ࡱ> #` [3bjbjmm ;6Lx x x  F5F5F58~5R6 B>$f?"????ATA<A $hv% AA"?AAA% ?? [ [ [A2 ? ? [A [ [ ;?6> Wm;$F5!Sp8[(0PxSxp;x ; AA [AAAAA%%Z^AAAAAAA *F5 F5   Machiavellianism & Social Perception Does Machiavellianism influence Social Perceptions? By Isabelle Stam Erasmus University, faculty of economics Rotterdam august 2009 Supervisor: R. Dietvorst Studentnumber 326002IS Abstract This master thesis provides insight in the relationship of Machiavellianism and social perception. Machiavellianism is defined as a strategy of social conduct that involves manipulating other for personal gain, often against others interest (Wilson, Near, & Miller;1996). Machiavellianism is often related to success in sales. This inspired us to run an experiment on social perception in a sales context. 76 respondents have cooperated in this experiment. Two video fragments were shown. The first video showed an salesmen who behaved ethical and the second video showed unethical behavior. The findings confirmed the main hypothesis, persons with high Machiavellian tendencies have a different social perception based on the level of trust of the salesmen, in comparison to low Machiavellians. They are more strict in their level of trust. High Machiavellians can identify themselves better with the unethical behaving salesmen. Further findings showed that Machiavellians correlated significantly with manipulation, narcissism and no remorse. Machiavellianism did not correlate significantly with sensations seeking. Further research is needed to draw a clear conclusion if high Machiavellians have a higher level of arousal. Table of Content Foreword Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Machiavellianism 1 1.2 Social behavior 4 1.3 Mind reading 4 1.4 Empathy 5 1.5 Gender differences 6 1.6 Intellectual Quotient and Machiavellianism 7 1.7 Success and Machiavellianism 7 1.8 Reciprocity 9 1.9 Sociopathy 9 1.10 Cynicism 10 1.11 Narcissism 11 1.12 Sensation seeking 11 1.13 Psychopathy 11 Chapter 2 Hypotheses 13 Hypothesis gender differences 13 Hypothesis level of trust 13 Hypothesis level of overlap 14 Hypothesis level of knowledge 14 Hypothesis pshychopathy 14 Chapter 3 Method 15 Participants 15 Measures 15 Chapter 4 Results 17 Chapter 5 Discussion 26 Chapter 6 Conclusion 30 References 31 Appendix 1 37 Questionnaire Foreword In my marketing study and work I formed a special interest in strategic communication and negotiation tactics in sales. In personal selling role-playing is an important part to achieve a goal. Empathy, verbal versus nonverbal communication and stress regulation are sales skills which are tools to success. But manipulation, misleading and misdirection, blaming and forgiveness, lying and truth-telling are also behavior forms which are demonstrated in sales. These forms of behavior are introduced by Niccolo Machiavelli (1513). Machiavelli implies techniques which can lead to success, in everyday politics. Nowadays Machiavellian intelligence is a component of social intelligence in cognitive science. In this master thesis I can combine my interest for social behavior, manipulation and sales. In the course of Professor Verbeke I got more interested in the relation of sales and social behavior. My supervisor mister Dietvorst inspired me to learn more about Machiavellianism. Working with mister Dietvorst was very pleasant and Im very grateful to be his pupil. Machiavellianism was for me a perfect topic which kept me very motivated. I want to thank Professor Verbeke for his interesting courses. And I want to thank mister Dietvorst very much for his perfect way of coaching. Im very glad that I worked with a lot of pleasure on this master thesis. Which is a great end of my study in economics and business on the Erasmus University. Last but not least I want to thank my parents and sister for their support. And my best friend who studies psychology for all our interesting conversations. Isabelle Stam 1 Introduction This thesis is based on an experiment that investigates the relationship between Machiavellianism and social perception in a sales context. Machiavellians are famous for their ability to manipulate others for their own personal gain. Research has shown that salespeople scoring high on a scale measuring Machiavellianism are more successful under certain conditions. Researchers have focused on what psychological tools allow high Machiavellians to be such successful manipulators. Some researchers hypothesize that Machiavellianism is associated with specific Theory of Mind abilities, but results remain inconclusive. For the present thesis we are specifically inspired to do research on the social perception of high Machiavellians; does the social perception of high Machiavellians really differ from non-Machiavellians? Is Machiavellianism related to success in marketing and sales? Do Machiavellians read people differently? 1.1 Machiavellianism Niccolo Machiavelli (1496 1529) was an Italian statesman and author. His best book was The Prince, a classic text on the practice of cunning and calculation in politics and public life. The designation Machiavellian has become a synonym deceit, expediency and cunning. Niccolo Machiavelli is primarily remembered as an immoral advocate of the premise the end justifies the means. Machiavelli was a humanistic empiricist who, instead of making unwarranted assumptions about human behavior, applied the empirical method combined with a humanistic vision in order to analyze people and their actions on their own terms. He was a leading pioneer in the field of political science. Machiavelli gave strategic, not moral or ethical, advice and he forcefully applied such a self-serving orientation to the field of international diplomacy. Machiavellis notoriety stems primarily from his famous book The Prince and its unprincipled emphasis upon opportunity, intrigue, and immoral self-centeredness. A Machiavellian is defined as a person who views and manipulates others for his own purpose (Christie & Geis 1970). Machiavellianism is defined as a strategy of social conduct that involves manipulating others for personal gain, often against the others self-interest (Wilson, Near, and Miller (1996). Machiavellianism involves a kind of world view that comes with certain tactics and behavioral methods (Gunnthorsdottir, McCabe & Smith, 2002; McIllwain, 2003). One of the behavioral methods is that high Machiavellians can use other individuals as instruments. Because Machiavellians are so focused on using other people for their own gain, does this lead that Machiavellians have a great willingness to cooperate, so they can manipulate others? Repacholi et al, (2003) and Wilson et al, (1998) assume that Machiavellians characteristically attribute negative intentions towards others and do not expect cooperation from others. Machiavellians start out form an assumption that others will exploit them. Can we conclude that Machiavellians are cynical and narcissistic? Machiavellians can be very cool blooded (McIllwain, 2003) they are able to detach themselves from emotional situations, and do not take over others excitement. Can we conclude that Machiavellians feel no compassionateness or remorse after they manipulate? Are Machiavellians able to attribute mental states other people? In 1970 Christie en Geis developed two Mach Scales. The Mach IV scale and Mach V scale to measure Machiavellianism. The scales are based on three main factors including tactics, views of human nature, and morality derived from Machiavellis writings (Christie & Geis 1970). The scale measures the level of Machiavellian intelligence in a person. The persons can be divided into two categories: Persons who score high on Machiavellian intelligence are called high Machs, while people who score low are called non-Machiavellians or low Machs. In this research we will make references to high and low Machs. The characteristics of a high Machiavellians include a clear goal focus, detachments from others, successful interpersonal skills, and manipulation of information. This suggests that high