ࡱ> `b]^_cxu gbjbj]] {+7f7f{m(6%6%6%6%6%J%J%J%8%&J%n'@*"+++,..Hlllllll$Rqt#m6%.k,",..#m6%6%++gmj222.6%+6%+l2.l222hk+Z6/+/6j.lVnTnju0u\kk>u6%k2...#m#m1...n....u.........X #: Episode 228: The Young modulus The Young modulus is often regarded as the quintessential material property, and students can learn to measure it. It is a measure of the stiffness of a material; however, in practice, other properties of materials, scientists and engineers are often interested in, such as yield stress, have more influence on the selection of materials for a particular purpose. Lesson Summary Discussion: Defining the Young modulus (20 minutes) Student activity: Studying data (20 minutes) Student experiment: Measuring the Young modulus (60 minutes) Student experiment: An alternative approach using a cantilever (30 minutes) Discussion: Comparing experimental approaches (10 minutes) Student questions: Involving the Young modulus (30 minutes) Discussion: Defining the Young modulus A typical value ofkmight be60Nm-1. What does this mean? (60Nwill stretch the sample1m.) What would happen in practice if you did stretch a sample by1m? (It will probably snap!) A measure of stiffness that isindependentof the particular sample of a substance is the Young modulusE. Recall other examples you have already met ofsample independentproperties that only depend upon the substance itself: density=mass/volume electrical resistivity=resistance נ area/length specific heating capacity=energy transferred/mass x temperature difference thermal conductivity=power נ length/area x temperature difference We need tocorrectkfor sample shape and size (i.e. length and surface area).  HYPERLINK "https://spark.iop.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/episode-228-1-the-young-modulus.doc" Episode 228-1: The Young modulus (Word, 53 KB) - see end of document Note the definitions, symbols and units used: QuantityDefinitionSymbolUnitsStressTension/area=F/A(sigma)Nm-2={PaStrainextension per original length=x/x(epsilon)No units (because it s a ratio of two lengths)Young modulusStress/strainENm-2=PaStrains can be quoted in several ways: as a %, or decimal. E.g. a 5% strain is 0.05.  HYPERLINK "https://spark.iop.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/episode-228-2-hooke-s-law-and-the-young-modulus.doc" Episode 228-2: Hooke's law and the Young modulus(Word, 75 KB) - see end of document Student activity: Studying data It is helpful if students can learn to find their way around tables of material properties. Give your students a table and ask them to find values of the Young modulus. Note that values are often given inGPa(1נ109Pa).  INCLUDEPICTURE "https://spark.iop.org/sites/default/files/image/measuring-the-young-modulus-using-vernier-scale.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Some interesting values ofE: DNA~108Pa spaghetti (dry)~109Pa cotton thread~1010Pa plant cell walls~1011Pa carbon fullerene nanotubes~1012Pa  HYPERLINK "https://spark.iop.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/episode-228-3-materials-database.doc" Episode 228-3: Materials database(Word, 115 KB) - see end of document Student experiment: Measuring the Young modulus You can make measuring the Young modulusEa more interesting lab exercise than one which simply follows a recipe. Ask students to identify the quantities to be measured, how they might be measured, and so on. At the end, you could show the standard version of this experiment (with Vernier scale etc.) and point out how the problems have been minimized. What needs to be measured? Look at the definition: we need to measure load (easy), cross-sectional areaA, original lengthx0(so make it reasonably long), and extension x. Problems? Original length  what does this correspond to for a particular experimental set up? Cross-sectional area: introduce the use of micrometer and/or vernier callipers. Is the sample uniform? If sample gets longer, wont it get thinner? Extension wont it be quite small? Should the sample be arranged vertically or horizontally? Divide the class up into pairs and brainstorm possible methods of measuring the quantities above, including the pros and cons of their methods. Some possibilities for measuring x: Attach a pointers to the wire Pro: measures xdirectly Con: may affect the sample; only moves a small distance Attach a pointer to the load Pro: measures xdirectly, does not effect the sample Con: only moves a small distance Attach a pulley wheel Pro:amplifiesthe x Con: need to convert angular measure to linear measure, introduces friction Attach a pointer to the pulley wheel Pro:amplifiesthe xeven more Con: need to convert angular measure to linear measure, introduces friction Exploit an optical level Pro: africtionlesspointer,amplifiesthe xeven more Con: need to convert angular measure to linear measure, more tricky to setup? Illuminate the pointer etc to produce a magnified shadow of the movement Pro: easy to see movement Con: need to calculate magnification, can be knocked out of place use a lever system to amplify or diminish the load and provide a pointer Pro: useful for more delicate or stiff samples; can use smaller loads Con: fixing the sample so it doesntslip, need to convert angular measure to linear measure Different groups could try the different ideas they come up with. Depending upon the time available, it may be worth having some of the ideas already set up.  INCLUDEPICTURE "https://spark.iop.org/sites/default/files/media/images/Equipment%20to%20measure%20Young%20modulus%20of%20a%20metal%20wire.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Give different groups different materials, cut to different sizes, for example: metal wires (copper, manganin, constantan etc), nylon (fishing line), human hair (attach in a loop using Sellotape), rubber. Note that in the set up above, the sample is at an angle to the ruler a source of systematic error. Safety Students should wear eye protection, provide safe landing for the load should sample break, e.g. a box containing old cloth. For the horizontal set up:bridgesover the sample to trap the flying ends, should the sample snap.  INCLUDEPICTURE "https://spark.iop.org/sites/default/files/image/equipment-to-measure-stiffness-of-material.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Good experimental practice: measure extension when adding to the load and when unloading, to check for any plastic behaviour.  HYPERLINK "https://spark.iop.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/episode-228-4-measuring-the-stiffness-of-a-material.doc" Episode 228-4: Measuring the stiffness of a material (Word, 59 KB) - see end of document  HYPERLINK "https://spark.iop.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/episode-228-5-stress-strain-graph-for-mild-steel.doc" Episode 228-5: Stressstrain graph for mild steel (Word, 68 KB) - see end of document Information about the use of precision instruments (micrometer screw gauge, Vernier callipers and Vernier microscope).  HYPERLINK "https://spark.iop.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/episode-228-6-measure-for-measure.doc" Episode 228-6: Measure for measure (Word, 82 KB) - see end of document Student experiment: An alternative approach using a cantilever An alternative approach to measuring the Young modulus is to bend a cantilever. (Potential engineering students will benefit greatly from this.) For samples too stiff to extend easily (e.g. wooden or plastic rulers, spaghetti, glass fibres) the deflectionyof a cantilever is often quite easy to measure and is directly related to its Young modulusE. If the weight of the cantilever itself ismg, and the added load isMgandLis the length of the cantilever (the distance from where the cantilever is supportedtowhere the load is applied): For a rectangular cross section, dimension in the direction of the load isd,other dimension isb y = 4 (Mg + 5mg/16)L 3 E bd 3 (for square cross-sectiond=b) For a circular cross-section radiusr y = 4 (Mg + 5mg/16)L 3 3 r 4E Discussion: Comparing experimental approaches Finish with a short plenary session to compare the pros and cons of the different experimental approaches. Student questions: Involving the Young modulus Questions involving stress, strain and the Young modulus, including data-handling.  HYPERLINK "https://spark.iop.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/episode-228-7-calculations-on-stress-strain-and-the-young-modulus.doc" Episode 228-7: Calculations on stress, strain and the Young modulus(Word, 59 KB) - see end of document  HYPERLINK "https://spark.iop.