scores on the three subtests with meaningful picture materials (Categories, Situations and Stories) was significantly lower at 5% level than the average of the mean scores on the four remaining subtests that contain non-meaningful picture materials (Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies). This research finding is in accordance with our expectations beforehand that were partially based on the theoretical considerations of Jensen (1980) about culture-fair tests. This result indicates a possible cultural bias in the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories. Another indication of possible bias is given by the correlation between the item difficulties in the Dutch norm group and the item difficulties in different cultures. The correlation coeffcients give an indication of the extent in which the ordering of item difficulties is the same in the two different cultures. A different ordering of the items might indicate that the items do not have the same meaning for two different cultural groups. The Spearman s rho correlation coefficients for the subtests Mosaics, Patterns, and Analogies in the Chinese study were all .99. The correlation coefficients for Categories in the Chinese, Peruvian, and Brazilian study are respectively .98, .97, and .97; for Situations .98, .98, and .92; for Stories .98, .97, and .96. Although all the correlation coefficients are quite high, the correlations for the three subtests Categories, Situations and Stories in which meaningful picture materials are used, are somewhat lower which might indicate possible bias in these subtests. The lowest correlations were found in the Brazilian sample, but there the nonstandard test procedure makes a straightforward comparison with the item difficulties in the Dutch sample problematic. The reliability coefficients of the subtests in the three studies are comparable with the coefficients found in the Dutch sample, although the values in the Dutch sample are somewhat higher. In the Chinese study, the only study where a factor analysis was performed, the resulting factor structure failed to show a clear similarity with the factor structure in the Dutch sample. This might be an indication of the cultural loading of some of the subtests. In the Peruvian and Brazilian study clear indications of the validity of the SON-R 5Н-17 were found. The SON-R 5Н-17 showed a relatively high correlation with the WISC-R (.77) in the Peruvian study. In the Brazilian study the standardized total score based on three subtests of the SON-R showed satisfactory correlations with school marks on science (.52); mathematics (.49), and Portuguese (.38). The correlations of report marks with the total score on the SON-R based on 7 subtests in the Dutch sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations found in the Brazilian sample. In the Brazilian study the total score on the SON-R, based on three subtests, correlated .40 with motivation, .45 with cooperation and .19 with concentration. In all three studies a judgmental procedure was used for the identification of item bias in the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories. In the Chinese study the Chinese psychology students who applied the SON-R 5Н-17 reviewed the items on the aspect of possible cultural bias. In the Peruvian and Brazilian study the children who responded incorrectly to an item were asked if the pictures that were used in that item were understood by them. As a result of this procedure 14 of the 33 items (42%) of the subtest Categories have been identified as possibly culture specific. One of these items has been identified as culture specific in all three studies (item 2b), 3 items were identified as biased in two studies (items 4a, 4b and 6a) and 9 items were identified as biased in just one study (items 1a, 2c, 3a, 3b, 5c, 7a, 8a, 8c, and 9c). For the subtest Situations 6 of the 33 items (18%) and one example were identified as possibly culture specific. Three of the items were identified in two different studies (items 2b, 2c, and 10b); the remaining 3 items were identified as biased in just one study (items 3c, 4a, 4b). The example that was identified as culture specific (example A) was identified in only one study. General Conclusions The research results obtained in various countries for both the SON-R 2Н-7 and the SON-R 5Н-17 indicate that both tests can be used in cultures that are different from the Dutch culture. The validity-coefficients of both SON-R tests encountered in various countries are comparable to the validity-coefficients found in the Dutch norm sample. For the SON-R 5Н-17, however, some adaptations will have to be made in the subtests Categories and Situations. For the subtest Categories 42% of the items will have be adapted, while for the subtest Situations 18% of the items and one example will have to be adapted. For the other subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 no adaptations have to be made. Although no specific research have been done to item bias of the SON-R 2Н-7, adaptations of this test seems to be less necessary. For this young age group the test uses only very simple pictures. In the construction phase of this test special attention was paid to possible item bias. The research result that immigrant children in the Netherlands had the same mean score on the subtests that use meaningful picture materials as on the subtests that use non-meaningful picture materials such as geometrical forms, is an empirical argument indicating the culture-fairness of the SON-R 2Н-7. Only future empirical research will tell whether the impression is correct that for cross-cultural use of the SON-R 2Н-7 no adaptations are necessary. References Anastasi, A. (1989). Psychological testing (6th edition). New York: Macmillan. Brouwer, A., Koster, M. & Veenstra, B. (1995). Validation of the Snijders-Oomen Test (SON-R2Н-7) for Dutch and Australian children with disabilities. Groningen: Internal Report, Department of Educational and Personality Psychology. Ceci, S.J. (1991). How much does schooling influence general intelligence and its cognitive components? A reassessment of the evidence. Developmental Psychology, 27, 703-722. Cooper, C.R. & Denner, J. (1998). Theories linking culture and psychology: universal and community-specific processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 559-584. Cronbach, L.J. (1990). Essentials of psychological testing (5th edition). New York: Harper-Collins Publishers Inc. Drenth, P.J.D. (1975). Psychological tests for developing countries: rationale and objectives. Dutch Journal of Psychology [Nederlands Tijdschrift voor de Psychologie], 30, 5-22. Ellis, B.B. (1995). A partial test of HulinДs psychometric theory of measurement equivalence in translated tests. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 11, 184-193. Hambleton, R.K. (1993). Translating achievement tests for use in cross-national studies. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 9, 57-68. Hambleton, R.K. (1994). Guidelines for adapting educational and psychological tests: a progress report. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 10, 229-240. Hambleton, R.K. & Bollwark, J. (1991). Adapting tests for use in different cultures: technical issues and methods. Bulletin of the International Test Commission, 18, 3-32. Hambleton, R.K. & Anjee, A. (1995). Increasing the validity of cross-cultural assessments: use of improved methods for test adaptations. European journal of Psychological Assessment, 11, 147-157. Hambleton, R.K. & Slater, S.C. (1997). Item response theory models and testing practices: current international status and future directions. European journal of Psychological Assessment, 13, 21-28. Hamers, J.H.M. & Sijtsma, K. & Ruijssenaars, A.J.J.M. (1993). Learning Potential Assessment. Theoretical, Methodological and Practical Issues. Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger. Helms-Lorenz, M. & van de Vijver, F.J. (1995). Cognitive assessment in education in a multicultural society. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 11, 158-169. Holland, P.W. & Thayer, D.T. (1988). Differential item performance and the Mantel-Haenszel procedure. In H. Wainer & H.I. Braun (Eds.), Test Validity (pp. 129-145). Hillsdale, New York: Lawrence Erlbaum. Horn, J., ten (1996). Validation research of the Snijders-Oomen nonverbal intelligence test (SON-R 2Н-7) in the USA. Groningen: Internal Report, Department of Educational and Personality Psychology. Hu, S. & Oakland, T. (1991). Global and regional perspectives on testing children and youth: an empirical study. International Journal of Psychology, 26, 329-344. Hulin, C.L. (1987). A psychometric theory of evaluations of item and scale translations  Fidelity across languages. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 18, 115-142. Jenkinson, J., Roberts, S., Dennehy, S. & Tellegen P. (1996). Validation of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal intelligence test  Revised 2Н-7 for Australian children with disabilities. Journal of Psycho-educational Assessment, 14, 276-286. Jensen, A.R. (1980). Bias in mental testing. New York: Free Press. Jensen, A.R. (1984). Test bias: Concepts and criticisms. In: C.R. Reynolds & R.T. Brown (Eds.), Perspectives on bias in mental testing. New York: Free Press. Judistira, E.M. (1996). A preliminary validation research with the SON-R 5Н-17 in China. Groningen: Internal Report, Department of Educational and Personality Psychology. Fan, X., Wilson, V.L. & Kapes, J.T. (1996). Ethnic group representation in test construction samples and test bias: the standardization fallacy revisited. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 56, 365-381. Laros, J.A. & Tellegen, P.J. (1991). Construction and validation of the SON-R 5Н-17, the Snijders-Oomen non-verbal intelligence test. Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff. Le Clerq M. & Holvast L. (1996). The SON-R 5Н-17 and the WISC-R applied to Peruvian school children. Groningen: Internal Report, Department of Educational and Personality Psychology. SWAP: 96-1227. Linden, W.J. van der, & Hambleton, R.K. [eds.] (1997). Handbook of Modern Item Response Theory. New York: Springer Verlag. Oakland, T., Wechsler, S., Bensuan, E. & Stafford, M. (1994). The construct of intelligence among Brazilian children  An exploratory study. School Psychology International, 15, 361- 370. Parmar, R.S. (1989). Cross-cultural transfer of non-verbal intelligence tests: an (in)validation study. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 59, 379-388. Poortinga, Y.H. (1995). Cultural bias in assessment: historical and thematic issues. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 11, 140-146. Sattler, J.M. (1992). Assessment of children, Revised and updated third edition. San Diego, CA: J.M. Sattler, Publisher, Inc. Sijtsma, K. & Molenaar, I. (1987). Reliability of test scores in nonparametric item response theory. Psychometrika, 52, 79-98. Snijders, J.Th., Tellegen, P.J. & Laros, J.A. (1989). Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal intelligence test: SON-R 5Н-17. Manual and research report. Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff. Tellegen, P. (1997). An Addition and Correction to the Jenkinson et al. (1996) Australian SON-R 2Н-7 Validation Study. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 15, 67-69. Tellegen, P.J. & Laros, J.A. (1993a). The Snijders-Oomen nonverbal intelligence tests: general intelligence tests or tests for learning potential? In: Hamers, J.H.M. & Sijtsma, K. & Ruijssenaars, A.J.J.M. Learning Potential Assessment. Theoretical, Methodological and Practical Issues. Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger. Tellegen, P.J. & Laros, J.A. (1993b). The construction and validation of a nonverbal test of intelligence: the revision of the Snijders-Oomen tests. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 9,147-157. Tellegen, P.J., Winkel, M., Wijnberg-Williams, B.J. & Laros, J.A. (1998). Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Test, SON-R 2SON-R 5.5-17 are the latest revisions of the Snijders-Oomen nonverbal intelligence test, originally developed in the Netherlands in 1943 for use with deaf children. The tests consist of 6 to 7 subtests mainly focussed on visual-spatial abilities and abstract and concrete reasoning. Research in the Netherlands indicates that the nonverbal SON-R tests are well suited for use with children of ethnic minorities. With traditional tests the cognitive abilities of minority children are often underestimated as a result of their lack of knowledge of the official language. Notwithstanding the favorite research results with minority children in The Netherlands, it cannot simply be assumed that the SON-R tests can be used unmodified in countries which are greatly different from The Netherlands. In this presentation we will discuss results obtained with the SON-R tests in Australia, the USA, Great Britain, China, Peru and Brazil. Introduction With the latest revision and standardization in the Netherlands of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Tests, various cross-cultural validation studies have been initiated. The objective of these studies was to verify to which degree the SON-R tests can be used with cultures different from the cultures in Western Europe in general, and different from the cultures in the Netherlands in particular. In other words, the goal of these studies was to discern if, and to what extent adaptations of the material (e.g., test instructions, testing format, examples, items) of the SON-R tests are required for cross-national and cross-cultural use. The reason of the adaptation of the SON-R tests is to be able to assess in a fair way the construct of intelligence in multiple cultures. A crucial phase in the adaptation of conventional tests is the translation of the instrument from the source language into a target language. To obtain an equivalent test in another language or culture not only a translation is needed that preserves the meaning of the verbal test materials, but also additional changes may be necessary to insure the equivalence of the versions of the test in multiple languages or cultures, such as those affecting item format and testing procedures. (Hambleton, 1993). Close correspondence between the original version and the translated version is required before reliance can be placed on results based on translated tests. In addition to using effective translation practices, test users also need to examine the psychometric properties of translated tests (Ellis, 1995). The adaptation of nonverbal tests for multiple cultures does not include the difficult and often very problematic test translation phase and is therefore much less complicated than the adaptation process of (partly) verbal tests. The fact that the adaptation process of nonverbal tests is much less complicated than the one needed for intelligence tests which use written or spoken language is one of the great advantages of nonverbal intelligence tests. The circumstance that nonverbal intelligence tests often do not need translation, does not automatically mean that there is no need for empirical studies on the equivalence of their applications for different cultures. Van de Vijver and Poortinga (1997) noted that when a psychological instrument developed in one society is applied in a different cultural context, invariance of psychometric properties like reliability and validity cannot be merely assumed, but has to be empirically demonstrated. The occurrence of bias can change the psychometric properties of an instrument when it is used in a different culture. Bias can appear at various levels; at test-, subtest-, or at item-level. A test, subtest, or an item is biased if it does not measure the same psychological trait across cultural groups (Van de Vijver, 1998). Three different types of bias can be differentiated, construct bias, method bias and item bias (Van de Vijver & Poortinga, 1997). A test shows construct bias if the construct measured is not identical across different cultural groups. Method bias occurs as a consequence of nuisance variables due to method-related factors. Three sorts of method bias can be distinguished: sample bias, instrument bias and administration bias. Sample bias occurs when the samples are incomparable on aspects other than the target variable. Instrument bias is related to characteristics of the instrument that are not identical for different culture groups. An example of this kind of bias is stimulus familiarity. The third type of method bias occurs when there are problems related with the administration of a test. This type of bias can occur when communication problems arise because of the insufficient knowledge of the subject of the language that the examiner uses. Item bias occurs if persons with the same amount of the trait being estimated, but belonging to different groups have different probabilities of making a specific response to the item. The probability that administration bias will occur with a nonverbal intelligence test like the SON-R is low as that the instructions are given in a nonverbal or in a verbal way, dependent on the possibilities of communication of the subject. Moreover, the providing of feedback following each item and the  showing how to do it by the examiner reduces the chance of the occurrence of administration bias. Drenth (1975) has described the SON-test as an example of culture-reduced tests, meaning that these tests only measure a limited number of culturally determined skills that they do not intend to measure. Examples of culturally determined skills are: being able to use a pencil, being capable of working with numbers, and being able to understand the instructions. Drenth has argued that it is not essential for a culture-reduced test to produce similar score distributions in different cultural groups; the only condition for a culture-reduced test is that it should not reflect skill differences determined by cultural factors. Drenth defines a culture-fair test as a culture-reduced test for the particular groups under consideration. The conception of Jensen (1980) of a culture-reduced test differs slightly from DrenthДs conception: Jensen considers a test culture-reduced when the performance on this test is only to a limited extent influenced by culturally determined familiarity with the stimulus figures and response format. Jensen has formulated the following criteria for culture-reduced tests: (a) the test has to be a performance measure, (b) instructions should be given in mime to exclude the influence of language, (3) preliminary practice items should be provided, (4) items should not depend on time, (5) items should require abstract reasoning rather than factual information and (6) problems should be designed in such a way as to ensure subjects are unable to guess from memory of similar items encountered in the past. The SON-R tests do not satisfy all of the criteria of Jensen for culture-reduced tests because with one subtest of the SON-R 5Н-17 (Hidden Pictures) a time limit is being used. Jensen has also stated that the use of abstract geometrical figures reduces the likelihood of cultural bias. In the SON-R tests various subtests contain concrete, meaningful pictures instead of abstract, geometrical figures. The subtests using meaningful picture materials might be culture-specific. The research finding that immigrant children in the Netherlands (mainly children from Morocco, Turkey, Suriname and the Dutch Antilles) perform better on the SON-R tests than on traditional intelligence tests like the WISC-R and RAKIT (Laros & Tellegen, 1991; Tellegen, Winkel, Wijnberg-Williams & Laros, 1998) provides a positive empirical indication of the culture-fairness of the SON-R for the immigrant groups in the Dutch population. One of the reasons why immigrant children attain lower mean scores on traditional intelligence tests than on nonverbal intelligence tests like the