Machiavellians should perform better in sales related jobs. Due to the suspicion of the close relationship between Machiavellianism and sales performance, we were inspired to research Machiavellianism and social perception in a sales context. Many studies have focused on Machiavellianism and sales success (Gable and Dangello, 1994; Turnbull, 1976; Eppler, 1995). In some research situations there was a significant relationship (Gable and Dangello, 1994; Milord & Perry), but in other research (Turnbull, 1976,; Eppler 1995) there was no relationship. We can conclude that it is hard to tell whether there is a relationship between Machiavellianism and sales performance. Although there is prominent evidence that when there is greater social interaction between the potential buyer and the sales person, then high Machiavellians are more successful in their sales performance (Aziz et al 2002). It is obvious that there is a difference in interaction with the sales persons when you buy a bottle of wine versus buying a house or a car. The involvement of the potential buyer is higher with a complex product than with a fast moving consumer good. The involvements are mostly based on the durability of the product and its expense. In a buying process of a durable and relatively expensive product, the potential buyer is looking for more interaction with the salesperson, and asks for help with the buying decision. The sales person can share the knowledge of the product and his own experiences. In this situation the salesmen has the ability to manipulate the potential buyer or the information about the product, because of the lack of knowledge of the potential buyer and his/her request for help with making the decision. This scenario is based on the theoretical assumption that people with Machiavellian tendencies lack affection in interpersonal relations and treat people more like objects (Domelsmith & Dietch, 1978, Cherulnik, Way, Ames, & Hutto, 1981). However, even with all the available research, it is not enough to draw a meaningful conclusion about the relationship between Machiavellianism and sales performance. In the study of Aziz, et al, (2002) there is a positive and significant relationship between scores on the Machiavellian Behavior (mach-B) scale developed by Aziz and Meeks in 1990, and two independent indicators of the sales performances of stockbrokers. These two independent indicators are: 1. A comparison of respondents own performance with that of other brokers and: 2. A second independent report of the rating assigned to the respondent through a formal process of performance evaluation. The findings of the study combined with two earlier studies (Milford & Perry, 1977; Schultz, 1993) provide support for the theoretical assumption of a positive relationship between Machiavellianism and sales performance (Christie & Geis, 1970) 1.2 Social behavior Social behavior is behavior directed towards society, in and among groups. In social interaction, a dynamic changing sequence of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_actions" \o "Social actions" social actions, persons constantly make observations and inferences concerning the mental states of the people in their surroundings. These observations help to detect the underlying motivations and to make predictions for their future actions. Our own behavior is shaped by these observation activities towards other people (Astington, 2003). This function is called the theory of mind. Theory of mind refers to the capacity to attribute certain independent mental states, contents and processes of others, such as intentions, concepts, desires and emotions. It enables us to perceive others and their distinct physical and mental entities in order to acknowledge their inner world which guides their behavior, but it is hidden from senses (Astington, 2003). Theory of mind plays an important role in our social lives, because it facilitates social cooperation and it also enables us to manipulate others in order to reach our goals (Paal et al, 2006). 1.3 Mind reading Mind reading is restricted by cognitive limits. The mental ability to recall factual events related to a person in the memory is not necessary. A great majority of adults experience difficulties to follow the mental states of others especially when the complexity goes beyond certain level; indicates the research of Kinderman, Dunbar and Bentall (1998). In the research of Paal et al, (2002), Machiavellianism is negative correlated with empathy. People who score higher on empathy have a greater willingness to cooperate with others. Consequently, Paal et al, suggests that individuals with better mindreading capabilities, will be more willing to cooperate with others. In consequence, good mind readers are possibly more empathic and conscientious with other individuals than those with poorer mindreading ability. In the end, Paal et al, could not establish in his research that individuals who are more willing to manipulate, use and mislead others have more developed mindreading skills, than those who show less Machiavellianism in their social relations. We can conclude that Machiavellianism does not correlate with empathy, as well as that high Machiavellians are less willing to cooperate with others. The research suggest that high Machiavellians will not be good in mind reading, nevertheless, Paal et al, have no significantly evidence for this suggestion. Langdon (2003) proves the obvious connection between theory of mind and social skills in his research on autism. It is well accepted that autistic people show impairments in recognizing facial expressions, understanding others emotions, and interpreting subtle differences (Baron-Cohen, Leslie, & Frith, 1985). It seems that due to the poor reading skills of facial expressions autistic person have problem with understanding others emotions. Advanced capacity of mindreading, brings advantage in two important areas of interpersonal relations (Davis & Stone, 2003 Slaughter & Repacholi, 2003). It makes it easier to cooperate with others by facilitating the development of mutual attunement among group members, which brings advantages for successful cooperation. Secondly, a well-developed ability to attribute mental states to others enhances competitive skills as it enables individuals to gain advantageous positions or, in certain cases, to manipulate others in order to realize their own goals (Paal et al, 2006). 1.4 Empathy Empathy is a term that is never defined clearly, but researchers seem to agree that empathy is a pro-social skill (Nichols, 2001). It will help people cooperate and understand other people. (Davis & Kraus, (1991) and McIllwain, (2003) introduced the term hot and cold empathy. Cold empathy refers to the cognitive ability to understand feelings and emotions - without actually experiencing the emotion itself, While hot empathy enables us to experience the emotional state of the other person, and feel the need to assists that person. Cold empathy and theory of mind have a clear link. It both refers to the cognitive capability to understand certain independent mental states, as intentions feelings and emotions. Hot empathy goes beyond cold empathy and it enables us to experience / feel others emotional states. Can we question that hot empathy makes a seller more successful due to the ability to feel others emotional states and can adapt the needs of potential buyers? Paal & Bereczkei, (2006) found out that people with an above average metalizing level manifests a greater willingness to assist others thanks to their pro-social behavior. High Machiavellians seem to be less willing to cooperate, this suggest that high Machiavellians have low metalizing abilities. Moreover Machiavellianism is not correlating with empathy. The research of Pilch (2008) studies the relations between Machiavellianism, self-report emotional intelligence (as a trait), self-report social competence and recognizing emotions from facial expressions. The results of the study of Pilch showed a negative correlation between Machiavellianism and the ability to recognize non-verbal emotional indicators. High Machiavellians proved not to be more successful in recognizing emotions in comparison to low Machiavellians. Pilch describes that Machiavellians are not more interpersonally talented. This can be due to a lack of empathy, as well as Machiavellians are less interested in developing social relations, which can lead to fewer opportunities to train these social competences. 