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/episode-228-8-stress-strain-and-the-young-modulus.doc" Episode 228-8: Stress, strain and the Young modulus(Word, 26 KB) - see end of document Episode 228- 1: The Young modulus The Young modulus tells us how a material behaves under stress.   Practical advice This physics box could be used as an OHT for discussion. Alternative approaches The page could be printed out for students to add to their notes for revision. External references This activity is taken from Advancing Physics Chapter 4, 50O Episode 228- 2: Hooke's law and the Young modulus Purpose The Young modulus tells you about what happens when a material is stretched how stiff is it? You have probably done an experiment to see how stiff a spring is. This reading explains how these two ideas are related. Relating stretching materials to stretching springs  You have probably done an experiment like the one shown here; use a load to stretch a spring, and the increase in length (extension) of the spring is proportional to the load. If a spring (or anything else) behaves like this, with extension proportional to load, we say that it obeys Hooke's law. At first, if you remove the load, the spring returns to its original length. This is elastic behaviour. Eventually, the load is so great that the spring becomes permanently deformed. You have passed the elastic limit.  A graph is a good way to show this behaviour, one way is above, but it's usual to plot load on the y-axis and extension on the x-axis so that the spring constant k is measured in Nm-1 is the slope of the graph. (For the reason see:  HYPERLINK "TAP227-2-Hooke's-law.doc" TAP 227-2: Tension and extension) The initial straight-line part of the graph shows that the extension is proportional to the load. After the elastic limit, the graph is no longer linear. Remove the load, and the spring is permanently stretched. The initial slope of the load vs. extension graph shows how stiff the spring is how many Newtons are needed to produce each centimetre (or metre) of extension. This is sometimes called the spring's stiffness or spring constant k. Now compare this with the stressstrain graph for a copper wire.  The initial straight-line part of the graph shows that the strain is proportional to the stress. After the elastic limit or yield point, the graph is no longer linear. Remove the load, and the wire is permanently stretched. From the initial slope of the graph, we can deduce the Young modulus. The graph will bend the same way to the Hooke's law graph if Tension is on the y-axis and extension on the x-axis. From the definitions of stress and strain, you should see that: stress corresponds to load strain corresponds to extension Practical advice At pre-16 level (or earlier), most students will have carried out a spring-stretching experiment. They may not be familiar with the formal term 'Hooke's law'. This reading relates the measurement of the Young modulus to Hooke's law; students may need help with the idea of proportionality, and how this can be deduced from a graph. The reading also considers the non-linear part of the graph. Conventionally, the axes are reversed for the Young modulus graph. Social and human context Robert Hooke and Thomas Young are both interesting characters who have far more to them than this relationship. External references This activity is taken from Advancing Physics Chapter 4, reading 40S Episode 228- 3: Materials database Here are data for about a dozen properties of some 50 materials in Excel spreadsheet format. You can create lists ordered by property, search for materials with properties in certain ranges, etc. To compare pairs of properties, it is best to use the selection charts. If you double click on the chart below it will open as an Excel spreadsheet that can be copied and used.  EMBED Excel.Sheet.8  Possible uses of the spreadsheet: 1. Simple reference source for materials data e.g. to solve quantitative problems involving materials selection, e.g. perhaps calculate the necessary thickness for required thickness or strength of a cantilever. 2. Sort by property, e.g. which are the ten toughest materials in the database? 3. Search with logical operators, e.g. find all materials in the database stiffer than X, stronger than Y, less dense than Z. Try doing this by reading the information from a couple of charts. 4. Explore combinations of material properties not provided as selection charts e.g. plot modulus against strength. Note that single 'typical' values are provided in the database rather than the full range, so this does give a true selection chart, but can identify interesting trends. 5. Design problems often lead to combinations of properties for which high or low values are required. A common example is 'specific stiffness' (the Young modulus divided by density), which gives an indication of materials which are light and stiff. Specific stiffness and strength are shown in one of the selection charts. Other compound properties for particular design problems could be calculated and plotted using the spreadsheet. Also provided, below is a data that provides definitions of the materials in the database, and summarises their strengths and weaknesses in engineering design, typical applications and environmental notes. This is a useful reference source for materials. Not all will be needed. Materials information Double click on the icon below to access a materials database. This is an html document and will activate internet explorer. It has been virus checked.  EMBED Package  Practical advice This database has many potential uses e.g. comparison of experimental values. Alternative approaches Data books may be used to augment the information provided here. It has been deliberately provided in an open format. Social and human context The ability to search, sort and calculate adds value to raw data. External References This activity is taken from Advancing Physics Chapter 4, file 10D Episode 228- 4: Measuring the stiffness of a material Stressstrain curves are used to measure stiffness In this experiment, you will load a wire and record its extension for each load, plotting a graph of the results. From this, you will be able to calculate the Young modulus for the material of the wire. The Young modulus is given by the slope of your graph, and is a measure of the stiffness of the material for the steeper the gradient, the stiffer (harder to extend) the material. Collect these to start G clamp, 10 cm jaw 2 wooden blocks single pulley on a bench clamp metre rule adhesive tape to make marker cardboard bridges mass hanger with slotted masses, 100 g wire samples: 0.08 mm stainless steel, 0.28 mm copper, 0.20 mm iron nylon monofilament, 2 kg breaking strain safety spectacles Safety The load should not be too high off the floor, and there should be a suitable soft landing platform (not your feet!) if (when) the sample breaks. Use eye protection beware of the fibre whipping back if it breaks. Do not lean over the stretched fibre. Strained wires store lots of energy. When they break, this is released over a very short time period. It is very important that safety spectacles are worn and that the cardboard bridges are fitted. The cardboard bridges are heavy angled pieces of corrugated cardboard which sit over the wire to prevent it flying back. If cardboard of large mass per square metre is not available then glue wooden blocks to the bottom of less massive card angles and thread the wire through the resulting triangles.  Procedure This experiment requires you to measure small lengths and small changes in position. Only the simplest technique is given here you should be able to modify the experiment to produce more valid results. 1. Stretch the wire and fix it horizontally along the bench as shown in the diagram.  2. Make a marker from adhesive tape and attach it to the wire so that it is at least 2 m from the clamp and about 50 cm from the pulley. The marker should line up with the metre rule, so it can be used to measure the extension of the wire. Make a loop in the end of the wire to be loaded, to hang the weights from (a knot will weaken it). 3. Measure and record the original length from the clamp to the marker, with a small (1 N) load to stretch out the wire. 4. Increase the load gradually in steps of 1 N until the wire snaps. Record the load and the corresponding extension in each case. Calculating the Young modulus 1. Convert your readings of load into stress: (1 mm2 = 106 m2) Convert the readings of extension into strain: both extension and original length being measured in the same units. 