SON-R is the relative strong reliance of these tests on verbal abilities and specific knowledge learned in school. This is especially the case with the so-called omnibus intelligence tests like the various Wechsler scales which contain subtests like Information and Vocabulary which presuppose specific knowledge learned in school (Helms-Lorenz & Van de Vijver, 1995). The fact that minority groups show lower means on a test, however, does not necessarily mean that a test is culturally biased. Van de Vijver & Poortinga (1992) argued that the desirability of cultural loadings in measurement procedures is determined by the intention of the test in question. If a particular test is intended to test knowledge gained during a course at school it is quite likely that culture-specific knowledge is tested. In this case, cultural loadings in tests are unavoidable and even desirable. In general a distinction can be made between generalizations about achievements and about aptitudes. In the latter case, cultural loadings are undesirable (Helms-Lorenz & Van de Vijver, 1995). A second research result with positive implications for the culture-fairness of the SON-R tests for the immigrant groups in the Netherlands is the finding that there is no relation between their length of stay in the Netherlands and their IQ-scores, indicating that performance on the SON-R is not dependent on knowledge of the Dutch language (Laros & Tellegen, 1991). Notwithstanding the existence of the positive indications of the culture-fairness of the SON-R tests, also some negative indications are available, especially in reference to the subtests of the SON-R in which concrete, meaningful picture materials are used instead of abstract geometrical figures. Our expectation before the start of the cross-cultural validation studies with the SON-R tests, was to encounter some bias in the subtests that use meaningful picture materials because some of the pictures used seemed rather specific for western cultures. Before presenting the results of these studies, a short description of the SON-R tests will be given. Description of the SON-R tests The SON test was originally developed in 1943 by Snijders-Oomen for use with deaf children. She intended to measure a broad spectrum of intelligence functions without being dependent on the use of oral or written language. With subsequent revisions also norms and instructions for use with hearing subjects were developed. The latest revision comprises of separate tests for younger and older children, the SON-R 2.5.5-7 (Tellegen et al., 1998) and the SON-R 5.5-17 (Snijders, Tellegen & Laros, 1989). In table 1 some characteristics of the tests are presented. Table 1: Characteristics of the SON-tests in the Netherlands SON-R 2.5.5-7 SON-R 5.5-17 age range 2;0  7;11 years 5;6  16;11 years N sample 1124 1350 N subtests 6 7 reasoning abilities Categories Categories Situations Situations Analogies Analogies ---- Stories spatial abilities Mosaics Mosaics Patterns Patterns Puzzles ---- perceptual abilities ---- Hidden Pictures administration time 50 min. 90 min. mean reliability subtests .72 .76 reliability total score .90 .93 generalizability total score .78 .85 Most subtests are related to either reasoning abilities or spatial abilities while in the SON-R 5Н-17 also a test for perceptual abilities is included. In the subtest Categories the subject has to find the common element between three pictures and select two other pictures that belong to the same category. In Situations one or more parts are missing from a drawing and the subject has to select those parts from a number of alternatives to make the drawing a meaningful whole. In Analogies the transformation of an abstract element is shown and the subject has to perform the same transformation on another element by selecting the proper alternative. In Stories cards have to be ordered to make a meaningful story. The SON-R 2.5.5-7 The revised version of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Test (Tellegen et al., 1988) for children between the ages of 2.5 to 7 years comprises 6 subtests. In sequence of administration the subtests are: Mosaics, Categories, Puzzles, Analogies, Situations and Patterns. In the subtest Mosaics the child is asked to copy different mosaic patterns with red/white squares. In the first part of the subtest Categories the child has to sort cards based on the category they belong; in the second part two out of five pictures have to be chosen, which are missing in a certain category of pictures. In the first part of Puzzles, three pieces have to be copied in a frame to resemble an example; in the second part the child is asked to form a whole from three to six puzzle pieces. In the first part of Analogies the child is required to sort three to five forms according to form, colour, and size into two compartments. In part two of Analogies a geometric figure changes in one or more aspects to form another figure. To obtain a similar transformation with a second figure, the child is asked to choose the correct alternative. In the fist part of Situations with items showing only the upper halves of four pictures, the child is asked to find the missing halves. In the second part of Situations the task is to indicate the missing parts of drawings of concrete situations. In Patterns the child is asked to copy several patterns with a pencil. The subtests Mosaics, Puzzles and Patterns reflect spatial abilities, while the remaining subtests Categories, Analogies and Situations are more directed to abstract and concrete reasoning abilities. The administration of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 occurs individually; the mean administration time of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 amounts to 50 minutes. A very important element of the instructions exist in the  showing how to do it of the examiner of a part of the items. Another very important aspect of the test administration is the feedback that the examiner offers after each item. The feedback offered with the SON-R 2.5Н-7 goes beyond the feedback given with the SON-R 5Н-17; the child is not only informed whether the answer was right or wrong, but the examiner helps the child to find the correct solution. Because of this aspect the SON-R 2.5Н-7 has more similarities with a learning potential test than with a traditional test of intelligence (Tellegen & Laros, 1993a). The standardization of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 is based on a nationwide sample of 1124 children varying in age from 2 years and 3 months to 7 years and three months. The reliability (alpha stratified) of the total score of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 increases from .86 at 2Н years to .92 at 7Н years with a mean value of .90. The generalizability of the total score (alpha) increases from .71 at 2Н years to .82 at 7Н years with a mean value of .78. The average reliability of the subtests is .72. The test-retest correlation of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 with an interval of 3 months is .79. Besides a total IQ-score on the SON-R 2.5Н-7 also scores on the Performance Scale and Reasoning Scale are being calculated. The score on the Performance Scale is based on the three performance subtests Mosaics, Puzzles and Patterns, and the score on the Reasoning Scale is based on the three reasoning subtests Categories, Analogies and Situations. The validity of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 has been investigated through various validation studies in the Netherlands and in other countries like Great Britain, the USA, and Australia by comparing the results on this test with results on other intelligence- and language development tests. The results of the studies outside the Netherlands will be described in the third part of this paper. The results on the SON-R 2.5Н-7 have been compared in the Netherlands with the following tests: the WISC-R, the WPPSI-R, the TONI-2, the Stutsman, the Kaufman-ABC, the BOS 2-30, the LDT, the RAKIT, the TOMAL, the DTVP-2 and the Reynell and Schlichting language development tests. The sample size of the various validation studies varies from 26 to 558 subjects; the mean sample size amounts to 118 subjects. The 21 correlations of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 with other non-verbal (intelligence) tests vary from .45 to .83 and have a mean value of .65. The 12 correlations with general intelligence measures vary from .54 to .87 with a mean of .65. The 19 correlations of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 with measures for verbal ability and verbal intelligence vary from .20 to .71 and have a mean value of .48. With some of the general intelligence tests it is possible to calculate the correlation with the performance scale, the verbal scale and with the total score. In all of these cases the correlation of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 with the performance scale was higher than the correlation with the verbal scale. These diverse validation studies support the divergent and convergent validity of the SON-R 2.5Н-7, but the highly varying correlations imply that substantial differences between the scores on the SON-R 2.5Н-7 and on other intelligence tests can appear. Possible explanations for these highly varying correlations are: differences between the contents of the SON-R and other intelligence tests, differences in the test procedure of the SON-R and the various other tests, the very young age at which the children were tested and the great interval of time between the application of the tests. The SON-R 5Н-17 The revised version of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal intelligence test (Snijders, Tellegen & Laros, 1989) for children and adolescents between the ages of 5Н to 17 years consists of 7 subtests. In sequence of administration the 7 subtests are: Categories, Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns, Situations, Analogies and Stories. In Categories a child has to choose two out of five pictures, which are missing in a certain category of pictures. The task in Mosaics consists of copying figures with red/white squares. In Hidden Pictures the task is to find a given picture that is hidden several times in a bigger drawing. In Patterns a part of a particular pattern or line is missing: the child has to draw the missing part with a pencil. The task in Situations is to indicate the missing parts of drawings of concrete situations. In Analogies geometrical figures are presented with the problem format A : B = C : D; the child has to discover the principle behind the transformation A : B and apply it to figure C to find the correct figure D out of for alternatives. In Stories the child has to order a number of cards in such a way that they form a logical story. Categories, Situations and Analogies are multiple choice tests, while Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Stories are so-called  action tests. In action tests the solution has to be sought in an active manner which makes observation of behaviour possible. The SON-R 5Н-17 can be divided into four types of tests according to their contents: abstract reasoning tests (Categories & Analogies), concrete reasoning tests (Situations & Stories), spatial tests (Mosaics & Patterns) and perceptual tests (Hidden Pictures). Principal components analysis (PCA) has been performed on the subtest correlations to obtain empirical confirmation of the theoretical dimensions of the test. Although for the youngest age groups the four theoretical dimensions were supported by the loadings on the first four varimax rotated components, across all age groups the two component solution with a  reasoning and a  spatial component provided more consistent results. The SON-R 5Н-17 is administered individually; the average administration time amounts 1Н hours. The role of time scoring is kept to a minimum; only with the subtest Hidden Pictures an effective time is being used. For the other subtests sufficient time is allowed for the answering of each item. In the following two important aspects the administration procedure of the SON-R shows differences with the procedure used in traditional intelligence tests: (1) the providing of feedback following each item, and (2) the use of an adaptive procedure. The feedback given during the application of the SON-R 5Н-17 is restricted to informing the examinee whether the answer was right or wrong. The feedback clarifies the instructions and gives the child the opportunity to learn from his own errors and successes and to adjust his problem solving strategy. With the used test procedure of the SON-R each item becomes an opportunity to learn and adjust (Tellegen & Laros, 1993). The adaptive procedure is made possible by dividing the subtests in two or three parallel series of about 10 items; every child starts with the easiest item of the first series. Each series is broken off after two errors; the starting point for the next series is determined by the score on the preceding series. In this way, the administration of items is determined by the subjectДs individual performance and the presentation is limited to the most relevant items for each subject. On the average the number of items presented with the adaptive procedure is 50% of the total number of items in the subtests while the maximum number to presented amounts to about 60%. The standardization of the SON-R 5Н-17 is based on a nationwide sample of 1350 children and adolescents varying in age from 6 to 14 years. The reliability coefficient (alpha stratified) of the total score of the test increases from .90 at six years to .94 at fourteen years with a mean value of .93. The generalizability of the total score (alpha) increases from .81 at six years to .88 at fourteen years with a mean value of .85. The average reliability of the subtests is .76. The validity of the SON-R 5Н-17 is evident from the clear relationship with different indicators of school career such as school type, class repetition and school report marks. The mean multiple correlation of the SON-R with these indicators of school career amounts to .59. For children in the age group of 7 to 9 years the multiple correlation is .54, for children in the age group 10-11 years .60, and for children in the age group 13-14 years the multiple correlation increases to .63. Cross-cultural studies with the SON-R 2.5Н-7 Research in Australia The validity study with the SON-R 2.5Н-7 in Australia was executed in 1996 in Victoria under supervision of Jo Jenkinson of the Deakin University in co-operation with the University of Groningen (Jenkinson, Roberts, Dennehy & Tellegen, 1996; Tellegen, 1997). The study is based on 155 subjects, 72 boys and 83 girls, with a mean age of 4 years and 5 months (standard deviation 10 months). Within the group of 155 children three groups can be differentiated: children without specific handicaps (N=59); hearing impaired children (N=59), and children with a developmental retardation (N=37). In this research both the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence  Revised (WPPSI-R) and the SON-R 2.5Н-7 were administrated in changing order; the mean interval between applications was 20 days. The SON-R 2.5Н-7 was administered according to the standard test procedure by psychology students from the University of Groningen, while the WPSSI-R was administrated by Australian psychologists. The hearing impaired children and the children with a developmental retardation only did the performance scale of the WPPSI-R. Results The correlation of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 with the WPPSI-R in the total Australian sample amounts to .78. Within the three different groups the correlation between the performance scale of the WPSS-R and the SON-R 2.5Н-7 was .74, .74 and .75. Within the non-handicapped group the correlation of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 with the verbal scale (.54) is lower than the correlation with the performance scale (.74) of the WPPSI-R. The scores on the SON-R 2.5Н-7 are on average 5 points lower than the scores on the WPSSI-R. Table 2: Characteristics of the research with the SON-R outside The Netherlands _________________________________________________________________ SON-R 2.5Н-7 Australia Great-Britain United States ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ N of subjects 155 58 75/31/26/29/47 Age 4;5 (0;10) 6;3 (0;3) 5;1/4;7/4;7/5;6/4;7 Correlation with criterion test .78 (WPPSI-R PIQ) .87 (BAS 6 subt.) .59 (WPPSI-R FSIQ) .66 (K-ABC) .61 (MSCA) .47 (PPVT-R) .61 (PLS-3) _________________________________________________________________ SON-R 5Н-17 China Peru Brazil ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ N of subjects 302 160 82 Age 11;6 9;4 10;5 Correlation with criterion test - .77 (WISC-R FSIQ) .60 (school marks) Items with problems: Categories 6 3 10 Situations 3 2 4 Stories 0 0 0 _________________________________________________________________ Research in the USA The validation study executed in the USA (West Virginia) supervised by Stephen OДKeefe of the West-Virginia Graduate College implied the application of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 and five other cognitive tests. The tests that were applied were the following: the WPPSI-R, the Kaufman-ABC, the McCarthy Scales of Children s Abilities (MSCA), the Peabody Picture and Vocabulary Test - Revised (PPVT-R) and the Preschool Language Scale-3 (PLS-3). The SON-R 2.5Н-7 was partly administrated by psychology students from the University of Groningen, partly by psychologists from West Virginia. The amount of time between the administration of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 and the other tests generally was very short; in the majority of the cases the other test was applied on the same day. The PLS-3 was not administrated during this study; the test scores on the PLS-3 were collected on another occasion and could be used in this research. The number of children that both made the SON-R 2.5Н-7 and another test varied from 26 (in case of the MSCA) to 75 (in case of the WPPSI-R). Results The SON-R 2.5Н-7 had a correlation of .59 with the total score on the WPPSI-R; the correlations with the performance and verbal scales were .60 and .43 respectively. The average age of the 75 children that did both tests was 5.1 years. The mean total score on the SON-R 2.5Н-7 was more than two points lower than the total score on the WPPSI-R (94.5 versus 96.8) and nearly four points lower than the performance scale of the WPPSI-R (94.5 versus 98.3). The SON-R 2.5Н-7 showed a correlation of .66 with the Kaufman-ABC. The correlation with the simultaneous scale was much higher than with the scale for sequential processing (.58 versus .29). The correlation with the nonverbal scale of the Kaufman-ABC amounted to .61. The average age of the 31 children that did both the Kaufman-ABC and the SON-R 2.5Н-7 was 4.6 years. With the general cognitive index of the MSCA the SON-R 2.5Н-7 showed a correlation of .61; the correlation with the verbal scale was .48; while the correlation with the perceptual performance scale amounted to .61. The average age of the 26 children that did both tests was 4.6 years. The correlation of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 with the PPVT-R was .47; the average age of the 29 children that did both tests was 5.5 years. With the total language score of the PLS-3 the SON-R 2.5Н-7 showed a correlation of .61; with the Auditory Comprehension Scale the correlation was .59, while the correlation with the Expressive Communication Scale amounted to .56. The average age of the 47 children who did both tests was 4.6 years. Research in Great Britain During this validation research in Great Britain which took place in 1996 and that was supervised by Julie Dockrell of the University of London, the SON-R 2.5Н-7 and the British Ability Scales (BAS) were both administrated. The BAS was administrated by psychology students