1.5 Gender differences Are females and males different in their personality characteristics? Do they differ in cognition, temperament or social behavior? Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) found out in their temperament review, which mixed studies that mixed personality inventories with studies that measured behaviors thought to reflect personality traits, that males are more assertive (dominant) and more aggressive, and less anxious than females. The research of Feingold (1994) confirmed these statements. In Feingolds Meta analysis males were significantly more assertive and significantly less anxious than females. Males had slightly higher self-esteem than females. Furthermore, females scored higher in extraversion, trust and especially tender-mindedness (e.g. nurturance). There were no noteworthy sex differences among females and males in social anxiety, impulsiveness, activity, ideas (e.g. reflectiveness), focus of control, and orderliness). The gender differences traits were in general constant across ages, years of data collection, education levels and nations. What are the gender differences in Machiavellianism? Are males more Machiavellian intelligent? Yes, in earlier research, men tend to have a higher score on Machiavellianism than females, and women exchange more mutual glances than men (Exline, 1963; Exline et al., 1965; Exline & Winters, 1965). Evolutionary theory predicts that males will be more competitive than females (Daly & Wilson, 1983; Geary, 1998). In the research of J. Andrew (2008) male respondents scored as well significantly higher on Machiavellianism. Thereby, high Machs subjects are rated as appearing generally less anxious than low-Mach subjects (Christie & Geis 1970). 1.6 Intellectual Quotient and Machiavellianism Is there a relationship between intellect (IQ) and Machiavellianism? In the most heterogeneous sample available, a representative sample of adults in de United States, there were no correlations found between years of educations and Mach tactics scores. This experimental result was not materially affected by IQ differences. Christie & Geis 1970,  HYPERLINK "http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T6H-3VXY2Y8-5&_user=499884&_coverDate=05%2F31%2F1998&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C000024499&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=499884&md5=8696708e8c9474d95ce67e9fc61ee81d" \l "bbib6" Cherulnik, P.D., Way, J.H., Ames, S. and Hutto, D.B., 1981. Impressions of high and low Machiavellian men. Journal of Personality 49, pp. 388400.  HYPERLINK "http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=RedirectURL&_method=outwardLink&_partnerName=3&_targetURL=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-6494.1981.tb00221.x&_acct=C000024499&_version=1&_userid=499884&md5=9d1ac1005e00576cf874cda9f421acb4" \t "outwardLink" Full Text via CrossRef HYPERLINK "http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T6H-3VXY2Y8-5&_user=499884&_coverDate=05%2F31%2F1998&_rdoc=1&_fmt=full&_orig=search&_cdi=5031&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C000024499&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=499884&md5=ffc24a68ad3bf85c3231cef3476da9d3" \l "bib6" Cherulnik et al. (1981) reported that high Machiavellians are perceived as more charming and intelligent in comparison to low Machiavellians. Despite this fact, Machiavellianism does not correlate with standardized measures of intelligence (Wilson et al, 1996). The general conclusion from various experimental comparisons of high Machiavellians versus low Machiavellians is that Machiavellian behavior is not correlated with IQ (Wilson et al., 1996). 1.7 Success and Machiavellianism Are Machiavellians more successful? What makes Machiavellians successful or un successful? Analyses suggest that a high Machiavellian is possibly more able to control his behavior in the presence of another, when it is in his interest to do so. High Machs have a generally cool attitude, manifested as a detached, opportunistic attitude towards values and social norms (Mudrack & Mason, 1995). It is suggested by the analysis that high scorers on Machiavellianism may be more capable of resisting anothers influence. Indications say that high Machiavellians are more capable of controlling their performance versus another in stressful interpersonal situations. It is possible that the greater visual avoidance tendencies of the low Machiavellians may have reflected a greater feeling of shame rather than less ability to project a false image of innocence. Emotional detachment, combined with a lack of ethical qualms about manipulating others, might imply a willingness to attempt manipulation. A Machiavelli study showed that high Machs were more willing to manipulate (Geis, 1978). A study by Shultz (1993) indicates that people scoring high on Machiavellianism are more successful in relation to achieving financial success than their low-scoring counterparts when operating in a relatively unconstrained environment, and there are certainly benefits associated with material wealth. In a con game, where bargaining is essential - it is expected that high Machs are more successful. The level of success is related to the level of Machiavellianism. High Machs out-bargain low Machs. In this test the scores where measured and the predictions were clearly confirmed. Levels of Machiavellianism are correlating with the level of success in this game (Geis, 1978). Research shows that Machiavellians are not more successful at work, even in occupations where theoretically their inclinations to manipulate could prove to be useful (Graham, 1996; Siu & Tam, 1995). High Machiavellians are not the desired candidates for managerial posts (House & Howell, 1992; Ashkanasy & Dasborough, 2003; Teven, McCroskey & Richmond, 2006). The effectiveness of Machiavellian leaders, measured by long-term results of their actions has also been denied in recent studies (Bedell, Hunter, Angie & Vert, 2006). High Machiavellians outperform low Machiavellians in most of the short-term interactions of typical experiments, especially when an environment allows face to face contact, latitude for improvisation, and arousal of irrelevant affect. In spite of this imposing exploits of high Machiavellians in short-run encounters, however low Machiavellians seem to catch up somehow in the long term, and Mach scores for example, are not correlated with social status or income (Fehr et al., 1992). 1.8 Reciprocity Lykken (1995) and Frank (1988) as well as others, suggest that individual differences in reciprocity are due to differences in emotional arousability. Reciprocity refers to responding to a positive action with a positive reaction, or responding a negative action with another negative reaction. Reciprocity is important in social psychology and explains the maintenance of the social norms. It is ubiquitous to decide whether you can trust another party or to reciprocate the goodwill in human affairs. Most social exchanges would not take place without trust and reciprocity. Group membership and responsibility influences behavior (Song 2007). Due to the cool and rational attitude of Machiavellians- it is likely to believe that high Machs are not always willing to reciprocate. Because of their negative and cynical worldview they would also not expect that others are reciprocating. Also, high Machs manipulate others to be reciprocating but respond negatively to it. In the research of Gunnthorsdottir et al (2002), high Machiavellians tend not to reciprocate in an anonymous situation where they know that they can get away with such behavior. They also speculate that high Machiavellians are less afraid to take risks and less trusting, and that low Machiavellians are more trusting and more risk-averse. This has a clear link with the researches that have shown significant differences in arousal between high Machs and low Machs. Because of the lower level of arousal in a high Machiavellian, he/she is less anxious and more willing to take risks. 