2. Now plot stress (y axis) against strain (x axis). 3. Find the slope of your graph to obtain a value for the Young modulus. Compare it to the value given in the database.  HYPERLINK "TAP228-3-Young-modulus.doc" TAP 228-3: Materials database Practical advice This version of the tensile testing could be extended to materials such as cotton thread or hair if the diameter could be estimated or measured using a micrometer. Point out features such as necking the localised narrowing of the wire before fracture and if time permits, examine the fracture surfaces with a magnifying glass. Safety The load should not be too high off the floor, and there should be a suitable soft landing platform (not your feet!) if (when) the sample breaks. Use eye protection beware of the fibre whipping back if it breaks. Do not lean over the stretched fibre. Strained wires store lots of energy. When they break this is released over a very short time period. It is very important that safety spectacles are worn and that the cardboard bridges are fitted. The cardboard bridges are heavy angled pieces of corrugated cardboard which sit over the wire to prevent it flying back. If cardboard of large mass per square metre is not available then glue wooden blocks to the bottom of less massive card angles and thread the wire through the resulting triangles.  External references This activity is taken from Advancing Physics Chapter 4, 150E Episode 228- 5: Stressstrain graph for mild steel The graph shows how the behaviour of steel changes as the stress increases.  Practical advice This version could have information added during discussion, for example: - Mild steel showing elastic behaviour for small extensions, (Hookes law region), elastic limit, size of strain when fractures (about 40%) Alternative approaches The students could have a hard copy of the graph and add the captions for revision of interpreting stressstrain graphs External references This activity is taken from Advancing Physics Chapter 4, 60O Episode 228- 6: Measure for measure This sheet shows you how to use some precision measuring instruments. The diagram below shows a micrometer screw gauge, which enables you to measure small thicknesses to a high degree of precision.  Above: - Micrometer screw gauge and (right) an example reading The gauge consists of a very accurately threaded screw which, when the thimble is rotated, opens the micrometer's jaws by a precisely known distance. With the most common type, a rotation of the thimble through one revolution opens the jaws by 0.5 mm. The thimble is divided into 50 equal divisions, and so each division represents 0.5 mm/50 or 0.01 mm. The barrel has a datum line graduated in whole millimetres along the top (and some also have half millimetre intervals along the bottom). Initially screw up the micrometer using its ratchet until its jaws are fully closed. Note the reading on the thimble at the datum line usually this will be zero. If there is a reading apart from zero, then this is the zero error and needs to be recorded and allowed for. Zero errors are noted as + if they are above zero and - if they are below 0. They need to be subtracted from or added to the measured reading. Taking a reading See the diagram on the right above. Reading/mmHighest number along the datum line1010.00the next line along datum line is not yet uncovered so the final reading is less than 11 mmReading on thimble16 00.16Uncorrected reading10.16Zero error (below zero)-20.02Corrected reading (add zero error)10.18 Vernier callipers The diagram shows callipers that can measure up to several centimetres to the nearest 0.1 mm by making use of a vernier scale. The upper jaws are used to measure distances internally, e.g. the internal bores of pipes. The lower jaws are used to measure distances externally, e.g. diameters of ball bearings.  When the zero of the vernier scale is exactly opposite one of the mm marks on the main scale, only its zero mark lines up with a mark on the main scale, and all the others are `out of kilter'. If the vernier is advanced by exactly 0.1 mm, then the first vernier mark is aligned with a mark on the main scale. If it is advanced by 0.2 mm, then the second vernier mark is aligned, and so on. The vernier scale thus effectively subdivides the main scale into 0.1 mm divisions.  On the part of the scale shown above the zero on the vernier is just beyond the 22 mm mark, so the reading must be `twenty two point something'. The line of the vernier that exactly matches a graduation on the main scale is the 6, so the vernier must be 0.6 mm beyond the 22 mm mark. Hence the reading is 22.6 mm. Initially you should close the jaws right up in order to note any zero error that needs to be accounted for. If it reads greater than 0 at this stage, then the reading needs to be subtracted from the final one and vice versa. There are other types of callipers (below) having dial and digital LCD and LED displays which are, like the digital micrometer, very straightforward to use.  An applet simulation for vernier callipers is available at  HYPERLINK "http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/java/ruler/vernier.html" http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/java/ruler/vernier.html (This was available in August 2005) Vernier microscope  A vernier microscope, which can be used to measure distances to the nearest 0.01 mm. The vernier scale is identical to that of the vernier callipers except that the divisions are 0.01mm instead of 0.1mm and you need to use a magnifying lens to read it. One use for a vernier microscope is in measuring the internal bore of glass tubing. This is done by moving the microscope carriage on its rack-and-pinion drive by turning the adjusting screw and aligning the cross-wires first on one internal edge of the tube (below) and then on the opposite edge. The bore of the tube is found from the difference between the two readings.  Practical advice It is useful for students to be able to use a micrometer and a vernier scale. You may choose to show this as part of an activity or have a lesson on use of these devices where the materials for the coming activity are measured. External references This activity is taken from Salters Horners Advanced Physics, Section GETE, Additional Sheet 8 Episode 228- 7: Calculations on stress, strain and the Young modulus Practice questions These are provided so that you become more confident with the quantities involved, and with the large and small numbers. Try these A strip of rubber originally 75 mm long is stretched until it is 100 mm long. 1. What is the tensile strain? 2. Why has the answer no units? 3. The greatest tensile stress which steel of a particular sort can withstand without breaking is about 109 N m-2. A wire of cross-sectional area 0.01 mm2 is made of this steel. What is the greatest force that it can withstand? 4. Find the minimum diameter of an alloy cable, tensile strength 75 MPa, needed to support a load of 15 kN. 5. Calculate the tensile stress in a suspension bridge supporting cable, of diameter of 50 mm, which pulls up on the roadway with a force of 4 kN. 6. Calculate the tensile stress in a nylon fishing line of diameter 0.36 mm which a fish is pulling with a force of 20 N 7. A large crane has a steel lifting cable of diameter 36 mm. The steel used has a Young modulus of 200 GPa. When the crane is used to lift 20 kN, the unstretched cable length is 25.0 m. Calculate the extension of the cable. Practical Advice The correct use of quantity algebra will help to remind students to convert mm to m, and similar traps. Answers and worked solutions 1. EMBED Equation.3 EMBED Equation.3 Strain = 0.33 This is sometimes expressed as a strain of 33%. 2. Strain has mm/mm. These cancel out to give a quantity with no units. 3. EMBED Equation.3 so F = stress x A = 109 N m 2 x 10 8 m2 F = 10 N 4. EMBED Equation.3 so EMBED Equation.3 EMBED Equation.3 Area = 2 x 104 m2 EMBED Equation.3 so EMBED Equation.3 EMBED Equation.3 d = 1.6 x 102 m or 1.6 cm 5. EMBED Equation.3 EMBED Equation.3 =1.96 x 103 m2 EMBED Equation.3 EMBED Equation.3 Stress = 2.0 x 106 N m2 or 2.0 MPa 6. EMBED Equation.3 EMBED Equation.3 = 1.017 x 10-7 m2 EMBED Equation.3 EMBED Equation.3 Stress = 200 MPa 7. 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Materials information