from the University of London, and the SON-R was applied by psychology students from the University of Groningen. Both tests were applied in changing order to 58 children, 34 boys and 24 girls, from the first year of primary school. The mean age of the children was 6;3 years (standard deviation 3 months). The interval between test administrations varied from some days to some weeks. Within the total sample three groups of children can be distinguished: a group without specific handicaps (N=20), a group for which English is the second language (N=22), and a group with learning disabilities (N=16). Six subtests of the BAS were applied, the four subtests of the short version (Naming Vocabulary, Digit Recall, Similarities, and Matrices) and two extra nonverbal subtests (Block Design and Visual Recognition). Results The correlation of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 with the short version of the BAS is .80. When the two nonverbal subtests are included the correlation augments to .87. The correlation with the verbal part (three verbal subtests) of the shortened version of the BAS was .71, while the correlation with the performance part (three nonverbal subtests) amounted to .78. The correlations in the group of children without any handicaps are considerably lower than in the other two groups (.56 versus .76 and .78). In the total English sample the SON-R IQ-scores are 7 points lower than on the short form of the BAS. The difference in IQ-scores between the group of normal children and children with learning disabilities for the SON-R 2.5Н-7 is 40.8 points and for the short form of the BAS 42.8 points. Conclusions of the studies in Australia, the USA, and Great Britain In the three cross-cultural studies the correlations of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 with the performance scales of a number of criterion tests could be compared to the correlations with the verbal scales. In all three studies the correlation of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 with the performance scale of the criterion test was clearly stronger than with the verbal scale. In the Australian study the SON-R 2.5Н-7 showed correlations with the performance and verbal scales of the WPPSI-R of .74 and .54 respectively; in the study in the USA these correlations were .60 and .43. In the same study the SON-R 2.5Н-7 showed a correlation of .61 with the perceptual performance scale of the MSCA, and a correlation of .48 with the verbal scale of the MSCA. In the research in Great Britain the SON-R 2.5Н-7 showed a correlation with the performance part of the BAS of .78 and a correlation of .71 with the verbal part of the BAS. These correlations obtained in Australia, the USA and Great Britain support the convergent and the divergent validity of the SON-R 2.5Н-7. Cross-cultural Studies with the SON-R 5Н-17 Research in China Chinese psychology students in collaboration with Milly Judistera, a Dutch psychologist, executed the research with the SON-R 5Н-17 in China, which took place in 1996. The study was supervised in China by Professor Zhang Hou Can of the Beijing Normal University. This study was a pilot study as a preparation of the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5Н-17 for China. All 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-7 were administrated according to the standard test procedure by Chinese psychology students to a sample of 302 Chinese children, consisting of 165 boys and 137 girls. To make the administration of the test possible, the instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17 were translated into the Chinese language. The Chinese students were trained in the administration of the SON-R 5Н-17 by Milly Judistira with help of an English speaking Chinese psychology student as an interpreter. The Chinese subjects were tested in the following age groups: 6Н-year-olds (103), 11Н-year-olds (94), and 14Н-year-olds (105). The children came from Beijing (23), Tianjin (81), Miyun (77) and Guangrao (121). The sampling procedure used was not a random procedure; the schools were chosen on basis of existing contacts with the University of Beijing, and within the schools children were chosen by the teachers. Although the teachers claimed to have chosen the children in a random manner, there is no guarantee that this really was the case. The research results therefore have to be interpreted with some caution. Psychometric characteristics The generalizabilty coefficient (alpha) of the total score of the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Chinese sample increases from .76 at 6Н years to .82 at 14Н years with a mean value of .80. These values are lower than the ones found for the Dutch standardization sample; here the generalizability of the total score increased from .81 at 6Н years to .88 at 14Н years with a mean value of .85. The generalizability coefficient is computed by the usual coefficient alpha in which the subtests are the unit of analysis; the number of subtests and the mean correlation between the subtests determine this coefficient. The mean correlation between the 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 was lower for the three Chinese age groups than for the comparable age groups of the Dutch sample (.31, .40, and .42 versus .37, .50 and .51). The mean of the standardized total score obtained by the Chinese children was quite close to the mean standardized total score of the Dutch norm group (98.9 versus 100). The mean scores of the Chinese children on Categories, Situations and Stories, all subtests that use meaningful picture materials, were lower in comparison with the Dutch norm group (respectively 93.6, 91.6, and 95.3 versus 100). The mean of these three subtests amounts to 93.5. The mean scores of the Chinese children on Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies, all subtests using non-meaningful picture material such as geometrical forms, were 96.9, 101.9, 104.2 and 108.1. The mean of these four subtests amounts to 102.8 and is higher in comparison to the mean score of the four subtests in the Dutch norm group (100). The difference found in the Chinese sample between the mean score of the subtests with meaningful picture material (93.5) and the mean score of the subtests with non-meaningful picture material (102.8) is significant at the 5% level. This result is an indication that the Chinese children had more difficulties with the subtests that use meaningful picture materials than with the subtests using non-meaningful picture materials. The relative low scores of the Chinese children on Categories, Situations and Stories were conform to expectations beforehand; the meaningful pictures used in these subtests were not expected to be familiar to cultures very different from the Dutch culture. In one of the items of the subtest Categories, for instance, people leaving a church is shown; such a situation did appear not to be very familiar to Chinese children. The lower mean score on Mosaics (96.9 versus 100) does not correspond with earlier expectations since the item material of this subtest consist of abstract geometrical figures which according to Jensen (1980) reduces the probability of cultural bias. The Chinese children did not show any problems with the other two subtests containing abstract geometrical figures; on these subtests, Patterns and Analogies, they even showed higher mean scores than their Dutch colleagues (104.2 and 108.1 versus 100). The lower score on Mosaics might be a result of the fact that the majority of the Chinese children were not tested with the original version of the subtest Mosaics. Due to financial restrictions there was only one original SON-R 5Н-17 test available for the research in China; in order to be able to test various children in the same period of time a number of copies of the test were made. The squares of the copied version of Mosaics did not fit very well in the frame in which the mosaic patterns had to be copied. Probably, the use of test material, which was not standardized, has caused the lower score of the Chinese children on Mosaics. Factor analysis failed to show a clear similarity between the factor structure of the 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Chinese sample and in the Dutch standardization sample. In the Dutch sample Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with varimax rotation resulted in two clear factors: a  reasoning and a  spatial factor. Although in the youngest age groups four factors appeared ( spatial ,  concrete reasoning ,  abstract reasoning , and  perception ) the two factor solution offered better and more consistent results across all different age groups. In the Chinese sample PCA with varimax rotation did not provide the same results as in the Netherlands. In the Dutch research the two spatial subtests showed high loadings on the second factor (the  spatial factor) while in the Chinese study this only seems to be the case for the youngest group. Moreover, in the Dutch research Categories showed high loadings on the first factor (the  reasoning factor); but this was not the case for the eldest group of the Chinese sample. The results of the factor analysis suggest a lack of test equivalence of the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Chinese and the Dutch culture. These results, however, have to be interpreted with some caution because reservations can be made about the appropriateness of factor analysis as a method for assessing equivalence of test applications in different cultures. Hambleton & Bollwark, (1991) note in this respect that the disadvantage of factor analysis is that the results are sample dependent, since it is based on classical item statistics. Their conclusion also applies to other often used classical statistical methods to detect a possible cultural loading of a test that are sample dependent, like the comparison of p-values and the comparison of total test scores. All these methods presuppose the use of equal ability groups. Even in the case of non-equal ability groups researchers must still check that the ordering of item difficulties is the same in the two different cultures (Hambleton & Kanjee, 1995). Following the recommendation of Hambleton & Kanjee, the correlation coefficients between the ordering of the item difficulties in the two cultures have been calculated. The SpearmanДs rho correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the six subtests of the SON-R (one subtest, Hidden Pictures, does not consist of independent items so no correlations could be computed) obtained in the Chinese sample and in the Dutch sample are the following: .98 (Categories), .99 (Mosaics), .99 (Patterns), .98 (Situations), .99 (Analogies) & .98 (Stories). Although the correlations between the item difficulties in the two cultures are all very high, Categories, Situations, and Stories show a slightly lower correlation than the remaining subtests. This might be an indication of cultural bias of these subtests. The above-described psychometric characteristics of the SON-R 5Н-17 in this study with 302 Chinese children suggest that the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories might have a cultural bias. A next step in this study was an attempt to identify the sources of this possible cultural bias of the three subtests. Results of the judgmental procedure According to Hambleton (1993) both judgmental and statistical methods should be used in studies to determine the equivalence of a test in multiple languages or cultures. In this study the judgmental procedure consisted of the reviewing on the aspect of possible cultural bias of the test instructions, the testing format, the examples, and all the items of Categories, Situations and Stories for the Chinese population of children from 6 to 17 years of age. The reviewing took place during a group discussion with the Chinese psychology students. The test instructions, the testing format and the examples used in the SON-R 5Н-17 were judged by them as containing no cultural bias. The only aspect of the testing procedure that caused some problems for the Chinese administrators of the SON-R 5Н-17 was the providing of feedback after each item. Some students reported that they felt uncomfortable giving feedback because they believed that this might influence the emotions of the children. Possibly the problems with the provision of feedback is related to the fact that in the Chinese culture communication often occurs in an indirect manner. The results of the judgmental procedure with respect to the items of the three subtests are the following: 6 items of Categories (items 2b, 3b, 4b, 6a, 7a, and 9b) and 3 items of Situations (2b, 2c and 10b) were identified as being possibly culture specific. For the subtest Stories no culture specific items were identified. For these culture specific items new items have been developed that are adapted to the Chinese culture. A Chinese student of the art academy has drawn the adapted items. In the future standardization and validation research of the SON-R 5Н-17 in China, items that were identified as being culture specific will be replaced by adapted items. Research in Peru The validation study with the SON-R 5Н-17 in Peru took place in 1996 and was executed by two psychology students from the University of Groningen, and by Peruvian psychologists. The research was supervised in Peru by Veronica Bisso Cajas, from the Consortium of Catholic Centres of Education in Lima. This study served as a preparation of the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5Н-17 for Peru. All 7 subtests of the SON-R 5Н-7 were administrated according to the standard test procedure by the two Dutch psychology students and by ten Peruvian psychologists. To make the administration of the test possible, the instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17 were translated into Spanish. The Peruvian psychologists were trained in the administration procedure of the SON-R 5Н-17. The test was administrated to a sample of 160 Peruvian children, consisting of 79 boys and 81 girls. The age of the children varied from 6 years to 15 years with a mean of 9;4 years. All the subjects of the Peruvian sample lived in the city of Lima, the capital of Peru; 50% of the children came from State schools and 50% private schools. The State schools in Peru are fully supported by the government; children who visit these schools generally come from families with a low SES-level and often live in very poor circumstances. The private schools are partly financed by religious congregations and private persons; children who frequent these schools generally come from families with a high or moderately high SES-level. The sampling procedure used was only partially a random procedure; the schools were chosen on basis of existing contacts with the Consortium of Catholic Centres of Education, but within the schools children were selected at random. In this research there is an over-representation of children with moderate and high SES levels. The Peruvian sample cannot be considered as representative for Peru, nor for Lima. The results of this study, therefore, cannot simply be generalised to all of Peru and have to be interpreted with caution. Psychometric characteristics The results of this study show that the Peruvian children obtained a lower mean score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the children of the Dutch norm group (94.0 versus 100). The mean scores of the Peruvian children on Categories, Situations and Stories, the subtests which use meaningful picture material, were 97.1, 91.7 and 93.1. The mean of these three subtests amounts to 93.9. The mean scores of the Peruvian children on Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies, all subtests using non-meaningful picture materials, were 91.6, 92.2, 101.4, and 98.1. The mean of these four subtests amounts to 95.8. The difference between the mean score of the subtests with meaningful picture material (93.9) and the mean score of the subtests with non-meaningful picture material (95.8) is significant at the 5% level. This finding is in accordance with expectations beforehand; Peruvian children, like the Chinese children, showed more problems with the subtests containing meaningful pictures than with the subtests containing non-meaningful pictures. To check whether the ordering of item difficulties was the same in the Peruvian sample and the Dutch sample Spearman s rho correlation coefficients were calculated. The correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Peruvian sample and in the Dutch norm sample are .97, .98, and .97. These correlations are based on 48 children from the total sample of Peruvian children. Note that the correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Peruvian and in the Dutch sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations between the item difficulties found in the Chinese and the Dutch sample. In addition to the SON-R 5Н-17 also a Spanish version of the WISC-R was administered to all 160 children of the Peruvian sample in order to obtain information about the validity of the SON-R 5Н-17 in Peru. Since there were no Peruvian norms available for the WISC-R, norm scores were used that are based on the standardization sample of the USA (Wechsler, 1974). The correlation of the SON-R 5Н-17 with the full scale of the WISC-R was .77, with the performance scale .74 and with the verbal scale .69. These correlations are slightly lower compared to those found in a study in the Netherlands with 35 children from an outdoor psychiatric university clinic (Tellegen & Laros, 1993b). In this study the correlation of the SON-R 5Н-17 with the full scale of the WISC-R was .80, with the performance scale .80 and with the verbal scale .66. The mean IQ-score of the Peruvian sample on the WISC-R was 96.7; the mean score on the verbal scale 94.3 and the mean score on the performance scale 100.2 These scores cannot simply be compared to the mean IQ-score on the SON-R 5Н-17 because the tests have been standardized in different years; the WISC-R was standardized in 1974 and the SON-R 5Н-17 in 1988. As Flynn (1987) has observed, norms on intelligence tests are becoming stricter during the years. In a recent study (Sattler, 1992) comparing the norms of the WISC-R with those of the most recent version of the Wechsler test for children, the WISC-III (Wechsler, 1991), the norm scores on the WISC-III appeared to be lower than the norm scores on the WISC-R. In the 17 years between the two standardizations (1974-1991) the norm scores for the full scale decreased 5.3 points, for the verbal scale 2.4 points, and for the performance scale 7.4 points. Based on the differences found between the norms of the WISC-R and the WISC-III one can correct the obtained scores for the differences in years of standardization of the WISC-R and the SON-R 5Н-17. After correction, the mean norm score on the WISC-R of the Peruvian sample becomes 92.3 for the full scale, 94.1 for the performance scale and 92.3 for the verbal scale. The Peruvian children obtain, after correction, a higher score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than on the WISC-R. Results of the judgmental procedure To identify culture specific items of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories a judgmental procedure was used. With the remaining subtests (Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns, Analogies) no judgmental procedure was used, because these subtests are less likely to be culture specific. When a child responded incorrectly on an item of Categories, Situations or Stories the examiner checked, after testing, whether the pictures used in the item were understood by the child. This procedure, however, has not been followed in a systematic way; not all the children, who responded incorrectly to an item, were asked if the pictures used in that particular were familiar to them. The difference with the judgmental procedure used in the Chinese