1.9 Sociopathy Sociopathy is a personality disorder and a distinct clinical category. Mealy (1995) suggest that there is a link between Machiavellians and sociopaths. However, Machiavellianism has never been defined as a distinct clinical category, more a personality trait. Sociopaths are typical cheaters, who do not reciprocate (Mealy, 1995). While possessing superficial charm, sociopaths are unreliable, untruthful, and exploitative. Sociopaths seem to have a lack of remorse and shame, and engage in antisocial behavior. Physiological measures support the common perception that sociopaths lack emotion (Cleckley, 1955; Hare & Craigen, 1974; Hare, 1993; Lykken, 1995). However, Mealy notes that disregard for social norms are not limited to sociopaths. Normal people certainly can vary as well in their commitment to conventional morality and in the robustness of their reciprocity strategies in the face of temptation. Mealy (1995), suggests that the personality dimension of Machiavellianism could serve as a measure of subclinical tendencies to cheat.  HYPERLINK "http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T6H-3VXY2Y8-5&_user=499884&_coverDate=05%2F31%2F1998&_rdoc=1&_fmt=full&_orig=search&_cdi=5031&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_acct=C000024499&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=499884&md5=ffc24a68ad3bf85c3231cef3476da9d3" \l "bib14" McHoskey et al. (1998) show that Mach scales and sociopathy scales measure essentially the same set of personality traits. Thus, Machiavellianism might be regarded as a dilute form of sociopathy. In a research of Boone, (1999) who found a correlation between the Prisoners dilemma game and the Zuchermans scale, (which measures the level of sensation-seeking) a comparison was made between sociopaths and Machiavellians. Due to that hypo-arousal sociopaths are seen as high sensation seekers and seekers of risk, (Daderman, 1999; and Eysenck, 1989). Mc Hoskey et al (1998) describe high Machiavellians as subclinical sociopaths, and suggests that high Machiavellians are more willing to take chance in interpersonal encounters. Allsopp (1991) and Tanborni (1988) indicate that high Machiavellians may indeed be more risk-seeking than low Machiavellians. 1.10 Cynicism Cynicism is described as an attitude of jaded negativity and a general distrust of the integrity or professed motives of other people and towards ethical and social values. Cynicism can manifest itself as a result of frustration, disillusionment, and distrust perceived as due to organizations, authorities and other aspects of society (Mazella, 2007). High Machiavellians are generally more likely to suspect others of dishonesty ( HYPERLINK "http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V8H-44J6N2W-2&_user=499884&_coverDate=02%2F28%2F2002&_rdoc=1&_fmt=full&_orig=search&_cdi=5871&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=974520810&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000024499&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=499884&md5=bf1009c0eb5d0f39884bbc4ebfd5e819" \l "bib43" Harrell, 1980).  HYPERLINK "http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V8H-44J6N2W-2&_user=499884&_coverDate=02%2F28%2F2002&_rdoc=1&_fmt=full&_orig=search&_cdi=5871&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=974520810&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000024499&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=499884&md5=bf1009c0eb5d0f39884bbc4ebfd5e819" \l "bib33" Geis and Christie, (1970) who first defined characters traits of Machiavellians and developed the Mach IV scale, noticed that high Machiavellians are less trusting, credulous then low Machiavellians in experimental manipulations. These findings about high Machs being both exploitative and cynical echo results obtained by social dilemma researchers that non-co-operators in Prisoner's Dilemma games also expect less cooperation from others (e.g.  HYPERLINK "http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V8H-44J6N2W-2&_user=499884&_coverDate=02%2F28%2F2002&_rdoc=1&_fmt=full&_orig=search&_cdi=5871&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=974520810&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000024499&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=499884&md5=bf1009c0eb5d0f39884bbc4ebfd5e819" \l "bbib62" Orbell and Dawes, 1993. J.M. Orbell and R.M. Dawes , Social welfare, cooperators' advantage, and the option of not playing the game. American Sociological Review 58 (1993), pp. 787800.  HYPERLINK "http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=RedirectURL&_method=outwardLink&_partnerName=3&_targetURL=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2307%2F2095951&_acct=C000024499&_version=1&_userid=499884&md5=3f24d1ba16040817371be9f1a6353993" \t "outwardLink" Full Text via CrossRef |  HYPERLINK "http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=RedirectURL&_method=outwardLink&_partnerName=655&_targetURL=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scopus.com%2Finward%2Frecord.url%3Feid%3D2-s2.0-0040584445%26partnerID%3D10%26rel%3DR3.0.0%26md5%3D6bb9ef2e559dd141124c1db0e8edbc47&_acct=C000024499&_version=1&_userid=499884&md5=c594d468597fc45378df952e39b156fe" \t "outwardLink" View Record in Scopus |  HYPERLINK "http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=RedirectURL&_method=outwardLink&_partnerName=656&_targetURL=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scopus.com%2Finward%2Fcitedby.url%3Feid%3D2-s2.0-0040584445%26partnerID%3D10%26rel%3DR3.0.0%26md5%3D6bb9ef2e559dd141124c1db0e8edbc47&_acct=C000024499&_version=1&_userid=499884&md5=32991b76f865b86c4d74c79450517ae0" \t "outwardLink" Cited By in Scopus (86) HYPERLINK "http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V8H-44J6N2W-2&_user=499884&_coverDate=02%2F28%2F2002&_rdoc=1&_fmt=full&_orig=search&_cdi=5871&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=974520810&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000024499&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=499884&md5=bf1009c0eb5d0f39884bbc4ebfd5e819" \l "bib62" Orbell & Dawes, 1993). 1.11 Narcissism Cristie & Geis (1970) and Mudrack & Mason (1995) describe high Machiavellians as opportunistic. High Machs can take their advantages, through unethical behaviour combined with their cool attitude. Also their materialistic attitude creates a link with narcissism. The term narcissism is traditionally applied to a specific personality disorder named; Narcissistic Personality Disorder or NPD (American Psychiatric Association, 1994) Narcissistic persons care a lot about qualities such as power, dominance, and extraversion. And do not show the same regard to communal qualities like emotional intimacy and warmth (Bradlee & Emmons, 1992; Campell, Brunell & Finkel, 2006). In this study we talk about normal narcissism. Campell et al. (2006) suggest that the agentic orientation of narcissism is linked to poor relationship functioning, such as low commitment (Campell & Forster, 2002). Buss & Chiodo (1991) found that narcissistic persons primarily care about their own wants and needs, and want to feel powerful and raise social status. Narcissist persons are high sensation seekers (Raskin & Terry, 1988) 1.12 Sensation seeking Sensation seeking is a personality trait characterized by the extent of a persons desire for novelty and intensity of stimuli (Arnett, 1994; Zuckerman, 1990). Sensation seeking may lead to participation in reckless behavior, because reckless behavior often provides the kind of novel and intense stimulation that people high in sensation seeking find pleasurable. Numerous studies have supported the relation between sensation seeking and a wide variety of reckless behavior. Sensation seeking and risk taking behavior is positive associated with sociopathy and psychopathy (Mealy 1995; McHoskey 1995). 