Metals and Alloys

Ceramics

Polymers

Composites

Wood and Wood Products

Aluminium alloys

Overview

Aluminium is a lightweight, reasonably cheap metal widely used for packaging and transport. It has only been widely available and used for the last 60 years.

  • Raw aluminium has low strength and high ductility (ideal for foil). Strength is increased by alloying, e.g. with Si, Mg, Cu, Zn, and heat treatment. Some alloys are cast, others are used for wrought products.
  • Aluminium is quite reactive, but protects itself very effectively with a thin oxide layer. The surface can be "anodised", to resist corrosion and to give decorative effects.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • High strength-to-weight ratio
  • High stiffness-to-weight ratio
  • High electrical and thermal conductivity
  • Easy to shape
  • Easy to recycle

Design weaknesses:

  • Difficult to arc weld

Typical Products

  • Aircraft
  • Bicycles
  • Car engines
  • "Space frame" car bodies
  • Drinks cans
  • Window frames

Environmental issues

  • Aluminium production uses lots of energy (4% of total US energy consumption!)
  • Aluminium is easily recycled - this only uses 1% of the energy needed to produce the metal.
  • Aluminium use in cars is growing rapidly - low weight means good fuel economy and low emissions metal.

Mild steel

Overview

  • Steels are the most important engineering materials, and cover a wide range of alloys based on iron and carbon. The strength of iron-carbon alloys, particularly after heat treatment, has been exploited for thousands of years (since the "Iron Age"). Modern steels and ferrous alloys have mostly been developed since the Industrial Revolution.
  • Mild steel contains 0.1-0.2%C. They are cheap, strong steels used for construction, transport and packaging.
  • All steels have a high density and a high Young's modulus. The strength of mild steel is improved by cold working. It is inherently very tough.
  • Mild steel rusts easily, and must be protected by painting, galvanising or other coatings.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • High strength-to-weight ratio
  • High stiffness-to-weight ratio
  • Good strength with high toughness
  • High stiffness
  • Very cheap
  • Easy to shape
  • Easy to weld
  • Easy to recycle

Design weaknesses:

  • High density
  • Poor electrical and thermal conductivity

Typical Products

  • Large structures - bridges, buildings, oil rigs
  • Car body panels, trains
  • Machine tools
  • Pressure vessels
  • Food packaging
  • Nails

Environmental issues

  • Steel production uses a lot of energy, but less than most metals.
  • Steel is easily recycled - as it is usually magnetic it is easily sorted from mixed waste.

Alloy steels

Overview

  • Steels are the most important engineering materials, and cover a wide range of alloys based on iron and carbon. The strength of iron-carbon alloys, particularly after heat treatment, has been exploited for thousands of years (since the "Iron Age"). Modern steels and ferrous alloys have mostly been developed since the Industrial Revolution.
  • Alloy steels are mostly fairly cheap, covering a range of carbon contents (0.1-1.0%). The medium to high carbon content steels respond well to heat treatment (such as "quenching and tempering") to give very high strength and good toughness for gears, driveshafts, pressure vessels, tools.
  • Alloy steels containing other elements as well as carbon are classified into low alloy and high alloy, depending on the amount of additional alloying elements. Heat-treated high alloy steels give very high strengths, but are more expensive.
  • All steels have a high density and a high Young's modulus. The strength and toughness of alloy steels can be varied enormously by alloying, working and heat treatment.
  • Alloy carbon steels rust easily, and must be protected by painting or other coatings.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • High strength with good toughness
  • High stiffness
  • Mostly very cheap
  • Quite easy to shape
  • Easy to weld
  • Easy to recycle

Design weaknesses:

  • High density
  • Poor electrical and thermal conductivity

Typical Products

  • High integrity structures - oil rigs
  • Bicycles
  • Railway track
  • Bearings, gears, shafts
  • Cutting tools
  • Pressure vessels
  • Hand tools (spanners, hammers etc)

Environmental issues

  • Steel production uses a lot of energy, but less than most metals.
  • Steel is easily recycled - as it is usually magnetic it is easily sorted from mixed waste.

Stainless steels

Overview

  • Steels are the most important engineering materials, and cover a wide range of alloys based on iron and carbon. The strength of iron-carbon alloys, particularly after heat treatment, has been exploited for thousands of years (since the "Iron Age"). Modern steels and ferrous alloys have mostly been developed since the Industrial Revolution.
  • Stainless steels are more expensive steels containing typically 25% of Chromium and Nickel, which gives excellent corrosion resistance and also high strength and toughness (used for cutlery, chemical plant and surgical instruments).
  • All steels have a high density and a high Young's modulus. The strength and toughness of stainless steels can be varied by alloying, working and heat treatment.
  • Stainless steels are mostly very resistant to corrosion, and do not need to be protected.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • High strength with good toughness
  • High stiffness
  • Mostly very cheap
  • Quite easy to shape
  • Quite easy to weld, but not as easy as for carbon steels.
  • Easy to recycle

Design weaknesses:

  • High density
  • Poor electrical and thermal conductivity

Typical Products

  • Bearings
  • Pressure vessels
  • chemical plant
  • Cutlery
  • Surgical instruments

Environmental issues

  • Steel production uses a lot of energy, but less than most metals.
  • Steel is easily recycled - though most stainless steels are not magnetic, so they are harder to sort from mixed waste.