study is that there the examiners (psychology students) were asked to judge the cultural loading of the items; in this study the examinees (children) were asked to give their judgement. The results of the judgmental procedure with respect to the items of the three subtests are the following: 3 items of Categories (items 1a, 2b, and 4a) and 2 items and one example of Situations (example A, and items 2c and 4b) were identified as being possibly culture specific. Research in Brazil The research in Brazil, which took place in 1996, was executed under the supervision of Jaap Laros of the University of Brasilia, one of the authors of the SON-R tests. Six psychology students of the above-mentioned university did the actual test administration at schools. To make the administration of the test possible, the test instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17 were translated into Portuguese. The Brazilian psychology students were trained in the administration of the SON-R 5Н-17 by their supervisor. The study was a preparation for the standardization and adaptation of the SON-R 5Н-17 for Brazil. In this Brazilian study the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories of the SON-R 5Н-17 were administered individually to a sample of 82 Brazilian children, consisting of 41 girls and 41 boys. The age of the children varied from 7 to 14 years with a mean of 10,4 years. All children came from 2 state schools from Brasilia, the capital of Brazil. The two schools differed in respect to the SES-level of their pupils; the 36 children from the first school generally came from families with a moderate SES-level, while the 46 children from the second school principally came from families with a low SES-level. The sampling procedure used was not a totally random procedure; the schools were selected on the basis of existing contacts with the University of Brasilia, but within the schools the children were selected at random, using only their age as a selection criterion. The Brazilian sample cannot be considered to be representative for Brazil, nor for Brasilia. The results of this study should therefore be interpreted with some caution. To gain additional information on possible cultural bias, the three subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 have been administered in a nonstandard fashion. Van de Vijver & Poortinga (1997) stress the importance of nonstandard administration of tests in cross-cultural studies to evaluate the adequacy of stimulus and response formats, and of the test administration procedure. In such a nonstandard test procedure it usually is very informative to ask examinees to motivate their responses. In the standard procedure of the SON-R 5Н-17 the subtests are divided into two or three parallel series of about 10 items; each child starts with the easiest item of the first series, but with which item of the second or third series is started, depends on the performance of the child on the previous series. In the nonstandard procedure used in this study the items were offered in order of increasing difficulty; the subtests Categories and Situations with 27 and 33 items were broken off after twelve errors, while the subtest Stories with 20 items was broken off after 8 errors. With the use of this nonstandard test procedure the children responded to much more items than would have been the case if the standard adaptive procedure had used. The average number of items administrated with the adaptive procedure is 50% of the total number of items; with the nonstandard procedure this number amounts to about 90% of the total number of items. Psychometric characteristics The reliability coefficients (alpha) for the three subtests in the Brazilian sample were as follows: .85 for Categories, .87 for Situations and .82 for Stories. When corrected for the influence of age, the corrected reliability coefficients are: .76 for Categories, .82 for Situations and .76 for Stories. These values of the reliability coefficients are quite similar to the values found in a Dutch sample of 415 subjects when the three subtests were administrated without an adaptive procedure (Laros & Tellegen, 1991, page 33). The results from this research indicate further that the Brazilian children obtained a lower mean total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 (based on the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories) in comparison to the Dutch norm group (96.2 versus 100). The mean scores of the Brazilian children for Categories (94.8) and Situations (95,0) are relatively low in comparison with the Dutch norm group (100); the mean score of the Brazilian sample on Stories (97.5) comes close to the mean score of their Dutch colleagues. The children of the school with a comparatively low SES-level seemed to have more difficulties with Categories and Situations than the children of the school with a higher SES-level. The mean score of the low SES-group (N=46) on the three subtests was 94.8 while the mean scores on the three subtests were as follows: Categories 92.9, Situations 92.5 and Stories 97.0. It can be concluded that Brazilian children had more problems with Categories and Situations than with Stories. This trend seems to get stronger for Brazilian children with a low SES-level. The Spearman s rho correlation coefficients between the item difficulties of the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories obtained in the Brazilian sample and in the Dutch norm sample are .97, .92, and .96. The relative low correlation coefficient for the subtest Situations might be an indication of item bias in this subtest, but might also reflect the different test administration procedures that were used in the Dutch and the Brazilian research. If the latter were the case, the use of the non-standard administration procedure would have had more effect on the item difficulties of Situations than on the item difficulties of the other two subtests. In addition to the administration of the three subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17, other data of the 82 Brazilian children were gathered in order to obtain information about the validity of the subtests. School marks on mathematics, science, and Portuguese were collected for every child of the Brazilian sample. The school marks give an indication of the school achievement of the children. The children were also evaluated on their motivation, cooperation and concentration by their schoolteachers and by the psychology students that administrated (a part of) the SON-R 5Н-17. Of the three subtests, the report marks showed the highest correlations with the subtest Categories: science (.61); mathematics (.59), and Portuguese (.38); they showed the lowest correlations with the subtest Stories: science (.26); mathematics (.36), and Portuguese (.29). The correlations of the report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 are as following: science (.52); mathematics (.49), and Portuguese (.38). The multiple correlation of the report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 amounts to .60. The correlations of report marks with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 in the Dutch norm sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations found in the Brazilian sample. Considering the fact that in the Brazilian study the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 was based on only three instead of all seven subtests, the correlations in this study are quite high. The judgment of the teachers on motivation, cooperation and concentration of their pupils correlated higher with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the judgment of the psychology students. When the judgment scores of the teachers and the psychology students were combined into a mean score, these scores showed a higher correlation with the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 than the scores based on the judgment of the teachers alone. The correlation of the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 with the mean score on motivation is .40, with the mean score on cooperation .45, and with the mean score on concentration .19. The multiple correlation of the total score on the SON-R 5Н-17 with the mean scores on motivation, cooperation and concentration is .50. Results of the judgmental procedure The judgmental procedure used in this research consisted of the following: when a child responded incorrectly on an example or an item the examiner checked, immediately after the incorrect answer, whether the child understood the pictures that were used in the item. This procedure was followed in a systematic way, and formed the basis on which conclusions were made regarding the cultural specificity of the items. For the subtest Categories the judgmental procedure implied that after each incorrectly answered item the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with eight figures. [Each item of the subtest Categories is build up out of eight figures; three figures define the category, and five figures are the alternatives from which the child has to choose two that pertain to the category]. In case of the subtest Situations the procedure implied that after each incorrectly answered item, the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with five to fourteen figures. The procedure implied for the subtest Stories that the child had to indicate his or her familiarity with four to seven figures for every incorrectly answered item. As a consequence of this time consuming test procedure the amount of time needed to administer the three subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 came close to an hour. The results obtained with this judgmental procedure indicate that the Brazilian children had no problems understanding the subtest instructions of the SON-R 5Н-17. On the basis of the answers that the children provided with respect to their (un)familiarity with the figures used in the items, 14 items were identified as being possibly culture-specific; 10 items of Categories (items 2b, 2c, 3a, 4a, 4b, 5c, 6a, 8a, 8c and 9c) and 4 items of Situations (items 2b, 3c, 4a, and 10b). The criterion which was used to classify an item as being possibly culture specific was the following: when one of the figures that form an item was indicated by more than 5% of the Brazilian sample as being unfamiliar an item was classified as being possibly culture specific. Maybe this criterion might be a little too strict, considering the large amount of items of the subtest Categories that were classified as possibly culture specific. In case of the subtest Categories twice as many figures used in the alternatives were unfamiliar to the Brazilian children than the figures that defined the category. With the subtest Situations, however, twice as many  main figures were identified as unfamiliar than the figures used in the alternatives. For the subtest Stories no adaptations for the Brazilian culture were found to be necessary. Conclusions of the studies in China, Peru and Brazil. In the cross-cultural validation studies in China and Peru, where all seven subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 were administrated, the average of the mean scores on the three subtests with meaningful picture materials (Categories, Situations and Stories) was significantly lower at 5% level than the average of the mean scores on the four remaining subtests that contain non-meaningful picture materials (Mosaics, Hidden Pictures, Patterns and Analogies). This research finding is in accordance with our expectations beforehand that were partially based on the theoretical considerations of Jensen (1980) about culture-fair tests. This result indicates a possible cultural bias in the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories. Another indication of possible bias is given by the correlation between the item difficulties in the Dutch norm group and the item difficulties in different cultures. The correlation coeffcients give an indication of the extent in which the ordering of item difficulties is the same in the two different cultures. A different ordering of the items might indicate that the items do not have the same meaning for two different cultural groups. The Spearman s rho correlation coefficients for the subtests Mosaics, Patterns, and Analogies in the Chinese study were all .99. The correlation coefficients for Categories in the Chinese, Peruvian, and Brazilian study are respectively .98, .97, and .97; for Situations .98, .98, and .92; for Stories .98, .97, and .96. Although all the correlation coefficients are quite high, the correlations for the three subtests Categories, Situations and Stories in which meaningful picture materials are used, are somewhat lower which might indicate possible bias in these subtests. The lowest correlations were found in the Brazilian sample, but there the nonstandard test procedure makes a straightforward comparison with the item difficulties in the Dutch sample problematic. The reliability coefficients of the subtests in the three studies are comparable with the coefficients found in the Dutch sample, although the values in the Dutch sample are somewhat higher. In the Chinese study, the only study where a factor analysis was performed, the resulting factor structure failed to show a clear similarity with the factor structure in the Dutch sample. This might be an indication of the cultural loading of some of the subtests. In the Peruvian and Brazilian study clear indications of the validity of the SON-R 5Н-17 were found. The SON-R 5Н-17 showed a relatively high correlation with the WISC-R (.77) in the Peruvian study. In the Brazilian study the standardized total score based on three subtests of the SON-R showed satisfactory correlations with school marks on science (.52); mathematics (.49), and Portuguese (.38). The correlations of report marks with the total score on the SON-R based on 7 subtests in the Dutch sample are of the same magnitude as the correlations found in the Brazilian sample. In the Brazilian study the total score on the SON-R, based on three subtests, correlated .40 with motivation, .45 with cooperation and .19 with concentration. In all three studies a judgmental procedure was used for the identification of item bias in the subtests Categories, Situations and Stories. In the Chinese study the Chinese psychology students who applied the SON-R 5Н-17 reviewed the items on the aspect of possible cultural bias. In the Peruvian and Brazilian study the children who responded incorrectly to an item were asked if the pictures that were used in that item were understood by them. As a result of this procedure 14 of the 33 items (42%) of the subtest Categories have been identified as possibly culture specific. One of these items has been identified as culture specific in all three studies (item 2b), 3 items were identified as biased in two studies (items 4a, 4b and 6a) and 9 items were identified as biased in just one study (items 1a, 2c, 3a, 3b, 5c, 7a, 8a, 8c, and 9c). For the subtest Situations 6 of the 33 items (18%) and one example were identified as possibly culture specific. Three of the items were identified in two different studies (items 2b, 2c, and 10b); the remaining 3 items were identified as biased in just one study (items 3c, 4a, 4b). The example that was identified as culture specific (example A) was identified in only one study. General Conclusions The research results obtained in various countries for both the SON-R 2.5Н-7 and the SON-R 5Н-17 indicate that both tests can be used in cultures that are different from the Dutch culture. The validity-coefficients of both SON-R tests encountered in various countries are comparable to the validity-coefficients found in the Dutch norm sample. For the SON-R 5Н-17, however, some adaptations will have to be made in the subtests Categories and Situations. For the subtest Categories 42% of the items will have be adapted, while for the subtest Situations 18% of the items and one example will have to be adapted. For the other subtests of the SON-R 5Н-17 no adaptations have to be made. Although no specific research have been done to item bias of the SON-R 2.5Н-7, adaptations of this test seems to be less necessary. For this young age group the test uses only very simple pictures. In the construction phase of this test special attention was paid to possible item bias. The research result that immigrant children in the Netherlands had the same mean score on the subtests that use meaningful picture materials as on the subtests that use non-meaningful picture materials such as geometrical forms, is an empirical argument indicating the culture-fairness of the SON-R 2.5Н-7. Only future empirical research will tell whether the impression is correct that for cross-cultural use of the SON-R 2.5Н-7 no adaptations are necessary. References Anastasi, A. (1989). Psychological testing (6th edition). New York: Macmillan. Brouwer, A., Koster, M. & Veenstra, B. (1995). Validation of the Snijders-Oomen Test (SON-R2Н-7) for Dutch and Australian children with disabilities. Groningen: Internal Report, Department of Educational and Personality Psychology. Ceci, S.J. (1991). How much does schooling influence general intelligence and its cognitive components? A reassessment of the evidence. Developmental Psychology, 27, 703-722. Cooper, C.R. & Denner, J. (1998). Theories linking culture and psychology: universal and community-specific processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 559-584. Cronbach, L.J. (1990). Essentials of psychological testing (5th edition). New York: Harper-Collins Publishers Inc. Drenth, P.J.D. (1975). Psychological tests for developing countries: rationale and objectives. Dutch Journal of Psychology [Nederlands Tijdschrift voor de Psychologie], 30, 5-22. Ellis, B.B. (1995). A partial test of HulinДs psychometric theory of measurement equivalence in translated tests. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 11, 184-193. Hambleton, R.K. (1993). Translating achievement tests for use in cross-national studies. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 9, 57-68. Hambleton, R.K. (1994). Guidelines for adapting educational and psychological tests: a progress report. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 10, 229-240. Hambleton, R.K. & Bollwark, J. (1991). Adapting tests for use in different cultures: technical issues and methods. Bulletin of the International Test Commission, 18, 3-32. Hambleton, R.K. & Anjee, A. (1995). Increasing the validity of cross-cultural assessments: use of improved methods for test adaptations. European journal of Psychological Assessment, 11, 147-157. Hambleton, R.K. & Slater, S.C. (1997). Item response theory models and testing practices: current international status and future directions. European journal of Psychological Assessment, 13, 21-28. Hamers, J.H.M. & Sijtsma, K. & Ruijssenaars, A.J.J.M. (1993). Learning Potential Assessment. Theoretical, Methodological and Practical Issues. Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger. Helms-Lorenz, M. & van de Vijver, F.J. (1995). Cognitive assessment in education in a multicultural society. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 11, 158-169. Holland, P.W. & Thayer, D.T. (1988). Differential item performance and the Mantel-Haenszel procedure. In H. Wainer & H.I. Braun (Eds.), Test Validity (pp. 129-145). Hillsdale, New York: Lawrence Erlbaum. Horn, J., ten (1996). Validation research of the Snijders-Oomen nonverbal intelligence test (SON-R 2.5Н-7) in the USA. Groningen: Internal Report, Department of Educational and Personality Psychology. Hu, S. & Oakland, T. (1991). Global and regional perspectives on testing children and youth: an empirical study. International Journal of Psychology, 26, 329-344. Hulin, C.L. (1987). A psychometric theory of evaluations of item and scale translations  Fidelity across languages. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 18, 115-142. Jenkinson, J., Roberts, S., Dennehy, S. & Tellegen P. (1996). Validation of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal intelligence test  Revised 2Н-7 for Australian children with disabilities. Journal of Psycho-educational Assessment, 14, 276-286. Jensen, A.R. (1980). Bias in mental testing. New York: Free Press. Jensen, A.R. (1984). Test bias: Concepts and criticisms. In: C.R. Reynolds & R.T. Brown (Eds.), Perspectives on bias in mental testing. New York: Free Press. Judistira, E.M. (1996). A preliminary validation research with the SON-R 5Н-17 in China. Groningen: Internal Report, Department of Educational and Personality Psychology. Fan, X., Wilson, V.L. & Kapes, J.T. (1996). Ethnic group representation in test construction samples and test bias: the standardization fallacy revisited. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 56, 365-381. Laros, J.A. & Tellegen, P.J. (1991). Construction and validation of the SON-R 5Н-17, the Snijders-Oomen non-verbal intelligence test. Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff. Le Clerq M. & Holvast L. (1996). The SON-R 5Н-17 and the WISC-R applied to Peruvian school children. Groningen: Internal Report, Department of Educational and Personality Psychology. SWAP: 96-1227. Linden, W.J. van der, & Hambleton, R.K. [eds.] (1997). Handbook of Modern Item Response Theory. New York: Springer Verlag. Oakland, T., Wechsler, S., Bensuan, E. & Stafford, M. (1994). The construct of intelligence among Brazilian children  An exploratory study. School Psychology International, 15, 361- 370. Parmar, R.S. (1989). Cross-cultural transfer of non-verbal intelligence tests: an (in)validation study. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 59, 379-388. Poortinga, Y.H. (1995). Cultural bias in assessment: historical and thematic issues. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 11, 140-146. Sattler, J.M. (1992). Assessment of children, Revised and updated third edition. San Diego, CA: J.M. Sattler, Publisher, Inc. Sijtsma, K. & Molenaar, I. (1987). Reliability of test scores in nonparametric item response theory. Psychometrika, 52, 79-98. Snijders, J.Th., Tellegen, P.J. & Laros, J.A. (1989). Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal intelligence test: SON-R 5НННННН PAGE 3 Н-7 increases from .86 at 2Н PAGE 12 Н-7 increases from .86 at 2Н PAGE 19 years to .92 at 7Н PAGE 23 Н PAGE 5 PAGE 5 (alpha) increases from .71 at 2Н PAGE 5 years to .82 at 7Н PAGE 5 Н PAGE 5 Н PAGE 4 Н PAGE 5 Н PAGE 5 Н PAGE 5 Н PAGE 6 Н PAGE 6 Н PAGE 6 Н PAGE 6 Н PAGE 6 olescents between the ages of 5Н PAGE 6 Н PAGE 6 Н PAGE 7 e administration time amounts 1Н PAGE 7 Н PAGE 7 1.5 hour PAGE 7 5.5Н PAGE 23 . The validity of the SON-R 5.5Н PAGE 7 ural studies with the SON-R 2.5Н PAGE 7 study with the SON-R 2.5Н PAGE 7 sed (WPPSI-R) and the SON-R 2.5Н PAGE 7 ions was 20 days. 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0JOJQJmHj0JOJQJU 0JOJQJmH OJQJSдЈжЈиЈЉ2ЉўЉЊЊЊЊ ЊьЊюЊ№ЊђЊіЊЋкЋмЋоЋрЋфЋќЋШЌЪЌЬЌЮЌЄ­љљээљљљљээљљљљээљљљљээљљљљы $„ќџ„&`#$a$„h]„hАа/ Ар=!А‰"А‰#‰$‰%Аhe total score on the SON-R 5.5he total score on the SON-R 5.5he total score on the SON-R 5.5N-R 5.5t instructions of the SON-R 5.5seven subtests of the SON-R 5.5f the validity of the SON-R 5.5-17 were found. The SON-R 5.5dents who applied t88€99џџџџ98‚,PXџџџџџџюB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€99џџџџ98x(XџџџџџџяB9fџџџџKdџџџџ€KKџџџџnnKK€ddџџџџdK‚,PXџџџџџџяB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ddџџџџdKxh…(ƒџџџџџџ(ўяB9fџџџџcdџџџџ€ddџџџџdKintosh HD:sonr ’:sonr:sonro:crsscult.docDolf Hartsuiker+Macintosh HD:sonr ’:sonr:sonro:crsscult.docDolf Hartsuiker+Macintosh HD:sonr ’:sonr:sonro:crsscult.docDolf Hartsuiker+Macintosh HD:sonr ’:sonr:sonro:crsscult.docDolf Hartsuiker+Macintosh HD:sonr ’€ddџџџџdKx(XџџџџџџяB9fџџџџdeџџџџ€ddџџџџdK€eeџџџџeK‚,PXџџџџџџяB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€eeџџџџeKxh…(ƒџџџџџџ(ўяB9fџџџџdeџџџџ€eeџџџџeK€eeџџџџeKx(XџџџџџџяB9fџџџџdkџџџџ€eeџџџџeK€kkџџџџkK‚,PXџџџџџџяB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€kkџџџџkKxh…(ƒџџџџџџ(ўяB9fџџџџjkџџџџ€kkџџџџkK€kkџџџџkKxh…(џџџџџџ(ўяB9fџџџџccџџџџ€ccџџџџcc€ccџџџџccx(XџџџџџџяB9fџџџџЌбchџџџџ€ccџџџџcc€hhџџџџhc‚,PXџџџџџџяB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€hhџџџџhcxh…(џџџџџџ(ўяB9fџџџџkkџџџџ€kkџџџџkk€kkџџџџkkxh…(џџџџџџ(ўяB9fџџџџmmџџџџ€mmџџџџmm€mmџџџџmmx(XџџџџџџёB9fџџџџМбm‹џџџџ€mmџџџџmm€‹‹џџџџ‹m‚,PXџџџџџџёB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€‹‹џџџџ‹mxh…(џџџџџџ(ўёB9fџџџџˆˆџџџџ€ˆˆџџџџˆˆ€ˆˆџџџџˆˆx(XџџџџџџѓB9fџџџџЬбˆЛџџџџ€ˆˆџџџџˆˆ€ЛЛџџџџЛˆ‚,PXџџџџџџѓB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЛЛџџџџЛˆx(XџџџџџџѓB9fџџџџ Ёџџџџ€  џџџџ  €ЁЁџџџџЁ ‚,PXџџџџџџѓB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЁЁџџџџЁ x(XџџџџџџєB9fџџџџ№бМЭџџџџ€ММџџџџ\ММ€ЭЭџџџџЭМ‚,PXџџџџџџєB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЭЭџџџџЭМxh…(џџџџџџ(ўєB9fџџџџФФџџџџ€ФФџџџџ””ФФ€ФФџџџџФФx(XџџџџџџєB9fџџџџФХџџџџ€ФФџџџџФФ€ХХџџџџХФ‚,PXџџџџџџєB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ХХџџџџХФxh…(џџџџџџ(ўєB9fџџџџФФџџџџ€ФФџџџџ““ФФ€ФФџџџџФФx(XџџџџџџєB9fџџџџФХџџџџ€ФФџџџџФФ€ХХџџџџХФ‚,PXџџџџџџєB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ХХџџџџХФx(XџџџџџџѕB9fџџџџвЬуџџџџ€ЬЬџџџџЬЬ€ууџџџџуЬ‚,PXџџџџџџѕB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ууџџџџуЬxh…(џџџџџџ(ўіB9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ@@€џџџџx(XџџџџџџіB9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџіB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџx(XџџџџџџїB9fџџџџжзџџџџ€жжџџџџ\жж€ззџџџџзж‚,PXџџџџџџїB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ззџџџџзжxh…(џџџџџџ(ўїB9fџџџџъъџџџџ€ъъџџџџъъ€ъъџџџџъъx(XџџџџџџїB9fџџџџ"#џџџџ€""џџџџ\""€##џџџџ#"‚,PXџџџџџџїB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€##џџџџ#"xh…(МџџџџџџрљјB9fџџџџНЭџџџџ€ООџџџџОО€ООџџџџООx(XџџџџџџC9fџџџџLвоёџџџџ€ооџџџџ;;оо€ёёџџџџёо‚,PXџџџџџџC9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ёёџџџџёоx(XџџџџџџC9fџџџџїјџџџџ€їїџџџџїї€јјџџџџјї‚,PXџџџџџџC9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€јјџџџџјїx(Xџџџџџџиz9fџџџџxвотџџџџ€ооџџџџ33оо€ттџџџџто‚,PXџџџџџџиz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ттџџџџтоx(Xџџџџџџиz9fџџџџ†в9@џџџџ€99џџџџhh99€@@џџџџ@9‚,PXџџџџџџиz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€@@џџџџ@9x(Xџџџџџџиz9fџџџџšвX\џџџџ€XXџџџџ33XX€\\џџџџ\X‚,PXџџџџџџиz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€\\џџџџ\Xx(Xџџџџџџйz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџйz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€џџџџxh…(џџџџџџ(ўйz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЃЃ€џџџџxh…(џџџџџџ(ўйz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџxh…(џџџџџџ(ўйz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЂЂ€џџџџxh…(џџџџџџ(ўйz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЃЃ€џџџџxh…(џџџџџџ(ўйz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЂЂ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџкz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџкz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџкz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџкz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€џџџџxh…(ƒџџџџџџ(ўкz9fџџџџ6мџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџмz9fџџџџЈвSџџџџ€џџџџ€SSџџџџS‚,PXџџџџџџмz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€SSџџџџSxh…(>џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ\€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџмz9fџџџџМвWaџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€aaџџџџaW‚,PXџџџџџџмz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€aaџџџџaWx(Xџџџџџџмz9fџџџџдв Wiџџџџ€``џџџџ››``€iiџџџџiW‚,PXџџџџџџмz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€iiџџџџiWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWx(Xџџџџџџмz9fџџџџTbџџџџ€WWџџџџWW€bbџџџџbT‚,PXџџџџџџмz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€bbџџџџbTxh…(ƒџџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџTUџџџџ€bbџџџџbT€UUџџџџUTx(Xџџџџџџмz9fџџџџќвV]џџџџ€VVџџџџVV€]]џџџџ]V‚,PXџџџџџџмz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€]]џџџџ]Vx(Xџџџџџџнz9fџџџџг]bџџџџ€]]џџџџ]V€bbџџџџbV‚,PXџџџџџџнz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€bbџџџџbVx(Xџџџџџџоz9fџџџџгaˆџџџџ€aaџџџџaa€ˆˆџџџџˆa‚,PXџџџџџџоz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ˆˆџџџџˆax(Xџџџџџџоz9fџџџџpг{~џџџџ€{{џџџџ™™{{€~~џџџџ~{‚,PXџџџџџџоz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€~~џџџџ~{x(Xџџџџџџоz9fџџџџ|гaiџџџџ€aaџџџџaa€iiџџџџia‚,PXџџџџџџоz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€iiџџџџiax(Xџџџџџџпz9fџџџџ’гtvџџџџ€ttџџџџtt€vvџџџџvt‚,PXџџџџџџпz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€vvџџџџvtx(Xџџџџџџпz9fџџџџœгˆ‹џџџџ€ˆˆџџџџˆˆ€‹‹џџџџ‹ˆ‚,PXџџџџџџпz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€‹‹џџџџ‹ˆx(Xџџџџџџпz9fџџџџ˜™џџџџ€˜˜џџџџvv˜˜€™™џџџџ™˜‚,PXџџџџџџпz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€™™џџџџ™˜x(Xџџџџџџпz9fџџџџЈг™Їџџџџ€™™џџџџ™˜€ЇЇџџџџЇ˜‚,PXџџџџџџпz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЇЇџџџџЇ˜x(Xџџџџџџрz9fџџџџТг›žџџџџ€››џџџџll››€žžџџџџž›‚,PXџџџџџџрz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€žžџџџџž›x(Xџџџџџџфz9fџџџџЮгЋЪџџџџ€ЋЋџџџџЋЋ€ЪЪџџџџЪЋ‚,PXџџџџџџфz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЪЪџџџџЪЋx(Xџџџџџџфz9fџџџџєгinџџџџ€iiџџџџii€nnџџџџni‚,PXџџџџџџфz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€nnџџџџnixh…(џџџџџџ(ўфz9fџџџџwwџџџџ€wwџџџџ77ww€wwџџџџwwxh…(џџџџџџ(ўфz9fџџџџ‡‡џџџџ€‡‡џџџџЪЪ‡‡€‡‡џџџџ‡‡x(Xџџџџџџфz9fџџџџ‡ˆџџџџ€‡‡џџџџ‡‡€ˆˆџџџџˆ‡‚,PXџџџџџџфz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ˆˆџџџџˆ‡xh…(џџџџџџ(ўфz9fџџџџˆˆџџџџ€ˆˆџџџџˆ‡€ˆˆџџџџˆˆx(Xџџџџџџфz9fџџџџдŽџџџџ€ŽŽџџџџщщŽŽ€џџџџŽ‚,PXџџџџџџфz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџŽx(Xџџџџџџфz9fџџџџдnpџџџџ€nnџџџџnn€ppџџџџpn‚,PXџџџџџџфz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ppџџџџpnx(Xџџџџџџхz9fџџџџдУХџџџџ€УУџџџџ\УУ€ХХџџџџХУ‚,PXџџџџџџхz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ХХџџџџХУx(Xџџџџџџхz9fџџџџ"д­Гџџџџ€­­џџџџИИ­­€ГГџџџџГ­‚,PXџџџџџџхz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ГГџџџџГ­x(Xџџџџџџцz9fџџџџ4дЗХџџџџ€ЗЗџџџџЗЗ€ХХџџџџХЗ‚,PXџџџџџџцz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ХХџџџџХЗx(Xџџџџџџчz9fџџџџVджщџџџџ€жжџџџџжж€щщџџџџщж‚,PXџџџџџџчz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€щщџџџџщжxh…(џџџџџџ(ўчz9fџџџџжжџџџџ€жжџџџџЭЭжж€жжџџџџжжxh…(џџџџџџ(ўчz9fџџџџжжџџџџ€жжџџџџжж€жжџџџџжжx(Xџџџџџџчz9fџџџџжзџџџџ€жжџџџџжж€ззџџџџзж‚,PXџџџџџџчz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ззџџџџзжxh…(џџџџџџ(ўчz9fџџџџККџџџџ€ККџџџџКК€ККџџџџККxh…(џџџџџџ(ўчz9fџџџџЏЏџџџџ€ЏЏџџџџЏЏ€ЏЏџџџџЏЏxh…(џџџџџџ(ўчz9fџџџџooџџџџ€ooџџџџoo€ooџџџџoox(Xџџџџџџчz9fџџџџ‚д{„џџџџ€{{џџџџnn{{€„„џџџџ„{‚,PXџџџџџџчz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€„„џџџџ„{x(Xџџџџџџчz9fџџџџšдšŸџџџџ€ššџџџџšš€ŸŸџџџџŸš‚,PXџџџџџџчz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ŸŸџџџџŸšx(Xџџџџџџыz9fџџџџЊдПФџџџџ€ППџџџџПП€ФФџџџџФП‚,PXџџџџџџыz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ФФџџџџФПx(Xџџџџџџыz9fџџџџКдерџџџџ€ееџџџџее€ррџџџџре‚,PXџџџџџџыz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ррџџџџреx(Xџџџџџџюz9fџџџџждџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџюz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџяz9fџџџџўдФеџџџџ€ФФџџџџФФ€ееџџџџеФ‚,PXџџџџџџяz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ееџџџџеФxh…(џџџџџџ(ўяz9fџџџџХХџџџџ€ХХџџџџЬЬХХ€ХХџџџџХХx(Xџџџџџџяz9fџџџџ&еЦЮџџџџ€ЦЦџџџџџџЦЦ€ЮЮџџџџЮЦ‚,PXџџџџџџяz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЮЮџџџџЮЦx(Xџџџџџџяz9fџџџџ<ејњџџџџ€јјџџџџјј€њњџџџџњј‚,PXџџџџџџяz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€њњџџџџњјx(Xџџџџџџ№z9fџџџџFељ џџџџ€љљџџџџљљ€  џџџџ љ‚,PXџџџџџџ№z9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€  џџџџ љxh…(џџџџџџ(ў№z9fџџџџљљџџџџ€љљџџџџџџљљ€љљџџџџљљxh…(џџџџџџ(ў№z9fџџџџљљџџџџ€љљџџџџџџљљ€љљџџџџљљxh…(џџџџџџ(ў№z9fџџџџљљџџџџ€љљџџџџџџљљ€љљџџџџљљx(Xџџџџџџёz9fџџџџ  џџџџ€  џџџџ``  €  џџџџ  ‚,PXџџџџџџёz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€  џџџџ  x(Xџџџџџџёz9fџџџџљљџџџџ€ўўџџџџўў€љљџџџџљљ‚,PXџџџџџџёz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€љљџџџџљљxh…(џџџџџџ(ўёz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџxh…(џџџџџџ(ўёz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџPP€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџёz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџёz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџёz9fџџџџrе џџџџ€џџџџ€  џџџџ ‚,PXџџџџџџёz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€  џџџџ x(Xџџџџџџёz9fџџџџ†ељќџџџџ€љљџџџџљљ€ќќџџџџќљ‚,PXџџџџџџёz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ќќџџџџќљxh…(џџџџџџ(ўђz9fџџџџ  џџџџ€  џџџџЭЭ  €  џџџџ  x(Xџџџџџџђz9fџџџџ’е %џџџџ€  џџџџ  €%%џџџџ% ‚,PXџџџџџџђz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€%%џџџџ% xh…(џџџџџџ(ўђz9fџџџџттџџџџ€ттџџџџтт€ттџџџџттx(Xџџџџџџђz9fџџџџЂетшџџџџ€ттџџџџтт€шшџџџџшт‚,PXџџџџџџђz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€шшџџџџштxh…(џџџџџџ(ўђz9fџџџџЛЛџџџџ€ЛЛџџџџЛЛ€ЛЛџџџџЛЛx(Xџџџџџџђz9fџџџџДеЛСџџџџ€ЛЛџџџџЛЛ€ССџџџџСЛ‚,PXџџџџџџђz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ССџџџџСЛx(Xџџџџџџђz9fџџџџЦеФЪџџџџ€ЧЧџџџџ™™ЧЧ€ЪЪџџџџЪФ‚,PXџџџџџџђz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЪЪџџџџЪФx(Xџџџџџџђz9fџџџџдеќџџџџ€ќќџџџџќќ€џџџџќ‚,PXџџџџџџђz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџќxh…(џџџџџџ(ўђz9fџџџџGGџџџџ€GGџџџџGG€GGџџџџGGx(Xџџџџџџђz9fџџџџтеGKџџџџ€GGџџџџGG€KKџџџџKG‚,PXџџџџџџђz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€KKџџџџKGx(Xџџџџџџђz9fџџџџ№еџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџђz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџђz9fџџџџќеЪЭџџџџ€ЪЪџџџџvvЪЪ€ЭЭџџџџЭЪ‚,PXџџџџџџђz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЭЭџџџџЭЪx(Xџџџџџџѓz9fџџџџжџџџџ€џџџџии€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџѓz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџѓz9fџџџџ$жйпџџџџ€ййџџџџююйй€ппџџџџпй‚,PXџџџџџџѓz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ппџџџџпйx(Xџџџџџџѓz9fџџџџ6жryџџџџ€rrџџџџщщrr€yyџџџџyr‚,PXџџџџџџѓz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€yyџџџџyrx(Xџџџџџџєz9fџџџџJжgkџџџџ€ggџџџџŸŸgg€kkџџџџkg‚,PXџџџџџџєz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€kkџџџџkgx(Xџџџџџџєz9fџџџџqrџџџџ€qqџџџџююqq€rrџџџџrq‚,PXџџџџџџєz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€rrџџџџrqxh…(џџџџџџ(ўєz9fџџџџrrџџџџ€rrџџџџrq€rrџџџџrrxh…(џџџџџџ(ўєz9fџџџџrrџџџџ€rrџџџџѓѓrr€rrџџџџrrxh…(џџџџџџ(ўєz9fџџџџrrџџџџ€rrџџџџѓѓrr€rrџџџџrrxh…(џџџџџџ(ўєz9fџџџџrrџџџџ€rrџџџџѓѓrr€rrџџџџrrx(Xџџџџџџєz9fџџџџXжvˆџџџџ€vvџџџџvv€ˆˆџџџџˆv‚,PXџџџџџџєz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ˆˆџџџџˆvxh…(џџџџџџ(ўѕz9fџџџџIIџџџџ€IIџџџџввII€IIџџџџIIxh…(џџџџџџ(ўѕz9fџџџџIIџџџџ€IIџџџџввII€IIџџџџIIxh…(џџџџџџ(ўѕz9fџџџџєєџџџџ€єєџџџџббєє€єєџџџџєєxh…(џџџџџџ(ўѕz9fџџџџєєџџџџ€єєџџџџббєє€єєџџџџєєxh…(џџџџџџ(ўѕz9fџџџџММџџџџ€ММџџџџббММ€ММџџџџММxh…(џџџџџџ(ўѕz9fџџџџММџџџџ€ММџџџџббММ€ММџџџџММxh…(џџџџџџ(ўѕz9fџџџџeeџџџџ€eeџџџџббee€eeџџџџeexh…(џџџџџџ(ўѕz9fџџџџeeџџџџ€eeџџџџee€eeџџџџeexh…(џџџџџџ(ўѕz9fџџџџeeџџџџ€eeџџџџббee€eeџџџџeexh…(џџџџџџ(ўѕz9fџџџџeeџџџџ€eeџџџџee€eeџџџџeexh…(џџџџџџ(ўѕz9fџџџџeeџџџџ€eeџџџџббee€eeџџџџeexh…(џџџџџџ(ўѕz9fџџџџeeџџџџ€eeџџџџббee€eeџџџџeexh…(џџџџџџ(ўѕz9fџџџџeeџџџџ€eeџџџџббee€eeџџџџeexh…(џџџџџџ(ўѕz9fџџџџeeџџџџ€eeџџџџббee€eeџџџџeexh…(џџџџџџ(ўѕz9fџџџџeeџџџџ€eeџџџџббee€eeџџџџeex(Xџџџџџџѕz9fџџџџ‚жehџџџџ€ffџџџџff€hhџџџџhe‚,PXџџџџџџѕz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€hhџџџџhexh…(џџџџџџ(ўѕz9fџџџџRRџџџџ€RRџџџџiiRR€RRџџџџRRxh…(џџџџџџ(ўѕz9fџџџџffџџџџ€ffџџџџ№№ff€ffџџџџffx(Xџџџџџџѕz9fџџџџyzџџџџ€yyџџџџ‡‡yy€zzџџџџzy‚,PXџџџџџџѕz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€zzџџџџzyxh…(џџџџџџ(ўѕz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџџџ€џџџџxh…(џџџџџџ(ўѕz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџџџ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџѕz9fџџџџŽжжпџџџџ€жжџџџџеежж€ппџџџџпж‚,PXџџџџџџѕz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ппџџџџпжx(Xџџџџџџіz9fџџџџІжФЪџџџџ€ФФџџџџPPФФ€ЪЪџџџџЪФ‚,PXџџџџџџіz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЪЪџџџџЪФxh…(џџџџџџ(ўіz9fџџџџЭЭџџџџ€ЭЭџџџџЭЭ€ЭЭџџџџЭЭxh…(џџџџџџ(ўіz9fџџџџ  џџџџ€  џџџџww  €  џџџџ  xh…(џџџџџџ(ўіz9fџџџџ  џџџџ€  џџџџww  €  џџџџ  xh…(џџџџџџ(ўіz9fџџџџ  џџџџ€  џџџџww  €  џџџџ  xh…(џџџџџџ(ўіz9fџџџџЩЩџџџџ€ЩЩџџџџwwЩЩ€ЩЩџџџџЩЩx(Xџџџџџџіz9fџџџџИж—žџџџџ€——џџџџНН——€žžџџџџž—‚,PXџџџџџџіz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€žžџџџџž—x(Xџџџџџџїz9fџџџџЬжГџџџџ€џџџџ€ГГџџџџГ‚,PXџџџџџџїz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ГГџџџџГx(Xџџџџџџїz9fџџџџўжЕШџџџџ€ЕЕџџџџЕЕ€ШШџџџџШЕ‚,PXџџџџџџїz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ШШџџџџШЕx(Xџџџџџџїz9fџџџџ*з ЕШџџџџ€ООџџџџОО€ШШџџџџШЕ‚,PXџџџџџџїz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ШШџџџџШЕx(Xџџџџџџјz9fџџџџвшџџџџ€ввџџџџQQвв€шшџџџџшв‚,PXџџџџџџјz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€шшџџџџшвx(Xџџџџџџјz9fџџџџШЩџџџџ€ШШџџџџШШ€ЩЩџџџџЩШ‚,PXџџџџџџјz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЩЩџџџџЩШxh…(Xџџџџџџ(ўјz9fџџџџЈЉџџџџ€ЈЈџџџџћћЈЈ€ЉЉџџџџЉЈxh…(џџџџџџ(ўјz9fџџџџЈЈџџџџ€ЈЈџџџџЈЈ€ЈЈџџџџЈЈxh…(џџџџџџ(ўјz9fџџџџШШџџџџ€ШШџџџџћћШШ€ШШџџџџШШx(Xџџџџџџјz9fџџџџFз 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Laros 1 and Peter J. Tellegen 2 1 University of Brasэlia, Brazil, 2 University of Groningen, The Netherlands Abstract The SON-R 2.5.5-7 and the SON-R 5.5.5-17 are the latest revisions of the Snijders-Oomen nonverbal intelligence test, originally developed in the Netherlands in 1943 for use with deaf children. The tests consist of 6 to 7 subtests mainly focussed on visual-spatial abilities and abstract and concrete reasoning. Research in the Netherlands indicates that the nonverbal SON-R tests are well suited for use with children of ethnic minorities. With traditional tests the cognitive abilities of minority children are often underestimated as a result of their lack of knowledge of the official language. Notwithstanding the favorite research results with minority children in The Netherlands, it cannot simply be assumed that the SON-R tests can be used unmodified in countries which are greatly different from The NethЏџџџџЏЏxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџЏЏџџџџ€ЏЏџџџџŠŠЏЏ€ЏЏџџџџЏЏxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџЏЏџџџџ€ЏЏџџџџŠŠЏЏ€ЏЏџџџџЏЏxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџЏЏџџџџ€ЏЏџџџџŠŠЏЏ€ЏЏџџџџЏЏxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџЏЏџџџџ€ЏЏџџџџŠŠЏЏ€ЏЏџџџџЏЏxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџЏЏџџџџ€ЏЏџџџџŠŠЏЏ€ЏЏџџџџЏЏxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџЏЏџџџџ€ЏЏџџџџŠŠЏЏ€ЏЏџџџџЏЏxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџЏЏџџџџ€ЏЏџџџџŠŠЏЏ€ЏЏџџџџЏЏxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџЏЏџџџџ€ЏЏџџџџŠŠЏЏ€ЏЏџџџџЏЏxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ‚ƒ„…†‡ˆ‰Š‹ŒŽ‘’“”•–—˜™š›œžŸ ЁЂЃЄЅІЇЈЉЊЋЌ­ЎЏАБВГДЕЖЗИЙКЛМНОПРСТУФХЦЧШЩЪЫЬЭЮЯабвгдежзийклмнопрстуфхцчшщъыьэюя№ёђѓєѕіїјљњћќ§ўџ      !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~€ЏЏџџџџ€ЏЏџџџџ‹‹ЏЏ€ЏЏџџџџЏЏxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџЏЏџџџџ€ЏЏџџџџŠŠЏЏ€ЏЏџџџџЏЏxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџЏЏџџџџ€ЏЏџџџџŠŠЏЏ€ЏЏџџџџЏЏxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџЏЏџџџџ€ЏЏџџџџŠŠЏЏ€ЏЏџџџџЏЏxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџЏЏџџџџ€ЏЏџџџџŠŠЏЏ€ЏЏџџџџЏЏxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџЏЏџџџџ€ЏЏџџџџŠŠЏЏ€ЏЏџџџџЏЏxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџЏЏџџџџ€ЏЏџџџџŠŠЏЏ€ЏЏџџџџЏЏxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџЏЏџџџџ€ЏЏџџџџŠŠЏЏ€ЏЏџџџџЏЏxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџЏЏџџџџ€ЏЏџџџџŠŠЏЏ€ЏЏџџџџ,вд€€€€€€€€€а....()()))()()00PА‚. 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""wa" "with""wa""e.g. "*"of the SON-R tests ">" of the verbal test meterials""language ""often ","there is no need for"" empiri""ir" "for""a ""as""by" "do ""which"*"performance on the "^"s because some of the pictures used seemed ra"^" Before presenting the results of these studi"R"The SON test was originally developped "&"by Snijders-Oomen""in 1943 "^" for use with deaf children. She intended to ""the use of "^"nguage. With subsequent revisions also norms "^" tests for younger and older children, the SO"Z"Н-7 (Tellegen et al., 1998) and the SON-R 5""Н-17 "^"(Snijders, Tellegen & Laros, 1989). 