1.13 Psychopaty Cleckley (1976) initially describes psychopathy as a form of personality disorder. Behaviourally, psychopathic individuals are risk-taking sensation seekers involved often in a variety of criminal activities. Interpersonally, they have been described as grandiose, egocentric, manipulative, forceful, and cold hearted. Affectively, they display shallow emotions, are unable to maintain close relationships, and lack empathy, anxiety, and remorse. It is not, then, surprising that these psychopathic offenders are among the most violent and persistent of offenders. Machiavellianism correlates significantly with psychopathy and narcissism (Paulhus & Williams, 2002; Lee & Ashton, 2005), Mc Hoskey et al (1998) found positive associations between Machiavellianism and psychopathy (primary in general and secondary specifically). It is concluded that the Mach IV scale is a global measure for psychopathy, which suggest that high Machiavellians and psychopaths have great similarities in characteristics. 2 Hypotheses For the present thesis the main research question is whether high Machiavellians versus low Machiavellians differ in their social perception? To answer this main research question, the following hypotheses are formulated. 2.1 Hypothesis 1 Males have higher Machiavellian tendencies than females. This hypothesis is stated to investigate the gender difference in Machiavellianism. Earlier research quoted in the introduction suggests that males have higher Machiavellian tendencies. It is expected that males score higher on the Mach IV scale than females. 2.2 Hypothesis 2 Social perceptions of high Machiavellians differ significantly from low Machiavellians when evaluating trust in a sales context. The experiment is designed to test the social perception on the level of trust in a salesperson. The salesperson behaves ethical in the first video fragment, and manipulative in the second video. An interaction effect is expected to occur between Machiavellianism and scores on a scale measuring the trustworthiness of the salesperson acting in the two versions of the video, in which high Machiavellians will evaluate the salesperson as less trustworthy in the first video in comparison with low Machiavellians, while in the second video fragment, showing unethical / manipulative behavior low Machiavellians will evaluate the salesperson as less trustworthy. Due to the difference in responds on both video fragments explained by hypothesis 2, we expect a different interaction effect for high Machiavellians in comparison of low Machiavellians. The interaction effect is measured by the difference in the level of trust score. I expect that high Machiavellians show lower levels of adjustment in their judgment of the level of trustworthiness of the salesperson between the two different videos than low Machiavellians. 2.3 Hypothesis 3 There is no difference in perceiving the level of knowledge of the seller between low Machiavellians and high Machiavellians. To control the main hypothesis I expect that there is no significant correlation of perceiving the level of knowledge between low and high Machiavellians after both video fragments. I expect that both groups are capable and equal in perceiving the level of knowledge of the seller. 2.4 Hypothesis 4 High Machiavellians score a higher level of overlap after the second video fragment which showes manipulative behavior of the seller. The level of overlap is measured after both video fragments. The level of overlap measures the level of identification with the seller. I expect that low Machiavellians have a higher level of overlap after the first video fragment because ethical behavior is shown. And high Machiavellians have a higher level of overlap after the second video fragment because unethical behavior is shown. 2.5 Hypothesis 5 The Mach IV score correlates significant with the elements of psychopathy scale of Bagozzi. The psychopathy scale of Bagozzi consists of four dimensions; Manipulation, narcissism, no remorse and sensation seeking referring to cool syndrome. Due to the fact that sociopaths and psychopaths have similar characteristics as high Machiavellians, I expect that the scale of psychopathy correlates significant with Machiavellianism. 3 Method Participants During this research we run an experiment where 76 respondents were recruited on De Hogeschool Rotterdam. This is a University which is specialized in a four years bachelor level study. All respondent participated in the study voluntarily. There were 76 student of who were 36 male and 40 female. The mean age of the total respondents was 21. The mean age of the male respondents was 20, and the mean age of the female respondents was 21. The experiment was conducted in small groups (about 12 people). The time providing answers was unlimited. Measures All participants were given a questionnaire of 93 questions (Appendix 1). The respondents listed to the instructions of the researcher, because the questionnaire consists of different stages. The first part of the questionnaire was the Mach IV scale from Christie & Geis (1970). The Mach IV scale includes 20 items on a 7 point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagrees to strongly agree. High scores on this scale indicating lower ethical standards. The central purpose of the Mach IV scale taps a measure of respondents feelings about whether the circumstances they are in can be manipulated to achieve their own objectives, particularly if the circumstances provide latitudes for opportunistic behavior (Christie and Geis, 1970) (Dipankar 2008). Questions 11 and 13 have been ignored in the analysis, because of a low reliability. Each scale item was coded from 1 till 7. Some questions have been mirror coded from 7 till 1, based on the measurement (positive or negative) of the question. The Mach scale has to determine the level of Machiavellianism of each respondent. The minimum score of the Mach IV score is 20 the maximum score is 140. No respondents were disqualified due to their level of Machiavellianism. To continue the experiment a video was shown. The first video fragment showed a sales conversation of a purchaser and a seller are sitting at a table. In the middle of the sales conversation about a deal the purchaser leaves the room to answer an important phone call and leaves the seller alone in the room. Even dough the salesmen had the opportunity to have a quick look at the documents of the purchaser, which existed of offers and pricelists from other parties, he is behaving ethical, and did not have a look. After the purchaser returns from his phone call, the conversation is continued and ended by the agreement that the salesperson arranges a price indication and total offer for the deal. After the first video fragment the respondents continued with a 22 items questionnaire based on a 5 point scale, from very disagree to very agree. Including 15 questions based on the trust dimensions of Swan. Swans trust dimension consists of five components to detect differences in the appraisal of the trust dimensions. Competence, honesty, responsibility, dependability and likeability are the five trust components. This is followed by 6 questions based on identification theory of Bagozzi & Bergami (2000), ending with an overlap question, which measures the level of identification. This question is illustrating 4 circles in different stages of overlap. After this, the second video fragment was shown. In this video fragment the same purchaser and seller have a sales conversation at a table. Their sales conversation and negotiation is halfway. The purchaser got an important phone call and leaves the room. In the time the purchaser is on the phone, outside the room, the seller has a vicious look in the documents of the purchaser, which existed of offers and pricelists from other parties. After a while the purchaser returns from his phone call. The conversation is ended by the agreement that the salesperson arranges a price indication and a total offer for the deal. The questionnaire continues with a third part. The third parts contains the same questions as the second part, with 15 questions of Swans theory, 6 questions and the overlap question from Bagozzi & Bergami (2000) The fourth part of the questionnaire consists of a psychopathy scale from Bagozzi. It consists of 24 questions on a 7 point scale of identification; it identifies be me completely, it does not identify me. The 24 questions are based on four dimensions; manipulation, narcissism, no-remorse and sensations seeking which refers to the cool syndrome. 