Cast iron

Overview

  • Cast irons were the forerunners to steels, being iron alloys of high carbon content (2-4%). The strength of iron-carbon alloys, particularly after heat treatment, has been exploited for thousands of years (since the "Iron Age"). Modern steels and ferrous alloys have mostly been developed since the Industrial Revolution.
  • Cast irons are cheap, high carbon alloys of moderate strength and which can easily be cast to shape. Cast irons have a high density and a high Young's modulus. They tend to have poor toughness, but their strength and toughness can be improved by alloying and heat treatment.
  • Cast irons rust easily, and must be protected by painting or other coatings.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • High strength with good toughness
  • High stiffness
  • Mostly very cheap
  • Easy to weld
  • Easy to recycle
  • Easy to machine

Design weaknesses:

  • High density
  • Poor electrical and thermal conductivity

Typical Products

  • Car engines
  • Brake discs
  • Machine tools

Environmental issues

  • Iron production uses a lot of energy, but less than most metals.
  • Cast iron is easily recycled - as it is magnetic it is easily sorted from mixed waste.

Copper

Overview

  • Copper is a quite expensive metal with high electrical conductivity (good for electrical wiring) and good corrosion resistance (good for plumbing).
  • Pure copper has low strength and high ductility. Its strength may increased by alloying with tin (to make bronze), with zinc (to make brass) or with nickel (for coins).
  • Bronze has been used for thousands of years for cast artefacts such as statues and has been worked for weapons since the "Bronze Age". It has been used since medieval times for large castings such as bells.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • High electrical and thermal conductivity
  • Corrosion resistant
  • Easy to shape

Design weaknesses:

  • Low strength
  • Quite expensive

Typical Products

  • Electrical wire
  • Domestic water pipes
  • Coins

Environmental issues

  • Copper production uses quite a lot of energy
  • Copper is easy to recycle, but the volume of copper in use is small and it can be difficult to sort (e.g. most copper wiring has a plastic sleeve).

Brasses

Overview

  • Brasses are quite expensive alloys of copper and zinc.
  • Alloying, working and heat treatment give them much better strength than copper, but with good corrosion resistance.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • Reasonable strength
  • Corrosion resistant
  • Easy to shape

Design weaknesses:

  • Quite expensive

Typical Products

  • Ornamental fittings
  • Plumbing fittings
  • Screws
  • Bullets

Environmental issues

  • Copper and brass production uses quite a lot of energy.
  • Brass is easy to recycle, but the volume in use is small.

Nickel alloys

Overview

  • Nickel alloys are dense, stiff, strong alloys used primarily for their strength and corrosion resistance at high temperatures (jet engines).
  • Pure nickel has moderate strength, like iron, but alloying with Cr, Co, Mo, W gives the high strength needed in a jet engine. Nickel is also alloyed with copper to make coins.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • High strength at high temperature
  • High corrosion resistance
  • High stiffness
  • Easy to shape

Design weaknesses:

  • High density

Typical Products

  • Jet engines for aircraft
  • Coins
  • Tanks for chemicals

Environmental issues

  • Nickel production uses quite a lot of energy, but the volume in use is small.

Titanium alloys

Overview

  • Titanium alloys are quite low density, stiff, strong alloys and are expensive. They are used most in sports products (e.g. golf clubs and bicycles) and in aircraft (e.g. engine fan blades).
  • Pure titanium has moderate strength, but the standard titanium alloy contains 6% aluminium and 4% vanadium, which gives the high strength needed in a jet engine.
  • Titanium is a reactive metal when hot, but has good corrosion resistance at room temperature. It is inert in the body, and is used for medical implants (e.g. hip replacements).

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • High strength, even at high temperatures
  • High stiffness
  • Chemically inert in body

Design weaknesses:

  • High cost
  • Chemically very reactive when hot
  • Quite difficult to shape - usually cast

Typical Products

  • Golf clubs
  • performance bicycles
  • Fan blades for aircraft jet engines
  • Hip replacements, and other medical implants

Environmental issues

  • Titanium production uses quite a lot of energy, but the volume in use is small.

Magnesium alloys

Overview

  • Magnesium alloys are the lowest density metals, with good stiffness and strength relative to their weight.
  • Pure magnesium is alloyed to improve its strength. It has a low melting point. Most alloys are cast, as it has poor formability.
  • Magnesium is a reactive metal, which burns intensely. It therefore requires careful handling during casting.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • Low density
  • High stiffness-to-weight ratio
  • High strength-to-weight ratio

Design weaknesses:

  • Difficult to shape - usually cast
  • Chemically reactive
  • Poor corrosion resistance

Typical Products

Motorcycle and car wheels

Automotive castings

Environmental issues

  • Magnesium production uses quite a lot of energy, but the volume in use is small.

Zinc alloys

Overview

  • Zinc alloys are low density, low melting point alloys used for simple castings of low strength.
  • Zinc is resistant to corrosion, and is used to protect steels from rusting by galvanising (e.g corrugated sheet, car bodywork, motorway crash barriers).

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • Corrosion resistant
  • Easy to cast

Design weaknesses:

  • Low strength
  • Poor formability

Typical Products

  • Galvanised steel sheet
  • Pump housings
  • Model cars and toys

Environmental issues

  • Zinc production uses quite a lot of energy, but the volume in use is small.

Lead

Overview

  • Lead alloys are very dense, with the lowest stiffness and strength of all metals. They are used either for their weight (e.g. lead shot), or for their corrosion resistance (e.g. roof cladding), or for their low melting point (e.g. solders, which are lead-tin alloys).
  • Lead is a toxic metal, used historically as an additive to paints and petrol. These additions are being systematically removed due to health concerns.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • Low melting point
  • High density
  • Corrosion resistant
  • Easy to shape

Design weaknesses:

  • Low strength
  • Low stiffness
  • High cost
  • Environmental concerns

Typical Products

  • Bullets, lead shot
  • Roof cladding
  • Solders

Environmental issues

  • Lead production uses quite a lot of energy, but the volume in use is small.
  • Lead in paint and petrol is being reduced or eliminated due to health concerns.

Gold

Overview

  • Gold is a precious metal, with a very high cost. Its use for jewellery is due to its natural appearance, but also its chemical stability - it does not oxidise at room temperature.
  • In engineering applications, gold is used in small quantities in electronics for making electrical contacts since it has a very high electrical conductivity, and does not oxidise.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • Corrosion resistant
  • Easy to cast

Design weaknesses:

  • Low strength
  • Poor formability

Typical Products

  • Jewellery
  • Electrical contacts
  • Dental fillings

Environmental issues

  • Due to its value, gold is mined from rocks containing very small quantities of the metal - it is therefore an energy intensive metal to produce. Its recycling value is of course very high.