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4Œ45„5ќ5|6є6t7ь7x%(џџџџџџ(ў˜29&џџџџ~~џџџџ€~~џџџџ)~~€~~џџџџ~~x%(џџџџџџ(ў˜29&џџџџ~~џџџџ€~~џџџџ)~~€~~џџџџ~~x%(џџџџџџ(ў˜29&џџџџ~~џџџџ€~~џџџџ)~~€~~џџџџ~~x(Xџџџџџџ˜29&џџџџ.U~џџџџ€~~џџџџВВ~~€џџџџ~‚,PXџџџџџџ˜29&џџџџvuўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџ~xh…(>џџџџџџ(ўфB9fџџџџЙКџџџџ€ЙЙџџџџЙЙ€ККџџџџККxh…(Xџџџџџџ(ўхB9fџџџџЙЙџџџџ€ККџџџџКК€ЙЙџџџџЙЙx(XџџџџџџхB9fџџџџДЕџџџџ€ДДџџџџДД€ЕЕџџџџЕД‚,PXџџџџџџхB9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ЕЕџџџџЕДxh…(>џџџџџџ(ўхB9fџџџџЕЖџџџџ€ЕЕџџџџЕД€ЖЖџџџџЖЖx(XџџџџџџхB9fџџџџ:UЖшџџџџ€ЖЖџџџџЖЖ€шшџџџџшЖ‚,PXџџџџџџхB9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€шшџџџџшЖxh…(ƒџџџџџџ(ўхB9fџџџџ*Опџџџџ€шшџџџџшЖ€ппџџџџпЖx(XџџџџџџцB9fџџџџпрџџџџ€ппџџџџ\пп€ррџџџџрп‚,PXџџџџџџцB9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ррџџџџрпx(XџџџџџџчB9fџџџџNUрыџџџџ€ррџџџџ\рр€ыыџџџџыр‚,PXџџџџџџчB9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ыыџџџџырx(XџџџџџџчB9fџџџџjUыјџџџџ€ыыџџџџыр€јјџџџџјр‚,PXџџџџџџчB9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€јјџџџџјрx(XџџџџџџшB9fџџџџŠUјџџџџ€јјџџџџјр€џџџџр‚,PXџџџџџџшB9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€џџџџрxh…(ƒџџџџџџ(ўшB9fџџџџ(р§џџџџ€џџџџр€§§џџџџ§рx(XџџџџџџшB9fџџџџ§џџџџ€§§џџџџ§р€џџџџр‚,PXџџџџџџшB9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€џџџџрxh…(ƒџџџџџџ(ўшB9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџр€џџџџрx(XџџџџџџшB9fџџџџ)џџџџ€џџџџр€))џџџџ)р‚,PXџџџџџџшB9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€))џџџџ)рxh…(ƒџџџџџџ(ўшB9fџџџџ$%џџџџ€))џџџџ)р€))џџџџ)рx(XџџџџџџэB9fџџџџ)џџџџ€))џџџџ)р€џџџџр‚,PXџџџџџџэB9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€џџџџрx(XџџџџџџюB9fџџџџ˜U@џџџџ€џџџџ€@@џџџџ@‚,PXџџџџџџюB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€@@џџџџ@x(XџџџџџџюB9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџюB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџx(XџџџџџџюB9fџџџџ=>џџџџ€==џџџџ==€>>џџџџ>=‚,PXџџџџџџюB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€>>џџџџ>=x(XџџџџџџюB9fџџџџWXџџџџ€WWџџџџWW€XXџџџџXW‚,PXџџџџџџюB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€XXџџџџXWxh…(Xџџџџџџ(ўюB9fџџџџtuџџџџ€ttџџџџtt€uuџџџџutxh…(Xџџџџџџ(ўюB9fџџџџ‘’џџџџ€‘‘џџџџ‘‘€’’џџџџ’‘x(XџџџџџџюB9fџџџџЎЏџџџџ€ЎЎџџџџЎЎ€ЏЏџџџџЏЎ‚,PXџџџџџџюB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЏЏџџџџЏЎx(XџџџџџџюB9fџџџџЪЫџџџџ€ЪЪџџџџЪЪ€ЫЫџџџџЫЪ‚,PXџџџџџџюB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЫЫџџџџЫЪx(XџџџџџџюB9fџџџџщъџџџџ€щщџџџџщщ€ъъџџџџъщ‚,PXџџџџџџюB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ъъџџџџъщx(XџџџџџџюB9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџюB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџx(XџџџџџџюB9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџюB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџx(XџџџџџџюB9fџџџџ89џџџџ€88џџџџ88€99џџџџ98‚,PXџџџџџџюB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€99џџџџ98x(XџџџџџџяB9fџџџџKdџџџџ€KKџџџџnnKK€ddџџџџdK‚,PXџџџџџџяB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ddџџџџdKxh…(ƒџџџџџџ(ўяB9fџџџџcdџџџџ€ddџџџџdK€ddџџџџdKx(XџџџџџџяB9fџџџџdeџџџџ€ddџџџџdK€eeџџџџeK‚,PXџџџџџџяB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€eeџџџџeKxh…(ƒџџџџџџ(ўяB9fџџџџdeџџџџ€eeџџџџeK€eeџџџџeKx(XџџџџџџяB9fџџџџdkџџџџ€eeџџџџeK€kkџџџџkK‚,PXџџџџџџяB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€kkџџџџkKxh…(ƒџџџџџџ(ўяB9fџџџџjkџџџџ€kkџџџџkK€kkџџџџkKxh…(џџџџџџ(ўяB9fџџџџccџџџџ€ccџџџџcc€ccџџџџccx(XџџџџџџяB9fџџџџЌUchџџџџ€ccџџџџcc€hhџџџџhc‚,PXџџџџџџяB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€hhџџџџhcxh…(џџџџџџ(ўяB9fџџџџkkџџџџ€kkџџџџkk€kkџџџџkkxh…(џџџџџџ(ўяB9fџџџџmmџџџџ€mmџџџџmm€mmџџџџmmx(XџџџџџџёB9fџџџџМUm‹џџџџ€mmџџџџmm€‹‹џџџџ‹m‚,PXџџџџџџёB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€‹‹џџџџ‹mxh…(џџџџџџ(ўёB9fџџџџˆˆџџџџ€ˆˆџџџџˆˆ€ˆˆџџџџˆˆx(XџџџџџџѓB9fџџџџЬUˆЛџџџџ€ˆˆџџџџˆˆ€ЛЛџџџџЛˆ‚,PXџџџџџџѓB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЛЛџџџџЛˆx(XџџџџџџѓB9fџџџџ Ёџџџџ€  џџџџ  €ЁЁџџџџЁ ‚,PXџџџџџџѓB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЁЁџџџџЁ x(XџџџџџџєB9fџџџџ№UМЭџџџџ€ММџџџџ\ММ€ЭЭџџџџЭМ‚,PXџџџџџџєB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЭЭџџџџЭМxh…(џџџџџџ(ўєB9fџџџџФФџџџџ€ФФџџџџ””ФФ€ФФџџџџФФx(XџџџџџџєB9fџџџџФХџџџџ€ФФџџџџФФ€ХХџџџџХФ‚,PXџџџџџџєB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ХХџџџџХФxh…(џџџџџџ(ўєB9fџџџџФФџџџџ€ФФџџџџ““ФФ€ФФџџџџФФx(XџџџџџџєB9fџџџџФХџџџџ€ФФџџџџФФ€ХХџџџџХФ‚,PXџџџџџџєB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ХХџџџџХФx(XџџџџџџѕB9fџџџџVЬуџџџџ€ЬЬџџџџЬЬ€ууџџџџуЬ‚,PXџџџџџџѕB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ууџџџџуЬxh…(џџџџџџ(ўіB9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ@@€џџџџx(XџџџџџџіB9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџіB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџx(XџџџџџџїB9fџџџџжзџџџџ€жжџџџџ\жж€ззџџџџзж‚,PXџџџџџџїB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ззџџџџзжxh…(џџџџџџ(ўїB9fџџџџъъџџџџ€ъъџџџџъъ€ъъџџџџъъx(XџџџџџџїB9fџџџџ"#џџџџ€""џџџџ\""€##џџџџ#"‚,PXџџџџџџїB9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€##џџџџ#"xh…(МџџџџџџрљјB9fџџџџНЭџџџџ€ООџџџџОО€ООџџџџООx(XџџџџџџC9fџџџџLVоёџџџџ€ооџџџџ;;оо€ёёџџџџёо‚,PXџџџџџџC9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ёёџџџџёоx(XџџџџџџC9fџџџџїјџџџџ€їїџџџџїї€јјџџџџјї‚,PXџџџџџџC9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€јјџџџџјїx(Xџџџџџџиz9fџџџџxVотџџџџ€ооџџџџ33оо€ттџџџџто‚,PXџџџџџџиz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ттџџџџтоx(Xџџџџџџиz9fџџџџ†V9@џџџџ€99џџџџhh99€@@џџџџ@9‚,PXџџџџџџиz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€@@џџџџ@9x(Xџџџџџџиz9fџџџџšVX\џџџџ€XXџџџџ33XX€\\џџџџ\X‚,PXџџџџџџиz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€\\џџџџ\Xx(Xџџџџџџйz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџйz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€џџџџxh…(џџџџџџ(ўйz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЃЃ€џџџџxh…(џџџџџџ(ўйz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџxh…(џџџџџџ(ўйz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЂЂ€џџџџxh…(џџџџџџ(ўйz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЃЃ€џџџџxh…(џџџџџџ(ўйz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЂЂ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџкz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџкz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџкz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџкz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€џџџџxh…(ƒџџџџџџ(ўкz9fџџџџ6мџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџмz9fџџџџЈVSџџџџ€џџџџ€SSџџџџS‚,PXџџџџџџмz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€SSџџџџSxh…(>џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ\€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџмz9fџџџџМVWaџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€aaџџџџaW‚,PXџџџџџџмz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€aaџџџџaWx(Xџџџџџџмz9fџџџџдV Wiџџџџ€``џџџџ››``€iiџџџџiW‚,PXџџџџџџмz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€iiџџџџiWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWxh…(џџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџWWџџџџ€WWџџџџffWW€WWџџџџWWx(Xџџџџџџмz9fџџџџTbџџџџ€WWџџџџWW€bbџџџџbT‚,PXџџџџџџмz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€bbџџџџbTxh…(ƒџџџџџџ(ўмz9fџџџџTUџџџџ€bbџџџџbT€UUџџџџUTx(Xџџџџџџмz9fџџџџќVV]џџџџ€VVџџџџVV€]]џџџџ]V‚,PXџџџџџџмz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€]]џџџџ]Vx(Xџџџџџџнz9fџџџџW]bџџџџ€]]џџџџ]V€bbџџџџbV‚,PXџџџџџџнz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€bbџџџџbVx(Xџџџџџџоz9fџџџџWaˆџџџџ€aaџџџџaa€ˆˆџџџџˆa‚,PXџџџџџџоz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ˆˆџџџџˆax(Xџџџџџџоz9fџџџџpW{~џџџџ€{{џџџџ™™{{€~~џџџџ~{‚,PXџџџџџџоz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€~~џџџџ~{x(Xџџџџџџоz9fџџџџ|Waiџџџџ€aaџџџџaa€iiџџџџia‚,PXџџџџџџоz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€iiџџџџiax(Xџџџџџџпz9fџџџџ’Wtvџџџџ€ttџџџџtt€vvџџџџvt‚,PXџџџџџџпz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€vvџџџџvtx(Xџџџџџџпz9fџџџџœWˆ‹џџџџ€ˆˆџџџџˆˆ€‹‹џџџџ‹ˆ‚,PXџџџџџџпz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€‹‹џџџџ‹ˆx(Xџџџџџџпz9fџџџџ˜™џџџџ€˜˜џџџџvv˜˜€™™џџџџ™˜‚,PXџџџџџџпz9fџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€™™џџџџ™˜x(Xџџџџџџпz9fџџџџЈW™Їџџџџ€™™џџџџ™˜€ЇЇџџџџЇ˜‚,PXџџџџџџпz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЇЇџџџџЇ˜x(Xџџџџџџрz9fџџџџТW›žџџџџ€››џџџџll››€žžџџџџž›‚,PXџџџџџџрz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€žžџџџџž›x(Xџџџџџџфz9fџџџџЮWЋЪџџџџ€ЋЋџџџџЋЋ€ЪЪџџџџЪЋ‚,PXџџџџџџфz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЪЪџџџџЪЋx(Xџџџџџџфz9fџџџџєWinџџџџ€iiџџџџii€nnџџџџni‚,PXџџџџџџфz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€nnџџџџnixh…(џџџџџџ(ўфz9fџџџџwwџџџџ€wwџџџџ77ww€wwџџџџwwxh…(џџџџџџ(ўфz9fџџџџ‡‡џџџџ€‡‡џџџџЪЪ‡‡€‡‡џџџџ‡‡x(Xџџџџџџфz9fџџџџ‡ˆџџџџ€‡‡џџџџ‡‡€ˆˆџџџџˆ‡‚,PXџџџџџџфz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ˆˆџџџџˆ‡xh…(џџџџџџ(ўфz9fџџџџˆˆџџџџ€ˆˆџџџџˆ‡€ˆˆџџџџˆˆx(Xџџџџџџфz9fџџџџXŽџџџџ€ŽŽџџџџщщŽŽ€џџџџŽ‚,PXџџџџџџфz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџŽx(Xџџџџџџфz9fџџџџXnpџџџџ€nnџџџџnn€ppџџџџpn‚,PXџџџџџџфz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ppџџџџpnx(Xџџџџџџхz9fџџџџXУХџџџџ€УУџџџџ\УУ€ХХџџџџХУ‚,PXџџџџџџхz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ХХџџџџХУx(Xџџџџџџхz9fџџџџ"X­Гџџџџ€­­џџџџИИ­­€ГГџџџџГ­‚,PXџџџџџџхz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ГГџџџџГ­x(Xџџџџџџцz9fџџџџ4XЗХџџџџ€ЗЗџџџџЗЗ€ХХџџџџХЗ‚,PXџџџџџџцz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ХХџџџџХЗx(Xџџџџџџчz9fџџџџVXжщџџџџ€жжџџџџжж€щщџџџџщж‚,PXџџџџџџчz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€щщџџџџщжxh…(џџџџџџ(ўчz9fџџџџжжџџџџ€жжџџџџЭЭжж€жжџџџџжжxh…(џџџџџџ(ўчz9fџџџџжжџџџџ€жжџџџџжж€жжџџџџжжx(Xџџџџџџчz9fџџџџжзџџџџ€жжџџџџжж€ззџџџџзж‚,PXџџџџџџчz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ззџџџџзжxh…(џџџџџџ(ўчz9fџџџџККџџџџ€ККџџџџКК€ККџџџџККxh…(џџџџџџ(ўчz9fџџџџЏЏџџџџ€ЏЏџџџџЏЏ€ЏЏџџџџЏЏxh…(џџџџџџ(ўчz9fџџџџooџџџџ€ooџџџџoo€ooџџџџoox(Xџџџџџџчz9fџџџџ‚X{„џџџџ€{{џџџџnn{{€„„џџџџ„{‚,PXџџџџџџчz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€„„џџџџ„{x(Xџџџџџџчz9fџџџџšXšŸџџџџ€ššџџџџšš€ŸŸџџџџŸš‚,PXџџџџџџчz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ŸŸџџџџŸšx(Xџџџџџџыz9fџџџџЊXПФџџџџ€ППџџџџПП€ФФџџџџФП‚,PXџџџџџџыz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ФФџџџџФПx(Xџџџџџџыz9fџџџџКXерџџџџ€ееџџџџее€ррџџџџре‚,PXџџџџџџыz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ррџџџџреx(Xџџџџџџюz9fџџџџжXџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџюz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџяz9fџџџџўXФеџџџџ€ФФџџџџФФ€ееџџџџеФ‚,PXџџџџџџяz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ееџџџџеФxh…(џџџџџџ(ўяz9fџџџџХХџџџџ€ХХџџџџЬЬХХ€ХХџџџџХХx(Xџџџџџџяz9fџџџџ&YЦЮџџџџ€ЦЦџџџџџџЦЦ€ЮЮџџџџЮЦ‚,PXџџџџџџяz9fџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЮЮџџџџЮЦx(Xџџџџџџяz9fџџџџ> € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџŠ џџџџ — џџџџ  € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџъЏ Џ џџџџЏ ™ џџџџGЏ Џ €Џ Џ џџџџЏ Џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџk k џџџџk ‚ џџџџVk k €k k џџџџk k xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ4Ы Ы џџџџЫ џ џџџџ Ы д €Ы Ы џџџџЫ Ы xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў"ы9fџџџџ ффџџџџфяџџџџафф€ффџџџџффxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў#ы9fџџџџ< < џџџџ< @ џџџџ€< < €< < џџџџ< < xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў#ы9fџџџџ< < џџџџ€< < џџџџ< < €< < џџџџ< < xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў#ы9fџџџџC C џџџџC J џџџџЋC C €C C џџџџC C x(Xџџџџџџ'ы9fџџџџ‚\Г М џџџџ€Г Г џџџџддГ Г €М М џџџџМ Г ‚,PXџџџџџџ'ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€М М џџџџМ Г x(Xџџџџџџ1ы9fџџџџš\/ 5 џџџџ€/ / џџџџ)/ / €5 5 џџџџ5 / ‚,PXџџџџџџ1ы9fџџџџvuўџџџS@€џџџџ€5 5 џџџџ5 / xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџїїN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџјјN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџїїN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџјјN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџїїN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџїїN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџїїN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџo o €o o џџџџo o x(Xџџџџџџ2ы9fџџџџЌ\o ƒ џџџџ€o o џџџџo o €ƒ ƒ џџџџƒ o ‚,PXџџџџџџ2ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€ƒ ƒ џџџџƒ o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџƒ ƒ џџџџ€ƒ ƒ џџџџƒ o €ƒ ƒ џџџџƒ ƒ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџƒ ƒ џџџџ€ƒ ƒ џџџџggƒ ƒ €ƒ ƒ џџџџƒ ƒ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџƒ ƒ џџџџ€ƒ ƒ џџџџggƒ ƒ €ƒ ƒ џџџџƒ ƒ x(Xџџџџџџ3ы9fџџџџк\ƒ • џџџџ€– – џџџџcc– – €• • џџџџ• ƒ ‚,PXџџџџџџ3ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€• • џџџџ• ƒ x(Xџџџџџџ3ы9fџџџџю\Џ Б џџџџ€Џ Џ џџџџЏ Џ €Б Б џџџџБ Џ ‚,PXџџџџџџ3ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€Б Б џџџџБ Џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџП П џџџџ€П П џџџџП П €П П џџџџП П xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџП П џџџџ€П П џџџџssП П €П П џџџџП П x(Xџџџџџџ3ы9fџџџџј\П Т џџџџ€П П џџџџП П €Т Т џџџџТ П ‚,PXџџџџџџ3ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€Т Т џџџџТ П x(Xџџџџџџ3ы9fџџџџе ж џџџџ€е е џџџџе е €ж ж џџџџж е ‚,PXџџџџџџ3ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж е xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж е €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж x(Xџџџџџџ4ы9fџџџџў џ џџџџ€ў ў џџџџТТў ў €џ џ џџџџџ ў ‚,PXџџџџџџ4ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€џ џ џџџџџ ў xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџџ ў €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ x(Xџџџџџџ6ы9fџџџџ]чщџџџџ€ччџџџџЬЬчч€щщџџџџщч‚,PXџџџџџџ6ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€щщџџџџщчxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџььџџџџ€ььџџџџёёьь€ььџџџџььxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЉЉ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЉЉ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЉЉ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЉЉ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЉЉ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџ7ы9fџџџџ]џџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџ7ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў7ы9fџџџџјјџџџџ€јјџџџџггјј€јјџџџџјјxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў7ы9fџџџџјјџџџџ€јјџџџџггјј€јјџџџџјјx(Xџџџџџџ8ы9fџџџџ]јњџџџџ€јјџџџџјј€њњџџџџњј‚,PXџџџџџџ8ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€њњџџџџњјx(Xџџџџџџ9ы9fџџџџ"]јћџџџџ€јјџџџџKKјј€ћћџџџџћј‚,PXџџџџџџ9ы9fџџџџuvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ћћџџџџћјxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў9ы9fџџџџљљџџџџ€љљџџџџццљљ€љљџџџџљљxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў9ы9fџџџџљљџџџџ€љљџџџџццљљ€љљџџџџљљxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў9ы9fџџџџљљџџџџ€љљџџџџљљ€љљџџџџљљxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў9ы9fџџџџљљџџџџ€љљџџџџццљљ€љљџџџџљљxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў9ы9fџџџџљљџџџџ€љљџџџџљљ€љљџџџџљљxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџn!n!џџџџ€n!n!џџџџЙЙn!n!€n!n!џџџџn!n!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџn!n!џџџџ€n!n!џџџџККn!n!€n!n!џџџџn!n!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџn!n!џџџџ€n!n!џџџџЙЙn!n!€n!n!џџџџn!n!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџn!n!џџџџ€n!n!џџџџЙЙn!n!€n!n!џџџџn!n!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџn!n!џџџџ€n!n!џџџџn!n!€n!n!џџџџn!n!x(Xџџџџџџ;ы9fџџџџn!o!џџџџ€n!n!џџџџn!n!€o!o!џџџџo!n!‚,PXџџџџџџ;ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€o!o!џџџџo!n!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ~!~!џџџџ€~!~!џџџџ~!~!€~!~!џџџџ~!~!x(Xџџџџџџ;ы9fџџџџ~!!џџџџ€~!~!џџџџ~!~!€!!џџџџ!~!‚,PXџџџџџџ;ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€!!џџџџ!~!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!x(Xџџџџџџ;ы9fџџџџ.]‰!Ž!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!€Ž!Ž!џџџџŽ!‰!‚,PXџџџџџџ;ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€Ž!Ž!џџџџŽ!‰!x(Xџџџџџџ@ы9fџџџџŠ"‹"џџџџ€Š"Š"џџџџ 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Œ˜џџџџŒ—џџџџЭŒŒŒ—џџџџŒŒx@(Xџџџџџџ(ўмb:Fџџџџ—˜џџџџ€——џџџџЫЫ——€˜˜џџџџ˜—x(Xџџџџџџнb:Fџџџџ˜Њџџџџ€˜˜џџџџ˜—€ЊЊџџџџЊ—‚,PXџџџџџџнb:FџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ЊЊџџџџЊ—x(Xџџџџџџнb:FџџџџЄЅџџџџ€ЄЄџџџџЄЄ€ЅЅџџџџЅЄ‚,PXџџџџџџнb:FџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ЅЅџџџџЅЄx(Xџџџџџџоb:FџџџџкbЊфџџџџ€ЊЊџџџџЊЊ€ффџџџџфЊ‚,PXџџџџџџоb:FџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ффџџџџфЊx(Xџџџџџџоb:FџџџџюbРХџџџџ€РРџџџџИИРР€ХХџџџџХР‚,PXџџџџџџоb:FџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ХХџџџџХРx(Xџџџџџџрb:FџџџџўbЩаџџџџ€ЩЩџџџџЩЩ€ааџџџџаЩ‚,PXџџџџџџрb:FџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ааџџџџаЩx(Xџџџџџџрb:Fџџџџёѓџџџџ€ёёџџџџёё€ѓѓџџџџѓё‚,PXџџџџџџрb:FџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ѓѓџџџџѓёx(Xџџџџџџрb:Fџџџџcђ&џџџџ€ђђџџџџђђ€&&џџџџ&ђ‚,PXџџџџџџрb:FџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€&&џџџџ&ђx@(Џџџџџџџрљфb:Fџџџџ%(џџџџ(џџџџ(џџџџx(Xџџџџџџхb:Fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџыы€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџхb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџхb:Fџџџџ>cџџџџ€џџџџАА€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџхb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџхb:FџџџџJc!$џџџџ€!!џџџџ!!€$$џџџџ$!