4 Results In this experiment it is necessary to investigate the reliability. Internal consistency of the scale is measured by Cronbachs alpha. In the experiment the Cronbachs alpha is  0.67. Generally a value of 0.8 is appropriate but for cognitive test with psychological constructs a cut-off point of 0.7 is more suitable, and even values below 0.7 can be accepted, because of the diversity of the constructs being measured (Kline 1999). Mach IV scale Two questions, number 11 and 13, of the Mach IV scale are ignored in the analysis. The reliability of the questions was too low. The mean of the Mach IV scale is 69.3, with a minimum value of 40.0 and a maximum score of 109.0. The standard deviation is 12.9. The score shows a normal distribution.  Figure 1: Normal distribution of level of Machiavellianism. Table 1NMinimumMaximumMeanStd. DeviationMach Score7740.00109.0069.324712.90190 The total sample is split in to two categories, high Machiavellians with a value from 70.0 to 109.0 and low to average Machiavellians from 40.0 to 69.0. Hypothesis 1 Males have higher Machiavellian tendencies than females. Females had a mean mach score of 66.0. Males scored a mean of 74.37 on the Mach IV score. The correlation value is 0.314 and is significantly (p= 0.005) Males score significant higher on Machiavellianism. Table 2Correlation testSexMach score Pearson Correlation Sig. (2 tailed) .314 .005 Hypothesis 2 Social perception of high Machiavellians differs significantly from low Machiavellians when evaluating trust. After the first and second video fragment, Swans trust dimensions were administered. Figure 2 shows obvious results. The level of trust in the seller in the first video is the highest; due to there was no manipulation in the sales conversation. Low Machiavellians value the level of trust in the seller more that high Machiavellians. Low Machs have a mean of 10.75 with a std. deviation of 2.62 and high Machs have a mean of 9.44 with a STD deviation of 3.02. The minimum and maximum are equal in both groups. An interaction effect is expected to occur between Machiavellianism and scores on a scale measuring the trustworthiness of the salesperson, acting in two versions of the video, in which high Machiavellians will evaluate the salesperson. The interaction effect is shown in figure 3.  Figure 2: Histogram of level of trust of each category after each video fragment. After manipulative behavior of the seller was shown in the second video fragment, the level of trust in the seller reduced drastically. Low Machiavellians reduced their level of trust in the seller to a mean of 3.92 with a std. deviation of 1.45. High Machiavellians reduced their level of trust in the seller to 5.38 with a std. deviation of 3.03. The maximum score differs, low Machs have a maximum score till 8.00 and high Machs have a score till 15.00. Table 3Level of trustNMinimumMaximumMeanStd. DeviationVideo fragment 1Low Mach413.0015.0010.75612.6247Video fragment 2Low Mach413.008.003.92681.45585Video fragment 1High Mach363.0015.005.38893.02634Video fragment 2High Mach364.0015.009.44443.01846 Figure 3, shows that high Machiavellians were more reticent in there score of trust after the first video fragment which showed ethical behaviour, than low Machiavellians. After the second video fragment which showed manipulative behaviour of the seller, high Machs reduced their level of trust less than low Machs. Low Machs show a decrease of 6.84 in their level of trust in the seller. High Machs show a decrease of 4.05. I can conclude that high Machiavellians were more careful in their trust in the seller after the first video fragment. And high Machiavellians change their level of trust in the seller less drastically in comparison to low Machiavellians.  Figure 3: Histograms of level of trust, including interaction effect. Both measurements showed to be significant after an independent sample t-test. t(75) = 2.04 and (p=0.45) after the first video fragment. And t (75) = -2.75 and (p = 0.007) after the second fragment There is a significant relation between the level of Machiavellianism and the level of trust in this experiment. Table 4 Independent sample t-testtdfSig. 2 tailedMean differenceLevel of trust after video fragment 12.040750.451.31165Level of trust after video fragment 2-2.754750.007-1.46206 Hypothesis 3 There is no difference in perceiving the level of knowledge of the seller between low Machiavellians and high Machiavellians. The dimensions of Swan measure the level of knowledge of the seller perceived by the respondent. Minimum differences are measured concerning the perceived level of knowledge by all respondents. We can conclude that there is no difference between high Machiavellians and low Machiavellian in perceiving the level of knowledge of the seller. t(75) = -.382 (p=0.70) after the first video fragment. And after the second video fragment the t value is t (75) = 0.974 (p=0.33). Both measurements are not significant at all. Table 5Knowledge sellerNMeanStd. DeviationStd. Error MeanVideo fragment 1Low Mach369.34152.698240.42139Video fragment 2Low Mach3610.63412.790660.43583Video fragment 1High Mach419.11112.572130.42869Video fragment 2High Mach4110.0002.917920.48632 Table 6 Independent sample t-testPerceived level of knowledge of the sellertdfSig. 2 tailedMean differenceLevel of knowledge after video fragment 1-.382750.704-.23035Level of knowledge after video fragment 2-.974750.333-.63415 Hypothesis 4 High Machiavellians score a higher level of overlap after the second video which showed unethical behavior than low Machiavellians. The level of overlap, measures the level of identification of the respondent with the seller. The respondents give an indication of the level of after each video fragment. In figure 4 we can see the level of identification / level of overlap with the seller for each Machiavellian category.  Figure 4: Histograms of level of overlap of each category after each video fragment. After the first video fragment, which showed ethical behaviour of the seller without manipulation, the level of overlap is almost equal between the low Machiavellians (mean 2.02, std. deviation 0.83) and high Machiavellians (mean 2.00, std. deviation 0.78). The measurements change drastically after the second video fragment where the seller behaviour unethical / manipulative. Low Machiavellians reduce their level of overlap from a mean of 2.02 to a mean of 1.36 with a std. deviation of 067. High Machiavellians increase their level of overlap from a mean of 2.00 to a mean of 2.55 with a std. deviation of 1.21. Table 7Level of overlapNMinimumMaximumMeanStd. DeviationVideo fragment 1Low Mach66142.020.832Video fragment 2Low Mach66131.360.671Video fragment 1High Mach11132.000.775Video fragment 2High Mach11142.551.214 Control measurement for hypotheses 2 and 3 Table 8 shows a correlation test of difference scores of the level of trust, Swans set of questions measuring manipulation and the level of knowledge of the seller perceived by the respondents. Machiavellianism correlates significant strong with the level of trust. The correlation value is -0.330 with a significant value of (p= 0.003) The questionings based on the theory of Swan, which indicates the level of manipulation, show a weak