Glasses

Overview

  • Glasses are amorphous solids based on silicon oxide (the same as sand).
  • Glass is soft and mouldable when hot, making shaping straightforward; when cool and solid it is strong in compression, but brittle and weak in tension.
  • Glass is transparent or can be easily coloured. Special glasses are made into fibres for optical communications.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • Transparent, or easily coloured
  • High resistance to corrosion
  • Easy to shape

Design weaknesses:

  • Low tensile strength
  • Low toughness

Typical Products

  • windows
  • bottles
  • ovenware
  • optical fibres

Environmental issues

  • Silicon oxide (silica) is naturally occurring, but energy is used to purify it to make glass for engineering applications.
  • Because of the large energy costs in making glass it is cost effective to recycle it.

Alumina

Overview

  • Alumina is an ionic ceramic, aluminium oxide. It is mainly used for its electrical insulation (e.g. spark plugs) or for its hardness (e.g. cutting tools).
  • Like all ceramics, alumina is intrinsically hard and strong in compression, but has low toughness and tensile strength.
  • Due to its high melting point, alumina can only be processed in powder form.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • Excellent corrosion resistant
  • Low density
  • Resistant to high temperatures
  • High electrical resistance.

Design weaknesses:

  • Low tensile strength
  • Low toughness
  • Difficult to shape

Typical Products

  • spark plugs
  • electrical insulators (e.g. on pylons)
  • cutting tools
  • grinding wheels
  • fuse bodies

Environmental issues

  • Alumina is naturally occurring, but energy is used to purify it for engineering application.

Silicon carbide

Overview

  • Silicon carbide is a covalent ceramic. It is mainly used for its very high hardness (e.g. cutting tools), and for its electrical properties.
  • Like all ceramics, silicon carbide is intrinsically hard and strong in compression, but has low toughness and tensile strength.
  • Due to its high melting point, silicon carbide can only be processed in powder form.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • Excellent corrosion resistant
  • Low density
  • Resistant to high temperatures
  • High electrical resistance.
  • High hardness

Design weaknesses:

  • Low tensile strength
  • Low toughness
  • Difficult to shape

Typical Products

  • electrical insulators (e.g. semiconductor substrate)
  • cutting tools
  • grinding wheels

Environmental issues

  • Silicon and carbon are abundant materials, but energy is used to purify them and to produce silicon carbide powder for engineering application.

Silicon

Overview

  • Silicon is the base material used for the manufacture of computer chips, and is therefore one of the most important materials.
  • Silicon is doped with very low levels of other elements to give it the particular "semiconducting" electrical properties needed for transistors and microchips.
  • To supply the huge demand for computer chips, processes have developed so that it can be produced as very large high purity crystals.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • Semiconducting properties

Typical Products

  • transistors
  • computer chips

Environmental issues

  • Silicon is an abundant material, but energy is used to purify it for electronic applications.
  • It is not yet recycled from computers on any scale, but this may develop in future.

Diamond

Overview

  • Diamond is covalently bonded pure carbon, and has the highest Young's modulus and hardness of all materials.
  • It is naturally occurring but can also be manufactured.
  • High purity diamonds are used as gemstones in jewellery.
  • Diamond is increasingly used for its very high hardness in cutting tools.
  • Due to its high melting point and hardness, diamond can only be processed by machining and polishing.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • Excellent corrosion resistance
  • Low density
  • High electrical resistance.
  • High hardness

Design weaknesses:

  • Low tensile strength
  • Low toughness
  • Difficult to shape

Typical Products

  • Gemstones
  • Cutting tools
  • Grinding wheels

Environmental issues

  • Mining of diamond is very expensive, as the proportion of diamond in the rocks is very small. Manufacture of artificial diamond is also a slow, expensive process.
  • Partly for its intrinsic value, and partly because of its energy-intensive production routes, diamonds are almost entirely recycled.

Zirconia

Overview

  • Zirconia is an ionic ceramic, zirconium oxide.
  • Like all ceramics, zirconia is intrinsically hard and strong in compression. Compared to other classes of materials it has low toughness. Mixing zirconia with a small amount of magnesium oxide gives a "ceramic alloy" which has good fracture resistance and tensile strength for a ceramic material.
  • Due to its high melting point, zirconia can only be processed in powder form.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • Excellent corrosion resistant
  • Low density
  • Resistant to high temperatures
  • High electrical resistance.

Design weaknesses:

  • Low tensile strength
  • Low toughness
  • Difficult to shape

Typical Products

  • Cutting tools
  • Gas probes in petrol engines

Environmental issues

  • Zirconia is not an abundant material, and so the energy cost in producing it is higher than more common ceramics such as alumina.

Brick

Overview

  • Bricks were the first man-made structural materials. They are made by firing a mixture based on natural silica of ceramic particles with a glassy binder.
  • Like all ceramics, bricks are intrinsically hard and strong in compression, but have low toughness and tensile strength.
  • Due to their high melting point and good tolerance of thermal shock, bricks are often used in furnaces.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • Excellent corrosion resistant
  • Low density
  • Resistant to high temperatures
  • Low cost
  • Good strength in compression.

Design weaknesses:

  • Very low tensile strength due to pores and defects.
  • Low toughness
  • Can only be shaped before firing.

Typical Products

  • Household bricks
  • Fire bricks

Environmental issues

  • Making bricks is an energy intensive process, with a very high scrap rate.
  • The higher the quality of the brick (the smaller the pores), the more firing required, increasing energy costs.
  • The lifetime of brick buildings can be very long. In many cases building bricks can be recovered and reused, or used as hard core for road building, etc.

Concrete

Overview

  • Concrete is a composite of cement and gravel - the gravel increasing stiffness and lowering cost. It is used widely for large-scale construction of roads, buildings, bridges etc.
  • Concrete is formed by a chemical reaction between silicates and water; it is rather like network polymerisation.
  • Like all ceramics, concrete is intrinsically hard and strong in compression, but has low toughness and tensile strength. It is often reinforced with mild steel bars to improve its tensile properties.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • Adaptable building material
  • Low cost
  • Can be pre-fabricated and reinforced

Design weaknesses:

  • Low tensile strength (unreinforced) due to pores and defects
  • Low toughness
  • Can take months to fully harden
  • Cannot be reshaped once hardened.