‚,PXџџџџџџхb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€$$џџџџ$!x(Xџџџџџџхb:FџџџџVc-1џџџџ€--џџџџ--€11џџџџ1-‚,PXџџџџџџхb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€11џџџџ1-x(Xџџџџџџхb:Fџџџџdcёѓџџџџ€ёёџџџџёё€ѓѓџџџџѓё‚,PXџџџџџџхb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ѓѓџџџџѓёx(Xџџџџџџцb:FџџџџncХЧџџџџ€ХХџџџџХХ€ЧЧџџџџЧХ‚,PXџџџџџџцb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЧЧџџџџЧХx(Xџџџџџџцb:FџџџџxcХЫџџџџ€ХХџџџџХХ€ЫЫџџџџЫХ‚,PXџџџџџџцb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЫЫџџџџЫХx(Xџџџџџџцb:FџџџџŠcиоџџџџ€ииџџџџии€ооџџџџои‚,PXџџџџџџцb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ооџџџџоиx(Xџџџџџџчb:Fџџџџœcџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџчb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџчb:FџџџџЋЌџџџџ€ЋЋџџџџџџЋЋ€ЌЌџџџџЌЋ‚,PXџџџџџџчb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЌЌџџџџЌЋx(Xџџџџџџшb:FџџџџЪc:>џџџџ€::џџџџ 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x(Xџџџџџџьb:Fџџџџ8d)0џџџџ€))џџџџMM))€00џџџџ0)‚,PXџџџџџџьb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€00џџџџ0)x(Xџџџџџџьb:Fџџџџ^`џџџџ€aaџџџџ™™aa€``џџџџ`^‚,PXџџџџџџьb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€``џџџџ`^x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџrrџџџџ€rrџџџџrr€rrџџџџrrx@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ‚‚џџџџ€‚‚џџџџff‚‚€‚‚џџџџ‚‚x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ88џџџџ€88џџџџff88€88џџџџ88x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ88џџџџ€88џџџџ88€88џџџџ88x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ88џџџџ€88џџџџff88€88џџџџ88x(Xџџџџџџьb:Fџџџџ89џџџџ€88џџџџ88€99џџџџ98‚,PXџџџџџџьb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€99џџџџ98x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ22џџџџ€22џџџџ22€22џџџџ22x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ22џџџџ€22џџџџ22€22џџџџ22x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ22џџџџ€22џџџџ]22€22џџџџ22x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ22џџџџ€22џџџџ]22€22џџџџ22x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ22џџџџ€22џџџџ22€22џџџџ22x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ22џџџџ€22џџџџ]22€22џџџџ22x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ22џџџџ€22џџџџ]22€22џџџџ22x(Xџџџџџџьb:FџџџџLdљћџџџџ€љљџџџџ]љљ€ћћџџџџћљ‚,PXџџџџџџьb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ћћџџџџћљx(Xџџџџџџэb:FџџџџVdГЕџџџџ€ГГџџџџ]ГГ€ЕЕџџџџЕГ‚,PXџџџџџџэb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЕЕџџџџЕГx@(џџџџџџ(ўэb:FџџџџЪЪџџџџ€ЪЪџџџџЪЪ€ЪЪџџџџЪЪx@(џџџџџџ(ўэb:FџџџџЪЪџџџџ€ЪЪџџџџллЪЪ€ЪЪџџџџЪЪx(Xџџџџџџюb:Fџџџџ`dZ_џџџџ€ZZџџџџooZZ€__џџџџ_Z‚,PXџџџџџџюb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€__џџџџ_Zx(Xџџџџџџюb:Fџџџџpdquџџџџ€qqџџџџqq€uuџџџџuq‚,PXџџџџџџюb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€uuџџџџuqx(Xџџџџџџюb:Fџџџџ~d…‰џџџџ€……џџџџ……€‰‰џџџџ‰…‚,PXџџџџџџюb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€‰‰џџџџ‰…x@(џџџџџџ(ўюb:Fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџюb:Fџџџџ‚џџџџ€џџџџ€‚‚џџџџ‚‚,PXџџџџџџюb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€‚‚џџџџ‚x@(џџџџџџ(ўюb:Fџџџџ„„џџџџ€„„џџџџ„„€„„џџџџ„„x(Xџџџџџџюb:Fџџџџ„…џџџџ€„„џџџџ„„€……џџџџ…„‚,PXџџџџџџюb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€……џџџџ…„x@(џџџџџџ(ўюb:Fџџџџˆˆџџџџ€ˆˆџџџџˆˆ€ˆˆџџџџˆˆx(Xџџџџџџюb:Fџџџџˆ‰џџџџ€ˆˆџџџџˆˆ€‰‰џџџџ‰ˆ‚,PXџџџџџџюb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€‰‰џџџџ‰ˆx@(-џџџџџџрљяb:Fџџџџ 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‡ѓ‡ѓ€†ѓ†ѓџџџџ†ѓgѓ€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€†ѓ†ѓџџџџ†ѓgѓx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџвїзїџџџџ€иїиїџџџџффиїиї€зїзїџџџџзївї€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€зїзїџџџџзївїx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџзїыїџџџџ€ьїьїџџџџnnьїьї€ыїыїџџџџыїзї€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ыїыїџџџџыїзїx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџшјљјџџџџ€њјњјџџџџњјњј€љјљјџџџџљјшј€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€љјљјџџџџљјшјx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ §љњџџџџ€њњџџџџeeњњ€њњџџџџњ§љ€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€њњџџџџњ§љx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ mњŒњџџџџ€њњџџџџђђњњ€ŒњŒњџџџџŒњmњ€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ŒњŒњџџџџŒњmњx(XџџџџџџлkfџџџџŽќŽќџџџџ€ќќџџџџќќ€ŽќŽќџџџџŽќŽќ€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€ЏЏxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџЏЏџџџџ€ЏЏџџџџŠŠЏЏ€ЏЏџџџџЏЏxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџЏЏџџџџ€ЏЏџџџџŠŠЏЏ€ЏЏџџџџЏЏxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџЏЏџџџџ€ЏЏџџџџŠŠЏЏ€ЏЏџџџџЏЏxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџЏЏџџџџ€ЏЏџџџџŠŠЏЏ€ЏЏџџџџЏЏxŒ…(џџ‚ƒ„…†‡ˆ‰Š‹ŒŽ‘’“”•–—˜™š›œžŸ ЁЂЃЄЅІЇЈЉЊЋЌ­ЎЏАБВГДЕЖЗИЙКЛМНОПРСТУФХЦЧШЩЪЫЬЭЮЯабвгдежзийклмнопрстуфхцчшщъыьэюя№ёђѓєѕіїјљњћќ§ў[/1 /0Ць@1к/0hѓ@101"006ќ@1J01Tў@1l00œ@1Њ01~@1„@0|@1ш01 11"10<@1:K0Œ@1xK0є@1КK0#@1(10$&@1J10*'@1d10ќ/@0B1@1Ђ10ъ6@0ІB@0 A@1ЖR0ЬA@0ЄB@0ІB@GTimes New Roman5€Symbol3 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џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ џџџџ€ џџџџ== € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџŠ џџџџ — џџџџ  € џџџџ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџъЏ Џ џџџџЏ ™ џџџџGЏ Џ €Џ Џ џџџџЏ Џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџk k џџџџk ‚ џџџџVk k €k k џџџџk k xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ўы9fџџџџ4Ы Ы џџџџЫ џ џџџџ Ы д €Ы Ы џџџџЫ Ы xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў"ы9fџџџџ ффџџџџфяџџџџафф€ффџџџџффxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў#ы9fџџџџ< < џџџџ< @ џџџџ€< < €< < џџџџ< < xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў#ы9fџџџџ< < џџџџ€< < џџџџ< < €< < џџџџ< < xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў#ы9fџџџџC C џџџџC J џџџџЋC C €C C џџџџC C x(Xџџџџџџ'ы9fџџџџ‚иГ М џџџџ€Г Г џџџџддГ Г €М М џџџџМ Г ‚,PXџџџџџџ'ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€М М џџџџМ Г x(Xџџџџџџ1ы9fџџџџšи/ 5 џџџџ€/ / џџџџ)/ / €5 5 џџџџ5 / ‚,PXџџџџџџ1ы9fџџџџvuўџџџS@€џџџџ€5 5 џџџџ5 / xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџїїN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџјјN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџїїN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџјјN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџїїN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџїїN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџїїN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў1ы9fџџџџN N џџџџ€N N џџџџN N €N N џџџџN N xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџŒ45„5ќ5|6є6x(Xџџџџџџ%лkfџџџџ++џџџџ€++џџџџчч++€++џџџџ++€(PXџџџџџџ%лkfџџџџvuўџџџ€џџџџ€++џџџџ++x(Xџџџџџџ%лkfџџџџ +!+џџџџ€#+#+џџџџ§§#+#+€!+!+џџџџ!++€(PXџџџџџџ%лkfџџџџuuўџџџ€џџџџ€!+!+џџџџ!++x(Xџџџџџџ&лkfџџџџ++џџџџ€++џџџџ++€++џџџџ++€(PXџџџџџџ&лkfџџџџuuўџџџ€џџџџ€++џџџџ++The SON-R 2.4 erlands. In this presentation we will discuss results obtained with the SON-R tests in Australia, the USA, Great Britain, China, Peru and Brazil. Introduction With the latest revision and standardization in the Netherlands of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Tests, various cross-cultural validation studies have been initiated. The objective of these studies was to verify to which degree the SON-R tests can be used with cultures different from the cultures in Western Europe in general, and differen§џџџ@     /I"§џџџ#%&'()*+X-.c0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~€t from the cultures in the Netherlands in particular. In other words, the goal of these studies was to discern if, and to what extent adaptations of the material (e.g., test instructions, testing format, examples, items) of the SON-R tests are required for cross-national and cross-cultural use. The reason of the adaptation of the SON-R tests is to be able to assess in a fair way the construct of intelligence in multiple cultures. A crucial phase in the adaptation of conventional tests is the translation of the instrument from the source language into a target language. To obtain an equivalent test in another language or culture not only a translation is needed that preserves the meaning of the verbal test materials, but also additional changes may be necessary to insure the equivalence of the versions of the test in multiple languages or cultures, such as those affecting item format and testing procedures. (Hambleton, 1993). Close correspondence between the original version and the translated version is rџџ€МjМjџџџџœœМjМj€ЛjЛjџџџџЛjœj‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЛjЛjџџџџЛjœjx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ ŸkОkџџџџ€ПkПkџџџџѓѓПkПk€ОkОkџџџџОkŸk‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€ОkОkџџџџОkŸkx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ :lYlџџџџ€ZlZlџџџџ„„ZlZl€YlYlџџџџYl:l‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€YlYlџџџџYl:lx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџыmnџџџџ€nnџџџџффnn€nnџџџџnыm‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџuvўџџџS@€џџџџ€nnџџџџnыmx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ Дqгqџџџџ€дqдqџџџџѓѓдqдq€гqгqџџџџгqДq‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€гqгqџџџџгqДqx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ ct‚tџџџџ€ƒtƒtџџџџƒtƒt€‚t‚tџџџџ‚tct‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€‚t‚tџџџџ‚tctx(XџџџџџџлkfџџџџMuMuџџџџ€NuNuџџџџРРNuNu€MuMuџџџџMuMu‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€MuMuџџџџMuMux(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџўuўuџџџџ€џuџuџџџџшшџuџu€ўuўuџџџџўuўu‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ўuўuџџџџўuўux(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџˆvˆvџџџџ€‰v‰vџџџџ‰v‰v€ˆvˆvџџџџˆvˆv‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ˆvˆvџџџџˆvˆvьЅС3 єП H‰ jbjb^^^^^^^^^^Yh<h<Гџџџџџџl–’(((((<.€.€.€.€lšƒd <хpИ8 №­№­№­№­№­№­№­ОЎРЎРЎРЎРЎРЎРЎц ­шРЎ]6(№­№­№­№­№­РЎВЎ((№­№­šВЎВЎВЎ№­((№­(№­ОЎВЎ<<((((№­ОЎВЎВЎВЎ((ВЎўŒœШn К<ђ~.€ЎšВЎВЎ ххВЎ­шВЎ­шВЎВЎУх he SON-R 5.5R 2.5-7 and the SON-R 5.5For the SON-R 5.5other subtests of the SON-R 5.5e to item bias of the SON-R 2.5e Snijders-Oomen Test (SON-R 2.5 of the SON-R 5.5The SON-R 5.5al intelligence test: SON-R 5.5al Intelligence Test, SON-R 2.523 181818201819Є­и.ц.$/к/0ш0р1ф1ц12 MLM2N4N6NRЖRИRКRРR>W@WBWDWћіћэцоецегецецеаеЪецЪецТцецећоцоецегећеЛіецеЛеце CJOJQJ5OJQJmH  5CJmH mH U0JOJQJmH>*OJQJmH  OJQJmH CJOJQJmH CJmH CJmH 1Є­ц16NS ЬTЯќKКRBWъъъъъъъъ„r„R„А*$]„r^„R`„А Ц`њ0§o o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџссo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџo o €o o џџџџo o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџo o џџџџ€o o џџџџo o €o o џџџџo o x(Xџџџџџџ2ы9fџџџџЌиo ƒ џџџџ€o o џџџџo o €ƒ ƒ џџџџƒ o ‚,PXџџџџџџ2ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€ƒ ƒ џџџџƒ o xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџƒ ƒ џџџџ€ƒ ƒ џџџџƒ o €ƒ ƒ џџџџƒ ƒ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџƒ ƒ џџџџ€ƒ ƒ џџџџggƒ ƒ €ƒ ƒ џџџџƒ ƒ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў2ы9fџџџџƒ ƒ џџџџ€ƒ ƒ џџџџggƒ ƒ €ƒ ƒ џџџџƒ ƒ x(Xџџџџџџ3ы9fџџџџкиƒ • џџџџ€– – џџџџcc– – €• • џџџџ• ƒ ‚,PXџџџџџџ3ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€• • џџџџ• ƒ x(Xџџџџџџ3ы9fџџџџюиЏ Б џџџџ€Џ Џ џџџџЏ Џ €Б Б џџџџБ Џ ‚,PXџџџџџџ3ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€Б Б џџџџБ Џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџП П џџџџ€П П џџџџП П €П П џџџџП П xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџП П џџџџ€П П џџџџssП П €П П џџџџП П x(Xџџџџџџ3ы9fџџџџјиП Т џџџџ€П П џџџџП П €Т Т џџџџТ П ‚,PXџџџџџџ3ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€Т Т џџџџТ П x(Xџџџџџџ3ы9fџџџџе ж џџџџ€е е џџџџе е €ж ж џџџџж е ‚,PXџџџџџџ3ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж е xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж е €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў3ы9fџџџџж ж џџџџ€ж ж џџџџж ж €ж ж џџџџж ж x(Xџџџџџџ4ы9fџџџџў џ џџџџ€ў ў џџџџТТў ў €џ џ џџџџџ ў ‚,PXџџџџџџ4ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€џ џ џџџџџ ў xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџџ ў €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў4ы9fџџџџџ џ џџџџ€џ џ џџџџЪЪџ џ €џ џ џџџџџ џ x(Xџџџџџџ6ы9fџџџџйчщџџџџ€ччџџџџЬЬчч€щщџџџџщч‚,PXџџџџџџ6ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€щщџџџџщчxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџььџџџџ€ььџџџџёёьь€ььџџџџььxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЉЉ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЉЉ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЉЉ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЉЉ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЉЉ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў6ы9fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџЈЈ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџ7ы9fџџџџйџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџ7ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў7ы9fџџџџјјџџџџ€јјџџџџггјј€јјџџџџјјxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў7ы9fџџџџјјџџџџ€јјџџџџггјј€јјџџџџјјx(Xџџџџџџ8ы9fџџџџйјњџџџџ€јјџџџџјј€њњџџџџњј‚,PXџџџџџџ8ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€њњџџџџњјx(Xџџџџџџ9ы9fџџџџ"йјћџџџџ€јјџџџџKKјј€ћћџџџџћј‚,PXџџџџџџ9ы9fџџџџuvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ћћџџџџћјxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў9ы9fџџџџљљџџџџ€љљџџџџццљљ€љљџџџџљљxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў9ы9fџџџџљљџџџџ€љљџџџџццљљ€љљџџџџљљxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў9ы9fџџџџљљџџџџ€љљџџџџљљ€љљџџџџљљxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў9ы9fџџџџљљџџџџ€љљџџџџццљљ€љљџџџџљљxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў9ы9fџџџџљљџџџџ€љљџџџџљљ€љљџџџџљљxŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџn!n!џџџџ€n!n!џџџџЙЙn!n!€n!n!џџџџn!n!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџn!n!џџџџ€n!n!џџџџККn!n!€n!n!џџџџn!n!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџn!n!џџџџ€n!n!џџџџЙЙn!n!€n!n!џџџџn!n!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџn!n!џџџџ€n!n!џџџџЙЙn!n!€n!n!џџџџn!n!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџn!n!џџџџ€n!n!џџџџn!n!€n!n!џџџџn!n!x(Xџџџџџџ;ы9fџџџџn!o!џџџџ€n!n!џџџџn!n!€o!o!џџџџo!n!‚,PXџџџџџџ;ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€o!o!џџџџo!n!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ~!~!џџџџ€~!~!џџџџ~!~!€~!~!џџџџ~!~!x(Xџџџџџџ;ы9fџџџџ~!!џџџџ€~!~!џџџџ~!~!€!!џџџџ!~!‚,PXџџџџџџ;ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€!!џџџџ!~!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!xŒ…(џџџџџџ(ў;ы9fџџџџ‰!‰!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџƒƒ‰!‰!€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!x(Xџџџџџџ;ы9fџџџџ.й‰!Ž!џџџџ€‰!‰!џџџџ‰!‰!€Ž!Ž!џџџџŽ!‰!‚,PXџџџџџџ;ы9fџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€Ž!Ž!џџџџŽ!‰!x(Xџџџџџџ@ы9fџџџџŠ"‹"џџџџ€Š"Š"џџџџ 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Œ˜џџџџŒ—џџџџЭŒŒŒ—џџџџŒŒx@(Xџџџџџџ(ўмb:Fџџџџ—˜џџџџ€——џџџџЫЫ——€˜˜џџџџ˜—x(Xџџџџџџнb:Fџџџџ˜Њџџџџ€˜˜џџџџ˜—€ЊЊџџџџЊ—‚,PXџџџџџџнb:FџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ЊЊџџџџЊ—x(Xџџџџџџнb:FџџџџЄЅџџџџ€ЄЄџџџџЄЄ€ЅЅџџџџЅЄ‚,PXџџџџџџнb:FџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ЅЅџџџџЅЄx(Xџџџџџџоb:FџџџџкоЊфџџџџ€ЊЊџџџџЊЊ€ффџџџџфЊ‚,PXџџџџџџоb:FџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ффџџџџфЊx(Xџџџџџџоb:FџџџџюоРХџџџџ€РРџџџџИИРР€ХХџџџџХР‚,PXџџџџџџоb:FџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ХХџџџџХРx(Xџџџџџџрb:FџџџџўоЩаџџџџ€ЩЩџџџџЩЩ€ааџџџџаЩ‚,PXџџџџџџрb:FџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ааџџџџаЩx(Xџџџџџџрb:Fџџџџёѓџџџџ€ёёџџџџёё€ѓѓџџџџѓё‚,PXџџџџџџрb:FџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€ѓѓџџџџѓёx(Xџџџџџџрb:Fџџџџпђ&џџџџ€ђђџџџџђђ€&&џџџџ&ђ‚,PXџџџџџџрb:FџџџџvvўџџџC@€џџџџ€&&џџџџ&ђx@(Џџџџџџџрљфb:Fџџџџ%(џџџџ(џџџџ(џџџџx(Xџџџџџџхb:Fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџыы€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџхb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџхb:Fџџџџ>пџџџџ€џџџџАА€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџхb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџхb:FџџџџJп!$џџџџ€!!џџџџ!!€$$џџџџ$!‚,PXџџџџџџхb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€$$џџџџ$!x(Xџџџџџџхb:FџџџџVп-1џџџџ€--џџџџ--€11џџџџ1-‚,PXџџџџџџхb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€11џџџџ1-x(Xџџџџџџхb:Fџџџџdпёѓџџџџ€ёёџџџџёё€ѓѓџџџџѓё‚,PXџџџџџџхb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ѓѓџџџџѓёx(Xџџџџџџцb:FџџџџnпХЧџџџџ€ХХџџџџХХ€ЧЧџџџџЧХ‚,PXџџџџџџцb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЧЧџџџџЧХx(Xџџџџџџцb:FџџџџxпХЫџџџџ€ХХџџџџХХ€ЫЫџџџџЫХ‚,PXџџџџџџцb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЫЫџџџџЫХx(Xџџџџџџцb:FџџџџŠпиоџџџџ€ииџџџџии€ооџџџџои‚,PXџџџџџџцb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ооџџџџоиx(Xџџџџџџчb:Fџџџџœпџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџ‚,PXџџџџџџчb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџчb:FџџџџЋЌџџџџ€ЋЋџџџџџџЋЋ€ЌЌџџџџЌЋ‚,PXџџџџџџчb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЌЌџџџџЌЋx(Xџџџџџџшb:FџџџџЪп:>џџџџ€::џџџџ 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x(Xџџџџџџьb:Fџџџџ8р)0џџџџ€))џџџџMM))€00џџџџ0)‚,PXџџџџџџьb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€00џџџџ0)x(Xџџџџџџьb:Fџџџџ^`џџџџ€aaџџџџ™™aa€``џџџџ`^‚,PXџџџџџџьb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€``џџџџ`^x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџrrџџџџ€rrџџџџrr€rrџџџџrrx@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ‚‚џџџџ€‚‚џџџџff‚‚€‚‚џџџџ‚‚x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ88џџџџ€88џџџџff88€88џџџџ88x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ88џџџџ€88џџџџ88€88џџџџ88x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ88џџџџ€88џџџџff88€88џџџџ88x(Xџџџџџџьb:Fџџџџ89џџџџ€88џџџџ88€99џџџџ98‚,PXџџџџџџьb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€99џџџџ98x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ22џџџџ€22џџџџ22€22џџџџ22x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ22џџџџ€22џџџџ22€22џџџџ22x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ22џџџџ€22џџџџ]22€22џџџџ22x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ22џџџџ€22џџџџ]22€22џџџџ22x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ22џџџџ€22џџџџ22€22џџџџ22x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ22џџџџ€22џџџџ]22€22џџџџ22x@(џџџџџџ(ўьb:Fџџџџ22џџџџ€22џџџџ]22€22џџџџ22x(Xџџџџџџьb:FџџџџLрљћџџџџ€љљџџџџ]љљ€ћћџџџџћљ‚,PXџџџџџџьb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ћћџџџџћљx(Xџџџџџџэb:FџџџџVрГЕџџџџ€ГГџџџџ]ГГ€ЕЕџџџџЕГ‚,PXџџџџџџэb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЕЕџџџџЕГx@(џџџџџџ(ўэb:FџџџџЪЪџџџџ€ЪЪџџџџЪЪ€ЪЪџџџџЪЪx@(џџџџџџ(ўэb:FџџџџЪЪџџџџ€ЪЪџџџџллЪЪ€ЪЪџџџџЪЪx(Xџџџџџџюb:Fџџџџ`рZ_џџџџ€ZZџџџџooZZ€__џџџџ_Z‚,PXџџџџџџюb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€__џџџџ_Zx(Xџџџџџџюb:Fџџџџpрquџџџџ€qqџџџџqq€uuџџџџuq‚,PXџџџџџџюb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€uuџџџџuqx(Xџџџџџџюb:Fџџџџ~р…‰џџџџ€……џџџџ……€‰‰џџџџ‰…‚,PXџџџџџџюb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€‰‰џџџџ‰…x@(џџџџџџ(ўюb:Fџџџџџџџџ€џџџџ€џџџџx(Xџџџџџџюb:Fџџџџ‚џџџџ€џџџџ€‚‚џџџџ‚‚,PXџџџџџџюb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€‚‚џџџџ‚x@(џџџџџџ(ўюb:Fџџџџ„„џџџџ€„„џџџџ„„€„„џџџџ„„x(Xџџџџџџюb:Fџџџџ„…џџџџ€„„џџџџ„„€……џџџџ…„‚,PXџџџџџџюb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€……џџџџ…„x@(џџџџџџ(ўюb:Fџџџџˆˆџџџџ€ˆˆџџџџˆˆ€ˆˆџџџџˆˆx(Xџџџџџџюb:Fџџџџˆ‰џџџџ€ˆˆџџџџˆˆ€‰‰џџџџ‰ˆ‚,PXџџџџџџюb:FџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€‰‰џџџџ‰ˆx@(-џџџџџџрљяb:Fџџџџ 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ƒeЂeџџџџ€ЃeЃeџџџџююЃeЃe€ЂeЂeџџџџЂeƒe‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЂeЂeџџџџЂeƒex(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ Чfцfџџџџ€чfчfџџџџKKчfчf€цfцfџџџџцfЧf‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€цfцfџџџџцfЧfx(XџџџџџџлkfџџџџLgYgџџџџ€ZgZgџџџџ‰‰ZgZg€YgYgџџџџYgLg‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€YgYgџџџџYgLgx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ =h\hџџџџ€]h]hџџџџ==]h]h€\h\hџџџџ\h=h‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€\h\hџџџџ\h=hx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџiiџџџџ€iiџџџџ‰‰ii€iiџџџџii‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€iiџџџџiix(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ Ojnjџџџџ€ojojџџџџ22ojoj€njnjџџџџnjOj‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€njnjџџџџnjOjx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ œjЛjџџџџ€МjМjџџџџœœМjМj€ЛjЛjџџџџЛjœj‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЛjЛjџџџџЛjœjx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ ŸkОkџџџџ€ПkПkџџџџѓѓПkПk€ОkОkџџџџОkŸk‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€ОkОkџџџџОkŸkx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ :lYlџџџџ€ZlZlџџџџ„„ZlZl€YlYlџџџџYl:l‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€YlYlџџџџYl:lx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџыmnџџџџ€nnџџџџффnn€nnџџџџnыm‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџuvўџџџS@€џџџџ€nnџџџџnыmx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ Дqгqџџџџ€дqдqџџџџѓѓдqдq€гqгqџџџџгqДq‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€гqгqџџџџгqДqx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ ct‚tџџџџ€ƒtƒtџџџџƒtƒt€‚t‚tџџџџ‚tct‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€‚t‚tџџџџ‚tctx(XџџџџџџлkfџџџџMuMuџџџџ€NuNuџџџџРРNuNu€MuMuџџџџMuMu‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€MuMuџџџџMuMux(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџўuўuџџџџ€џuџuџџџџшшџuџu€ўuўuџџџџўuўu‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ўuўuџџџџўuўux(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџˆvˆvџџџџ€‰v‰vџџџџ‰v‰v€ˆvˆvџџџџˆvˆv‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ˆvˆvџџџџˆvˆvx(XџџџџџџлkfџџџџNwNwџџџџ€OwOwџџџџЇЇOwOw€NwNwџџџџNwNw€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€NwNwџџџџNwNwx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ џw xџџџџ€ x xџџџџљљ x x€ x xџџџџ xџw€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ x xџџџџ xџwxм(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџyyџџџџ€yyџџџџээyy€yyџџџџyyx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ y>yџџџџ€?y?yџџџџEE?y?y€>y>yџџџџ>yy€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€>y>yџџџџ>yyx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ Зyжyџџџџ€зyзyџџџџzzзyзy€жyжyџџџџжyЗy€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€жyжyџџџџжyЗyx(XџџџџџџлkfџџџџСzСzџџџџ€ТzТzџџџџ№№ТzТz€СzСzџџџџСzСz€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€СzСzџџџџСzСzx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ вzёzџџџџ€ђzђzџџџџыыђzђz€ёzёzџџџџёzвz€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ёzёzџџџџёzвzx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ Э{ь{џџџџ€э{э{џџџџѕѕэ{э{€ь{ь{џџџџь{Э{€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ь{ь{џџџџь{Э{x(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ D|c|џџџџ€d|d|џџџџЫЫd|d|€c|c|џџџџc|D|€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€c|c|џџџџc|D|x(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ<єї| }џџџџ€ } }џџџџ } }€ } }џџџџ }ї|€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ } }џџџџ }ї|x(XџџџџџџлkfџџџџFє }"}џџџџ€!