correlation with a value of -0.223. This correlation is not significant, (p=0.051). One can conclude that it indicates a trend. The level of knowledge is used to control the main hypothesis. It indicates that there is no correlation between Machiavellianism and the level of knowledge of the seller perceived by the respondents. The correlation level is -0.63 and the significant value is (p=0.584). It is evidence for the main hypothesis, that high Machiavellians perceive the level of trustworthiness towards the seller differently than low Machiavellians. The items about the knowledge of the seller show no correlation. Consequently, high Machiavellians perceive the level of trustworthiness differently than low Machiavellians, however no difference was found in perceiving the level of knowledge of the seller. Table 8Correlation testLevel of trust Dif scoreSwans Manipulation Dif scoreLevel of knowledge Dif scoreMach score Pearson Correlation Sig. (2 tailed) -.330 .003 -.223 .051 -.063 0.584 Hypothesis 5 Machiavellianism correlates significantly with the elements of psychopathy scale of Bagozzi. The psychopathy questionnaire of Bagozzi & Bergami (2000) measures four dimensions; "no remorse"," narcissism", "manipulation" and "sensation seeking"( which refers to the cool syndrome). Table 9 shows interesting results. Machiavellianism correlates significant with no remorse, manipulation and narcissism. No correlations were found between Machiavellianism and sensation seeking / cool syndrome. Machiavellianism and no remorse have the strongest significant correlation of 0.619 (p= 0.000). Machiavellianism and manipulation correlate significant with a value of 0.463 (p=0.463). Machiavellianism correlate 0.328 with a significant value of (p=0.004). The correlation of Machiavellianism and cool syndrome is 0.149, which has a significant value of (p= 0.197). I can conclude that there is no significant correlation between Machiavellianism and sensation seeking / cool syndrome. Table 9Correlation testCool syndromeNo RemorseManipulationNarcissismMach score Pearson Correlation Sig. (2 tailed)  .149 .197 .619 .000 .463 .000 .328 .004Cool syndrome Pearson Correlation Sig. (2 tailed)  .155 .178 .398 .000 .407 .000No Remorse Pearson Correlation Sig. (2 tailed)  .618 .000 .543 .000Manipulation Pearson Correlation Sig. (2 tailed)  .695 .000Narcissism Pearson Correlation Sig. (2 tailed) The dimensions of Bagozzi show causal connections. Manipulation and narcissism show a strong significant correlation of 0.695, (p=0.000). Furthermore manipulation correlates significant strong, 0.618, (p= 0.000), with no remorse. Manipulation correlates as well with cool syndrome with a value of 0.398, (p=0.000) Narcissism correlates significant strong with no remorse with a value 0.543, (p=0.000). Narcissism correlates significant with cool syndrome with a value of 0.407, (p=0.000) No remorse and cool syndrome do not correlate significantly with one another. The correlation value is 0.155 with a significant value of p= 0.178. 5 Discussion In the beginning of this experiment we ask ourselves several questions. For example; Do Machiavellians have a different social perception in comparison to low Machiavellians? And do Machiavellians read people differently? Paal & Bereczkei (2006) suggest that mindreading is associated with empathy and the willingness to cooperate with others. Machiavellianism correlates negative with empathy, and with the willingness to cooperate with others (Paal et al, 2006). Paal et al, research suggests that is unlikely to assume that Machiavellians are successful in mind reading. However, in this experiment high Machiavellians do read differently in comparison to low Machiavellians. We think that it is due to their cynical worldview and there narcissistic attitude. It causes distrust in their social perception towards others. Their social perception is also influenced by their focus on manipulation. If there is a chance to manipulate and get away with it, high Machiavellians will manipulate. In their social perception high Machiavellians may reflect their own manipulative attitude. This explains the interaction effect. They are more distrusting after the first video fragment than low Machiavellians. And after the second video fragment they recognize the manipulative behavior, which reflects their own behavior. Of course high Machiavellians decrease their level of trust in the seller, but not as drastically as low Machiavellians. High Machiavellians are more strict in their opinion of the trustworthiness of the seller. High Machiavellians can identify themselves more with a seller who behaves manipulative than a seller who behaves ethical. It is due to their opportunistic attitude. As well as their narcissistic attitude, high Machiavellians want success in a short period of time, because of their materialistic care and need for power. The lack of empathy and care for the other party or person plays a part. Machiavellianism correlates with no remorse. High Machiavellians do not feel guilty when they manipulate. The lack of remorse is most of the time related to sensation seeking, although it does not correlate significantly with any remorse in this experiment. Sensation seeking is linked to the cool syndrome. People with the cool syndrome have a low arousal and are very willing to take risks. Sociopath and psychopaths are extreme risk takers and sensations seekers and correlate negative with empathy. Machiavellianism is not clinically defined but is positively associated with sociopathy and psychopathy (McHoskey, 1998). Allsopp (1991) and Tanborni (1988) indicate that high Machiavellians are more risk seeking than low Machiavellians. However in this experiment sensation seeking is not correlated significantly with Machiavellianism. We can conclude that high Machiavellians do not have the cool syndrome or are high sensation seekers. This leads to a difference between Machiavellians and sociopaths and psychopaths. However, it is possible that high Machiavellians have a higher willingness to take risks and are more sensation seekers in comparison to low Machiavellians. While high Machiavellians are not more sensations seekers in comparison to sociopaths and psychopaths, on average. In further research it would be good to analyze the anxiety level and arousal of Machiavellians, sociopaths and psychopaths, by measuring the level of cortisol. In this way the level of arousal can be defined. I expect had high Machiavellians have a lower level of arousal/ cortisol in comparison to low Machiavellians. And sociopaths and psychopaths have an on average a lower level of arousal / cortisol than high Machiavellians Another question we asked was; Are high Machiavellians more successful? It is not measured in this experiment but from a theoretical perspective I expect the following. It has been shown that high Machiavellians win more in competitive situations where subjects interact face to face with each other and there is latitude for improvisation (Christie & Geis, 1970). Fehr et al, (2002) found out that in a short period of time high Machiavellians outperform low Machiavellians, however on the long term low Machiavellian perform better than high Machiavellians. I expect that their social perception which proved to be significantly different in comparison to low Machs helps high Machs to perform more successful in a short period of time. Although negative stereotypes such as aggressiveness, manipulation, exploitation, and deviousness (Calhoon, 1969) are associated with high Machiavellians, it should not been seen as totally negative and wrong characteristics. In life and in sales / personal selling, it is not negative or undesirable to be as a person goal focused, having social skills for dealing with customers, and a control of information. Manipulation occurs when these skills are used by the salesperson against the possible interest of a potential buyer. A salesperson with high Machiavellian tendencies may also use these characteristics positively a more effective presentation