Typical Products

  • Beams for bridges (reinforced)
  • Road surfaces
  • Paving slabs
  • Railway sleepers

Environmental issues

  • Concrete structures cannot be reshaped so concrete can only be broken up and re-used as hard core for roads, etc.
  • Cement production is quite energy intensive, so gravel and sand used to reduce cost.

Porcelain

Overview

  • Porcelain (and other types of pottery) has been used for containers and decorative artefacts for thousands of years. Like cement it is made from naturally occurring alumino-silicates.
  • Like all ceramics, porcelain is intrinsically hard and strong in compression, but has low toughness and tensile strength.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • Good electrical insulator
  • Resistant to high temperatures
  • Low density
  • Can be easily shaped (prior to firing)

Design weaknesses:

  • Low tensile strength (unreinforced) due to pores and defects
  • Low toughness
  • Can take months to fully harden
  • Cannot be reshaped once hardened.

Typical Products

  • Cups and saucers
  • Insulators on telegraph poles
  • Kitchen sinks
  • Toilets

Environmental issues

  • The higher the quality of the pottery (the smaller the pores), the more firing required, increasing energy costs.

Polycarbonate

Overview

  • Polycarbonate (PC) is a quite expensive thermoplastic, used for its relatively high strength and toughness.
  • Like all thermoplastics, polycarbonate is easy to shape and join.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • Good strength (for a polymer)
  • Low density
  • Transparent, or easily coloured
  • High toughness

Design weaknesses:

  • Quite expensive

Typical Products

  • crash and safety helmets
  • lightweight armour (e.g. riot shields)
  • street light covers

Environmental issues

  • Polymers are derived from hydrocarbons, and require energy to extract and purify them.
  • Thermoplastics can be reheated and reshaped.
  • No toxic fumes when burnt.

Polythene

Overview

  • Polythene (polyethylene, PE) comes in various forms, of which LDPE (low density) and HDPE (high density) are the most common.
  • Low density polythene is the only polymer which floats, high density polythene does not.
  • Polythene is the polymer used in the largest quantities
  • Like all thermoplastics, polythene is easy to shape and join.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • Very simple polymer structure, so easy to process.
  • Transparent, or easily coloured
  • Can be drawn to very large elongations, and very thin sheet

Design weaknesses:

  • Quite expensive

Typical Products

  • dustbins
  • water and gas pipes
  • carrier bags
  • food packaging
  • sandwich boxes

Environmental issues

  • Polymers are derived from hydrocarbons, and require energy to extract and purify them.
  • Thermoplastics can be reheated and reshaped.
  • No toxic fumes when burnt.

Polystyrene

Overview

  • Polystyrene (PS) is a common thermoplastic, which is relatively stiff and brittle.
  • Polystyrene is used in a solid form for simple moulded components, but is more familiar in the form of white "polystyrene foam" for packaging.
  • Like all thermoplastics, polystyrene is easy to shape and join.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • Cheap high stiffness polymer.
  • Transparent, or easily coloured
  • Can be made into foam for packaging (different properties as foam).

Design weaknesses:

  • Chains slide over each other at 95C (polystyrene cups go soft if boiling water used).
  • Brittle at room temperature (e.g. rulers often snap)

Typical Products

  • disposable cups
  • pens
  • rulers

Environmental issues

  • Polymers are derived from hydrocarbons, and require energy to extract and purify them.
  • Thermoplastics can be reheated and reshaped.

PMMA

Overview

  • Poly methyl methacrylate is often called perspex
  • Like all thermoplastics, PMMA is easy to shape and join.
  • It is hard and brittle at room temperature

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • Transparent, or easily coloured

Design weaknesses:

  • Brittle

Typical Products

  • domestic baths
  • tool handles
  • road signs
  • inner aircraft windows

Environmental issues

  • Polymers are derived from hydrocarbons, and require energy to extract and purify them.
  • Thermoplastics can be reheated and reshaped.

Polypropylene

Overview

  • Polypropylene (PP) is a simple thermoplastic polymer, similar to polythene.
  • Like all thermoplastics, polypropylene is easy to shape and join.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • Cheap polymer
  • Slightly higher stiffness and strength than polythene
  • Transparent, or easily coloured
  • Relatively high toughness polymer

Typical Products

  • pipes
  • ropes
  • containers

Environmental issues

  • Polymers are derived from hydrocarbons, and require energy to extract and purify them.
  • Thermoplastics can be reheated and reshaped.
  • No toxic fumes when burnt.

PET

Overview

  • PET is a polyester, which is usually thermoplastic, but is also modified to produce a thermoset
  • PET is made into transparent or coloured sheet (as in fizzy drink bottles), or into fibres which are woven into clothing (e.g. "terylene")

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • PET is above average strength and stiffness (for a polymer)
  • Relatively easy to recycle coloured

Design weaknesses:

  • Thermoplastic PET has low fracture toughness

Typical Products

  • cassette and video tape
  • drinks bottles
  • fibres for clothing
  • glass fibre composites (in thermoset form) used for boats, car bodies

Environmental issues

  • Polymers are derived from hydrocarbons, and require energy to extract and purify them.
  • Thermoplastics can be reheated and reshaped.
  • As a polymer used for bottles and clothing, PET is potentially easier to separate and recycle

Nylon

Overview

  • A partially crystalline thermoplastic polymer.
  • Rumoured to have been named after New York and London where it was said to have been invented independently. This is not true however!

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • Good strength (for a polymer)
  • Easily made as a fibre
  • good heat resistance <2500C

Typical Products

  • zip fasteners
  • fishing line
  • power tool cases
  • clothes
  • small gears

Environmental issues

  • Polymers are derived from hydrocarbons, and require energy to extract and purify them.

Urea formaldehyde

Overview

  • Urea formaldehyde (UF) is a thermosetting network polymer.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • Heat resistant
  • Stiff and strong

Design weaknesses:

  • Few processing routes
  • Cannot be reshaped or recycled

Typical Products

  • electrical plugs
  • household insulation (as foam)

Environmental issues

  • Polymers are derived from hydrocarbons, and require energy to extract and purify them.
  • As a thermoset cannot be easily recycled.

uPVC

Overview

  • uPVC is unplasticised PVC, a general purpose thermoplastic used for moulded and extruded components
  • uPVC is more resistant to ultra violet than many polymers, and is thus acceptable for window frames
  • A variant of PVC called "plasticised PVC" has chemical additions to make it more flexible (lower Young's modulus) and easier to process in the form of sheet (e.g. plastic coats)

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • general purpose polymer
  • good insulator

Design weaknesses:

  • can degrade under prolonged exposure to sunlight
  • environmental concerns

Typical Products

  • uPVC
  • window frames
  • gas/ water pipes
  • plasticised PVC
  • raincoats
  • electrical sleeving
  • ring binder covers
  • food packaging