}!}џџџџ!}!}€"}"}џџџџ"} }€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€"}"}џџџџ"} }x(XџџџџџџлkfџџџџPє"};}џџџџ€:}:}џџџџ:}:}€;};}џџџџ;}"}€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€;};}џџџџ;}"}x(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџђzѓzџџџџ€ђzђzџџџџђzђz€ѓzѓzџџџџѓzђz€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ѓzѓzџџџџѓzђzx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ  џџџџ€ЁЁџџџџффЁЁ€  џџџџ €(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€  џџџџ x(XџџџџџџлkfџџџџZє Вгџџџџ€ввџџџџвв€ггџџџџгВ€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ггџџџџгВx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџdєгшџџџџ€ччџџџџчч€шшџџџџшг€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€шшџџџџшгx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџnє € €џџџџ€Ÿ€Ÿ€џџџџŸ€Ÿ€€ € €џџџџ €€€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ € €џџџџ €€x(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџxє €Е€џџџџ€Д€Д€џџџџД€Д€€Е€Е€џџџџЕ€ €€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€Е€Е€џџџџЕ€ €x(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ аяџџџџ€№№џџџџ№№€яяџџџџяа€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€яяџџџџяаx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ Т‹с‹џџџџ€т‹т‹џџџџт‹т‹€с‹с‹џџџџс‹Т‹€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€с‹с‹џџџџс‹Т‹x(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ гђџџџџ€ѓѓџџџџѓѓ€ђђџџџџђг€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ђђџџџџђгx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ Ф‘у‘џџџџ€ф‘ф‘џџџџооф‘ф‘€у‘у‘џџџџу‘Ф‘€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€у‘у‘џџџџу‘Ф‘x(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ ☸˜џџџџ€ђ˜ђ˜џџџџТТђ˜ђ˜€ё˜ё˜џџџџё˜в˜€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ё˜ё˜џџџџё˜в˜x(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ hœ‡œџџџџ€ˆœˆœџџџџ„„ˆœˆœ€‡œ‡œџџџџ‡œhœ€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€‡œ‡œџџџџ‡œhœx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ 1џџџџ€22џџџџ„„22€11џџџџ1€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€11џџџџ1x(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ Њ Щ џџџџ€Ъ Ъ џџџџППЪ Ъ €Щ Щ џџџџЩ Њ €(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€Щ Щ џџџџЩ Њ x(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ KЁjЁџџџџ€kЁkЁџџџџ$$kЁkЁ€jЁjЁџџџџjЁKЁ€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€jЁjЁџџџџjЁKЁx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ ЋЂЪЂџџџџ€ЫЂЫЂџџџџССЫЂЫЂ€ЪЂЪЂџџџџЪЂЋЂ€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ЪЂЪЂџџџџЪЂЋЂx(XџџџџџџлkfџџџџєЂјЂџџџџ€љЂљЂџџџџыыљЂљЂ€јЂјЂџџџџјЂєЂ€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€јЂјЂџџџџјЂєЂx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ -ЄLЄџџџџ€MЄMЄџџџџ..MЄMЄ€LЄLЄџџџџLЄ-Є€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€LЄLЄџџџџLЄ-Єx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ ВЃбЃџџџџ€вЃвЃџџџџвЃвЃ€бЃбЃџџџџбЃВЃ€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€бЃбЃџџџџбЃВЃx(XџџџџџџлkfџџџџљЂњЂџџџџ€љЂљЂџџџџљЂљЂ€њЂњЂџџџџњЂљЂ€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€њЂњЂџџџџњЂљЂx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ ЄЉУЉџџџџ€ФЉФЉџџџџ––ФЉФЉ€УЉУЉџџџџУЉЄЉ€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€УЉУЉџџџџУЉЄЉxм(XџџџџџџлkfџџџџGАcАџџџџ€dАdАџџџџййdАdА€cАcАџџџџcАGАx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ№А Бџџџџ€ Б Бџџџџ Б Б€ Б Бџџџџ Б№А€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ Б Бџџџџ Б№Аx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ ЗБжБџџџџ€зБзБџџџџѓѓзБзБ€жБжБџџџџжБЗБ€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€жБжБџџџџжБЗБx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ Г'Гџџџџ€(Г(Гџџџџзз(Г(Г€'Г'Гџџџџ'ГГ€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€'Г'Гџџџџ'ГГx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ ^Д}Дџџџџ€~Д~ДџџџџТТ~Д~Д€}Д}Дџџџџ}Д^Д€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€}Д}Дџџџџ}Д^Дx(XџџџџџџлkfџџџџьДѓДџџџџ€єДєДџџџџєДєД€ѓДѓДџџџџѓДьД€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ѓДѓДџџџџѓДьДx(XџџџџџџлkfџџџџыЗыЗџџџџ€ьЗьЗџџџџ„„ьЗьЗ€ыЗыЗџџџџыЗыЗ€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ыЗыЗџџџџыЗыЗx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ ЪИщИџџџџ€ъИъИџџџџnnъИъИ€щИщИџџџџщИЪИ€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€щИщИџџџџщИЪИx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ DПcПџџџџ€dПdПџџџџппdПdП€cПcПџџџџcПDП€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€cПcПџџџџcПDПx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ ОПнПџџџџ€оПоПџџџџууоПоП€нПнПџџџџнПОП€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€нПнПџџџџнПОПx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ *РIРџџџџ€JРJРџџџџnnJРJР€IРIРџџџџIР*Р€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€IРIРџџџџIР*Рx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ “РВРџџџџ€ГРГРџџџџ==ГРГР€ВРВРџџџџВГЈ(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ВРВРџџџџВР“Рx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ БФаФџџџџ€бФбФџџџџ==бФбФ€аФаФџџџџаФБФ€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€аФаФџџџџаФБФx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ _Ц~Цџџџџ€ЦЦџџџџ„„ЦЦ€~Ц~Цџџџџ~Ц_Ц€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€~Ц~Цџџџџ~Ц_Цx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ ŸЬОЬџџџџ€ПЬПЬџџџџ!!ПЬПЬ€ОЬОЬџџџџОЬŸЬ€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ОЬОЬџџџџОЬŸЬx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ .гMгџџџџ€NгNгџџџџииNгNг€MгMгџџџџMг.г€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€MгMгџџџџMг.гx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ е>еџџџџ€?е?еџџџџЗЗ?е?е€>е>еџџџџ>ее€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€>е>еџџџџ>ееx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ ƒжЂжџџџџ€ЃжЃжџџџџKKЃжЃж€ЂжЂжџџџџЂжƒж€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ЂжЂжџџџџЂжƒжx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ ~ззџџџџ€žзžзџџџџ==žзžз€ззџџџџз~з€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ззџџџџз~зx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ #зBзџџџџ€CзCзџџџџCзCз€BзBзџџџџBз#з€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€BзBзџџџџBз#зx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ 8иWиџџџџ€XиXиџџџџnnXиXи€WиWиџџџџWи8и€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€WиWиџџџџWи8иx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ 5йTйџџџџ€UйUйџџџџŸŸUйUй€TйTйџџџџTй5й€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€TйTйџџџџTй5йx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ к:кџџџџ€;к;кџџџџяя;к;к€:к:кџџџџ:кк€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€:к:кџџџџ:ккx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ кЎкџџџџ€ЏкЏкџџџџККЏкЏк€ЎкЎкџџџџЎкк€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ЎкЎкџџџџЎккx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ Oлnлџџџџ€oлoлџџџџ==oлoл€nлnлџџџџnлOл€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€nлnлџџџџnлOлx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџирпрџџџџ€ррррџџџџрррр€прпрџџџџприр€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€прпрџџџџприрx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ сžсџџџџ€ŸсŸсџџџџффŸсŸс€žсžсџџџџžсс€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€žсžсџџџџžссx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ ЌцЫцџџџџ€ЬцЬцџџџџnnЬцЬц€ЫцЫцџџџџЫцЌц€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ЫцЫцџџџџЫцЌцx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ њя№џџџџ€№№џџџџ))№№€№№џџџџ№њя€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€№№џџџџ№њяx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ№6№џџџџ€7№7№џџџџГГ7№7№€6№6№џџџџ6№№€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€6№6№џџџџ6№№x(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ gѓ†ѓџџџџ€‡ѓ‡ѓџџџџ  ‡ѓ‡ѓ€†ѓ†ѓџџџџ†ѓgѓ€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€†ѓ†ѓџџџџ†ѓgѓx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџвїзїџџџџ€иїиїџџџџффиїиї€зїзїџџџџзївї€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€зїзїџџџџзївїx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџзїыїџџџџ€ьїьїџџџџnnьїьї€ыїыїџџџџыїзї€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ыїыїџџџџыїзїx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџшјљјџџџџ€њјњјџџџџњјњј€љјљјџџџџљјшј€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€љјљјџџџџљјшјx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ §љњџџџџ€њњџџџџeeњњ€њњџџџџњ§љ€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€њњџџџџњ§љx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ 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!"#$%&'()*+,-./01234ўџџџџџџџџџџџ9џџџџoџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџџDG§џџџ§џџџHџJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~€Comic Sans MS? Courier New5 Tahoma"1ˆ№ФЉЖ“k&dлkfŒ“k&ќ(Ÿщwђь№ЅРДД€4dч­№пџџLCross-cultural research with the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence TestsINSTITUTO DE PSICOLOGIADolf Hartsuiker@L(ђ Т@И`Š–Тќ(Ÿщўџ еЭеœ.“—+,љЎ04 hp|„Œ” œЄЌД М 'UnBђwчЯ MCross-cultural research with the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Tests TitleWord.Document.8ўџџџџџ РFMicrosoft Word DocumentўџџџNB6Wўџ р…ŸђљOhЋ‘+'Гй0Ш˜№ќ(8 P\ x „  œЈАИР'MCross-cultural research with the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence TestsOorosINSTITUTO DE PSICOLOGIANSTNormalTDolf Hartsuiker14fMicrosoft Word 9.0O@Ff@аТth one subtest of the SON-R 5.5 older children, the SON-R 2.5t al., 1998) and the SON-R 5.54 134,@Є@$AœAB”Bx(Xџџџџџџcлkfџџџџ \{џџџџ€||џџџџCC||€{{џџџџ{\€(PXџџџџџџcлkfџџџџuuўџџџ€џџџџ€{{џџџџ{\x(Xџџџџџџdлkfџџџџ <*Z*џџџџ€\*\*џџџџыы\*\*€Z*Z*џџџџZ*<*€(PXџџџџџџdлkfџџџџuuўџџџ€џџџџ€Z*Z*џџџџZ*<*x(Xџџџџџџdлkfџџџџ *,*џџџџ€.*.*џџџџ.*.*€,*,*џџџџ,**€(PXџџџџџџdлkfџџџџuuўџџџ€џџџџ€,*,*џџџџ,**ьЅС3 єПT!jbjb^^^^^^^^^Wh<h<„‚џџџџџџlЛчЛэЛэЛэЛэЛэЃяФеее8 ly!d gEIp—+—+"Й+Й+Й+Й+Й+Й+Т@Ф@Ф@Ф@Ф@Ф@Ф@,ЕJ еL№@UЛэЙ+Й+Й+Й+Й+№@9;ЛэЛэЙ+Й+y+9;9;9;Й+ ЛэЙ+ЛэЙ+Т@9;ЯэъЙюъЛэЛэЛэЛэЙ+Т@9;и9;@j@ЛэЛэšœўџџb "@"’@н*œЖl Кgnеб5h‚@Ў@EIEIŠ@уM9;уMЎ@9;Ух Cross-cultural research with the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Tests Jaap A. Laros 1 and Peter J. Tellegen 2 1 University of Brasэlia, Brazil, 2 University of Groningen, The Netherlands Abstract The SON-R 2.5.5-7 and the SON-R 5.5.5-17 are the latest revisions of the Snijders-Oomen nonverbal intelligence test, originally developed in the Netherlands in 1943 for use with deaf children. The tests consist of 6 to 7 subtests mainly focussed on visual-spatial abilities and abstract and concrete reasoning. Research in the Netherlands indicates that the nonverbal SON-R tests are well suited for use with children of ethnic minorities. With traditional tests the cognitive abilities of minority children are often underestimated as a result of their lack of knowledge of the official language. Notwithstanding the favorite research results with minority children in The Netherlands, it cannot simply be assumed that the SON-R tests can be used unmodified in countries which are greatly different from The Netherlands. In this presentation we will discuss results obtained with the SON-R tests in Australia, the USA, Great Britain, China, Peru and Brazil. Introduction With the latest revision and standardization in the Netherlands of the Snijders-Oomen Nonverbal Intelligence Tests, various cross-cultural validation studies have been initiated. The objective of these studies was to verify to which degree the SON-R tests can be used with cultures different from the cultures in Western Europe in general, and different from the cultures in the Netherlands in particular. In other words, the goal of these studies was to discern if, and to what extent adaptations of the material (e.g., test instructions, testing format, examples, items) of the SON-R tests are required for cross-national and cross-cultural use. The reason of the adaptation of the SON-R tests is to be able to assess in a fair way the construct of intelligence in multiple cultures. A crucial phase in the adaptation of conventional tests is the translation of the instrument from the source language into a target language. To obtain an equivalent test in another language or culture not only a translation is needed that preserves the meaning of the verbal test materials, but also additional changes may be necessary to insure the equivalence of the versions of the test in multiple languages or cultures, such as those affecting item format and testing procedures. (Hambleton, 1993). Close correspondence between the original version and the translated version is rџџ€МjМjџџџџœœМjМj€ЛjЛjџџџџЛjœj‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€ЛjЛjџџџџЛjœjx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ ŸkОkџџџџ€ПkПkџџџџѓѓПkПk€ОkОkџџџџОkŸk‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€ОkОkџџџџОkŸkx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ :lYlџџџџ€ZlZlџџџџ„„ZlZl€YlYlџџџџYl:l‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџuuўџџџS@€џџџџ€YlYlџџџџYl:lx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџыmnџџџџ€nnџџџџффnn€nnџџџџnыm‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџuvўџџџS@€џџџџ€nnџџџџnыmx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ Дqгqџџџџ€дqдqџџџџѓѓдqдq€гqгqџџџџгqДq‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€гqгqџџџџгqДqx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ ct‚tџџџџ€ƒtƒtџџџџƒtƒt€‚t‚tџџџџ‚tct‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€‚t‚tџџџџ‚tctx(XџџџџџџлkfџџџџMuMuџџџџ€NuNuџџџџРРNuNu€MuMuџџџџMuMu‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€MuMuџџџџMuMux(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџўuўuџџџџ€џuџuџџџџшшџuџu€ўuўuџџџџўuўu‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ўuўuџџџџўuўux(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџˆvˆvџџџџ€‰v‰vџџџџ‰v‰v€ˆvˆvџџџџˆvˆv‚,PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџS@€џџџџ€ˆvˆvџџџџˆvˆvьЅС3 єП H‰ jbjb^^^^^^^^^Wh<h<џџџџџџl‚’(––––lƒd (+фp & F­F­F­F­F­F­F­ЎЎЎЎЎЎЎ›х 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l8ф8x(Xџџџџџџ6лkfџџџџ EEџџџџ€EEџџџџ‘‘EE€EEџџџџE E€(PXџџџџџџ6лkfџџџџuuўџџџ€џџџџ€EEџџџџE ESON-R 5.5he application of the SON-R 2.59 68"e "DМ<Д4 Ќ ,!Є!$"œ"#”#$Œ$ %„%&|&ќ&t'є'l(ь(d)ф)\*м*T+д+L,Ь,D-Ф-<.М.4/Д/,0Ќ0$1Є12œ23”3 4x(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ к:кџџџџ€;к;кџџџџяя;к;к€:к:кџџџџ:кк€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€:к:кџџџџ:ккx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ кЎкџџџџ€ЏкЏкџџџџККЏкЏк€ЎкЎкџџџџЎкк€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ЎкЎкџџџџЎккx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ Oлnлџџџџ€oлoлџџџџ==oлoл€nлnлџџџџnлOл€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€nлnлџџџџnлOлx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџирпрџџџџ€ррррџџџџрррр€о о џџџџо Э x(XџџџџџџлkfџџџџS ` џџџџ€a a џџџџa a €` ` џџџџ` S €(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€` ` џџџџ` S x(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ ЉШџџџџ€ЩЩџџџџууЩЩ€ШШџџџџШЉ€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ШШџџџџШЉx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџjjџџџџ€kkџџџџkk€jjџџџџjj€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€jjџџџџjjx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ =џџџџ€>>џџџџ>>€==џџџџ=€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€==џџџџ=x(Xџџџџџџ%лkfџџџџ++џџџџ€++џџџџчч++€++џџџџ++€(PXџџџџџџ%лkfџџџџvuўџџџ€џџџџ€++џџџџ++x(Xџџџџџџ%лkfџџџџ +!+џџџџ€#+#+џџџџ§§#+#+€!+!+џџџџ!++€(PXџџџџџџ%лkfџџџџuuўџџџ€џџџџ€!+!+џџџџ!++x(Xџџџџџџ&лkfџџџџ++џџџџ€++џџџџ++€++џџџџ++€(PXџџџџџџ&лkfџџџџuuўџџџ€џџџџ€++џџџџ++x(Xџџџџџџ3лkfџџџџщ/ѕ/џџџџ€ї/ї/џџџџї/ї/€ѕ/ѕ/џџџџѕ/щ/€(PXџџџџџџ3лkfџџџџuuўџџџ€џџџџ€ѕ/ѕ/џџџџѕ/щ/x(Xџџџџџџ6лkfџџџџ EEџџџџ€EEџџџџ‘‘EE€EEџџџџE E€(PXџџџџџџ6лkfџџџџuuўџџџ€џџџџ€EEџџџџE Ex(Xџџџџџџ:лkfџџџџ _ahaџџџџ€iaiaџџџџ††iaia€hahaџџџџha_a€(PXџџџџџџ:лkfџџџџuuўџџџ€џџџџ€hahaџџџџha_ax(XџџџџџџNлkfџџџџ ŸcОcџџџџ€ПcПcџџџџљљПcПc€ОcОcџџџџОcŸc€(PXџџџџџџNлkfџџџџuuўџџџ€џџџџ€ОcОcџџџџОcŸcАа/ Ар=!А‰"А‰#‰$‰%АSON-R 2.5-7 and the SON-R 5.al intelligence test (SON-R 2.5l intelligence test  Revised 2.5ion research with the SON-R 5.51 9ЏкЏк€ЎкЎкџџџџЎкк€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ЎкЎкџџџџЎккx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ Oлnлџџџџ€oлoлџџџџ==oлoл€nлnлџџџџnлOл€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€nлnлџџџџnлOлx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџирпрџџџџ€ррррџџџџрррр€прпрџџџџприр€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€прпрџџџџприрx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ сžсџџџџ€ŸсŸсџџџџффŸсŸс€žсžсџџџџžсс€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€žсžсџџџџžссx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ ЌцЫцџџџџ€ЬцЬцџџџџnnЬцЬц€ЫцЫцџџџџЫцЌц€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ЫцЫцџџџџЫцЌцx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ њя№џџџџ€№№џџџџ))№№€№№џџџџ№њя€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€№№џџџџ№њяx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ№6№џџџџ€7№7№џџџџГГ7№7№€6№6№џџџџ6№№€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€6№6№џџџџ6№№x(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ gѓ†ѓџџџџ€‡ѓ‡ѓџџџџ  ‡ѓ‡ѓ€†ѓ†ѓџџџџ†ѓgѓ€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€†ѓ†ѓџџџџ†ѓgѓx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџвїзїџџџџ€иїиїџџџџффиїиї€зїзїџџџџзївї€(PXџџзx(Xџџџџџџbлkfџџџџ зпџџџџ€ссџџџџ……сс€ппџџџџпз€(PXџџџџџџbлkfџџџџuuўџџџ€џџџџ€ппџџџџпз212222SON-R 2.5.1€прпрџџџџприр€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€прпрџџџџприрx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ сžсџџџџ€ŸсŸсџџџџффŸсŸс€žсžсџџџџžсс€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€žсžсџџџџžссx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ ЌцЫцџџџџ€ЬцЬцџџџџnnЬцЬц€ЫцЫцџџџџЫцЌц€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€ЫцЫцџџџџЫцЌцx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ њя№џџџџ€№№џџџџ))№№€№№џџџџ№њя€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€№№џџџџ№њяx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ№6№џџџџ€7№7№џџџџГГ7№7№€6№6№џџџџ6№№€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€6№6№џџџџ6№№x(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџ gѓ†ѓџџџџ€‡ѓ‡ѓџџџџ  ‡ѓ‡ѓ€†ѓ†ѓџџџџ†ѓgѓ€(PXџџџџџџлkfџџџџvvўџџџ€џџџџ€†ѓ†ѓџџџџ†ѓgѓx(Xџџџџџџлkfџџџџвїзїџџџџ€иїиїџџџџффиїиї€зїзїџџџџзївї€(PXџџзx(Xџџџџџџbлkfџџџџ зпџџџџ€ссџџџџ……сс€ппџџџџпз€(PXџџџџџџbлkfџџџџuuўџџџ€џџџџ€ппџџџџпз212222SON-R 2.5.1th one subtest of the SON-R 5.5 older children, the SON-R 2.5t al., 1998) and the SON-R 5.54 134,@Є@$AœAB”Bx(Xџџџџџџcлkfџџџџ \{џџџџ€||џџџџCC||€{{џџџџ{\€(PXџџџџџџcлkfџџџџuuўџџџ€џџџџ€{{џџџџ{\x(Xџџџџџџdлkfџџџџ <*Z*џџџџ€\*\*џџџџыы\*\*€Z*Z*џџџџZ*<*€(PXџџџџџџdлkfџџџџuuўџџџ€џџџџ€Z*Z*џџџџZ*<*x(Xџџџџџџdлkfџџџџ *,*џџџџ€.*.*џџџџ.*.*€,*,*џџџџ,**€(PXџџџџџџdлkfџџџџuuўџџџ€џџџџ€,*,*џџџџ,**n from Morocco, Turkey, Surinam3 4