Environmental issues

  • Polymers are derived from hydrocarbons, and require energy to extract and purify them.
  • Concerns over toxic fumes when burnt

CFRP

Overview

  • CFRP (carbon fibre reinforced polymer) is a composite of long, fine carbon fibres embedded in a polymer matrix (usually epoxy resin, or polyester).
  • CFRP has low density, and high Young's modulus and strength.
  • CFRP must be processed directly to shape by laying up partially-cured layers of material, and then hot pressing - this is expensive.
  • Carbon fibres are also expensive to produce, and it is only 25 years since the process to manufacture them was invented.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • High stiffness-to-weight ratio
  • High strength-to-weight ratio

Design weaknesses:

  • Moderately high cost
  • Cannot be recycled
  • Difficult to shape
  • Difficult to join

Typical Products

  • Sports goods (tennis racquets, golf clubs, fishing rods)
  • Performance racing bicycles
  • Formula I car bodies
  • Military aircraft skins

Environmental issues

  • CFRP mostly uses epoxy resin and fibres, which are difficult materials to work with, requiring special precautions against toxic fumes, fibre fragments, fire hazards etc.

GFRP

Overview

  • GFRP is a composite of long, fine glass fibres embedded in a polymer matrix (usually epoxy resin, or polyester). Some GFRP uses short chopped fibres (e.g. for moulding canoes).
  • GFRP has low density, and fairly high Young's modulus and strength.
  • GFRP must be processed directly to shape by laying up partially-cured layers of material, and then usually requires hot pressing - this is expensive.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • High stiffness-to-weight ratio
  • High strength-to-weight ratio

Design weaknesses:

  • Cannot be recycled
  • Difficult to shape
  • Difficult to join

Typical Products

  • Sports goods (tennis racquets, golf clubs, fishing rods)
  • Boat hulls (yachts, canoes)
  • Bathtubs

Environmental issues

  • GFRP mostly uses epoxy resin and fibres, which are difficult materials to work with, requiring special precautions against toxic fumes, fibre fragments, fire hazards etc.

Pine

Overview

  • Pine is an abundant softwood, which grows in temperate or cool climates. Like most woods pine is light and durable - wood has been used for building and construction for thousands of years.
  • Like all woods, pine products must be sawn and machined from felled trees, which places some limits on the range of shapes for which it is suitable.
  • All woods have an internal structure of aligned natural fibres and elongated hollow cells. This structure gives them very low density, and excellent specific properties.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • High stiffness-to-weight ratio
  • High strength-to-weight ratio
  • Corrosion resistant
  • Easily recycled
  • Low density

Design weaknesses:

  • Difficult to shape

Typical Products

  • furniture
  • railway sleepers
  • pallets
  • house construction

Environmental issues

  • Pine is a relatively fast-growing timber which is a sustainable resource if well-managed.
  • Intensive forestry can lead to environmental damage when trees are cleared without re-planting.
  • Woods are naturally biodegradable, or can be shredded and used for wood-fibre products or burnt as fuel.

Balsa

Overview

  • Balsa is a tropical wood of very low density. Biologically, it is classified as a "hardwood", though its very low density makes it soft and easy to cut.
  • Like all woods, balsa must be sawn and machined from felled trees, which places some limits on the range of shapes for which it is suitable.
  • All woods have an internal structure of aligned natural fibres and elongated hollow cells. This structure gives them very low density, and excellent specific properties.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • High stiffness-to-weight ratio
  • High strength-to-weight ratio
  • Corrosion resistant
  • Easily recycled
  • Very low density

Design weaknesses:

  • Difficult to shape

Typical Products

  • model making

Environmental issues

  • Tropical woods are not always produced from sustainable sources.
  • Intensive forestry can lead to environmental damage when trees are cleared without re-planting.
  • Woods are naturally biodegradable, or can be shredded and used for wood-fibre products or burnt as fuel.

Oak

Overview

  • Oak is a slow-growing hardwood which is abundant worldwide in temperature or cool climates. Oak has been used for building and construction for thousands of years - particularly for ship-building. As one of the harder woods, it has been used extensively for furniture and for woodcarving.
  • Like all woods, oak must be sawn and machined from felled trees, which places some limits on the range of shapes for which it is suitable.
  • All woods have an internal structure of aligned natural fibres and elongated hollow cells. This structure gives them very low density, and excellent specific properties.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • High stiffness-to-weight ratio
  • High strength-to-weight ratio
  • Corrosion resistant
  • Easily recycled
  • Low density

Design weaknesses:

  • Difficult to shape

Typical Products

  • Furniture
  • Woodcarvings

Environmental issues

  • Oak is slow-growing, so requires long-term forestry planning if it is to remain a sustainable resource.
  • Woods are naturally biodegradable, or can be shredded and used for wood-fibre products or burnt as fuel.

MDF

Overview

  • There are many types of fibreboard, of which MDF (medium density fibreboard) is the most common.
  • Fibreboards are made by compacting wood fibres with a small proportion of polymer resin.
  • Fibreboards, of which MDF is just one example, are a good way to use up waste wood from sawing and machining of solid timber.
  • As the fibres are chopped into short lengths, the fibre-polymer mixtures can be moulded or pressed into shapes which cannot be made in one piece from wood (such as large panels or doors).

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • High stiffness-to-weight ratio
  • High strength-to-weight ratio
  • Corrosion resistant
  • Easily recycled
  • Low density
  • Easy to shape

Design weaknesses:

  • Usually needs veneering for a good finish.

Typical Products

  • desktops
  • doors
  • fenceposts

Environmental issues

  • Fibreboards largely use waste wood fibre, can be recycled and are mostly biodegradable.

Paper

Overview

  • Papermaking was invented thousands of years ago, initially using fibres extracted from papyrus reeds. Paper and cardboard are now made from a variety of wood pulp or recovered fibres.
  • Paper and cardboard can be made in a wide range of strengths, colours and textures.
  • Cardboard can be corrugated to give good packaging properties at very low weight.

Design Issues

Design strengths:

  • Easily shaped from flat sheet (e.g. for packaging).
  • Easily recycled
  • Low density

Design weaknesses:

  • Poor resistance to water

Typical Products

  • books
  • newspapers
  • electrical
  • components
  • packaging

Environmental issues

  • Paper and cardboard are potentially a sustainable resource.
  • Production is energy and resource intensive, and can produce a lot of waste vegetable matter which must be disposed of.
  • Paper and cardboard can easily be recycled, though problems can be caused with some of the chemicals present in printing inks, and they are of course biodegradable.
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