of information. Thus, a salesperson high on Machiavellianism may not need to manipulate in all sales situations. In this perspective we can conclude that high Machiavellians are of great value in a sales or marketing team. Or not ? Paal et al (2006) found that the higher the level of Machiavellianism, the less willingness Machiavellians show to cooperate with others (Paal et al, 2006). The better the ability of mindreading, the more willingness is shown to cooperate with others. Should a salesman not be a good mind reader, so he can attribute better the mental states, which enables him to interact better with the potential buyer? To attribute mental states empathy is necessary. This salesman would be very empathic. Due to hot empathy the seller is able to understand and experience the emotional states of the observed person. The seller could adapt to the needs of potential buyers and be more successful in this way. Paal et al, 2006, suggest that good mind readers are presumably more empathic and conscientious with others than persons with poorer mindreading abilities. I believe that persons who score high on empathy are able to feel cold and hot empathy. These persons have the cognitive ability to understand feelings and emotions, as well as the ability to experience emotional states of the observed other thanks to their pro-social behavior. Machiavellianism is not correlating with empathy. The higher the level of Machiavellianism, the less empathic the person is. I expect that high Machiavellians have the cognitive ability to understand feelings and emotions (cold empathy). However, due to the narcissistic attitude and avoidance of intimate relationships, the cognitive ability will be less developed, in comparison to low Machiavellians to understand feelings and emotions. Hot empathy goes beyond cold empathy. I assume that high Machiavellians are unable to experience emotional states of other people (hot empathy), due to their anti-social behavior which has great similarity between Machiavellianism, sociopathy and psychopathy. The study of Pilch (2008) showed a negative correlation between Machiavellianism and the ability to recognize non-verbal emotional indicators. However we can conclude is this experiment that high Machiavellians do have a different social perception. In further research it would be good to analyze whether high Machiavellians are better in attributing the needs and thoughts of potential buyers. I doubt it, because empathic skills are necessary in attribution mental stages of other people. And empathy is necessary for a negotiation (Greenhalgh & Gilkey). I suggest that the difference in findings of this experiment and the research of Pilch is due to another method of research. Pilch (2008) uses a survey, and this thesis is based on an experiment with video fragments. This difference in methodology and results are interesting for further research. I believe that building relationships is very important for continuing a profitable business. This is confirming the thoughts of Swan in this article Trust Earning perceptions of sellers and buyers (1989). I conclude that Machiavellians are performing better in stressful situations and in short-term interactions. But when we speak about long-term success, where relationship have to be build and retained I expect that low-Machiavellians are more successful. Because narcissistic characteristics are linked with poor relationship function and low commitment (Campell, et al, 2006). Particularly in sales success, trust earning and relationship building is very important. Low Machiavellians will be more successful in this, because it is very much influenced by humans ability to earn, enhance and retain trust of potential and current customers. Trust is mostly a critical in binding force between buyer and seller and for a reciprocal relationship (Swan 1989). In addition to the Machiavellians and sales performance we can discuss the ethical dilemma. Nowadays sales jobs are for a major portion reward by commission. The pressure on selling and the pressure in sales teams enlarge extremely in this situation because most organizations define quotas who salespersons much achieve to keep their jobs. The presence of such pressure can tempt a salesperson with Machiavellian orientations. High Machiavellians are more likely to manipulate whenever necessary. Is Machiavellianism not originated by these targets and rewards by commission? Did those sellers learned to be manipulative? Is that particularly the reason why Machiavellianism is not a clear defined clinical subcategory? I suggest that this is an interesting dilemma for further research. 6 Conclusion This experiment has been very successful, all effects that were expected turned out significant. Machiavellians do have a different social perception. The level of success in marketing and sales is depending on many things like, is short-term gain wanted or are long term relationships need to be build. Do companies want a person who can control himself good in exciting face to face negations? Or do organizations want emphatic mind readers, who are very willing to cooperate in a team and build good relations with clients? The success of a salesman is also influenced by commissions and targets, as well as the structure of an organization. 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Kinderman, P., Dunbar R.I.M., & Bentall, R.P., (1998) Theory-of-mind deficits and causal attributions, British Journal of Psychology 89 pp. 191204. Langdon, R., (2003), Theory of mind and social dysfunction. Psychotic solipsism versus autistic asociality. In: B. Repacholi and V. Slaughter, Editors, Individual differences in theory of mind, Macquarie monographs in cognitive science, Psychology Press, Hove, E. Sussex, pp. 241269. Lykken, D. T. (1995). The antisocial personalities. Erlbaum, NJ: Hillsdale. Machiavelli, N. (1532) Il Principe (English transl., 1979, The Prince), Penguin Books Machiavelli, N. (1981). The Prince. New York: Bantam. (Original work published 1513). McIllwain, D., (2003) Bypassing empathy: A Machiavellian theory of mind and sneaky power. In: B. Repacholi and V. Slaughter, Editors, Individual differences in theory of mind, Macquarie monographs in cognitive science, Psychology Press, Hove, E. Sussex, pp. 3966. Marin, G. (1973). 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Appendix 1 Questionnaire  Beste meneer, mevrouw, In de komende 15 minuten zal u deelnemen aan een onderzoek. De mondelinge instructies voor dit onderzoek zijn van groot belang. Houd deze vragenbundel nog even gesloten. Graag vragen wij ook aan u om niet door te bladeren. De test is gegarandeerd 100% anoniem. Wij vragen u de vragen zo eerlijk mogelijk te beantwoorden. Hartelijk dank voor uw medewerking. Met vriendelijke groet, Beste Student, Voor je ligt een vragenlijst. Houd de vragenlijst nog gesloten en wacht op de instructies. De instructies van de docent zijn van groot belang. De test duurt maximaal 15 minuten en is 100% anoniem. Het is belangrijk dat je de vragen zo eerlijk mogelijk beantwoordt. En je eigen mening geeft. Bedankt voor je medewerking! Succes. Deel 1 Wilt u voor de volgende stellingen aangeven in hoeverre u het eens bent met de stellingen. Volledig oneensOneensEnigszins oneensNoch eens/ Noch oneensEnigszins eensEensVolledig eens       -3-2-10123  -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 31De beste manier om met mensen om te gaan is door ze te vertellen wat ze willen horen.  2Wanneer je iemand iets voor je wilt laten doen, dan moet je de zaken niet mooier voostellen dan ze zijn.  3Iemand die iedereen vertrouwt vraagt om moeilijkheden.  4Het is moeilijk vooruit te komen zonder hier en daar wat te sjoemelen.  5Eerlijk duurt het langst.  6Het is het best ervan uit te gaan dat iedereen zich vals gedraagt als hij/zij daartoe de kans krijgt.  7Je moet nooit de werkelijke reden vertellen waarom je iets doet, tenzij het nuttig is om dat te doen.  8Iemand zou alleen dan iets moeten doen, als hij/zij er zeker van is dat het moreel juist is.  9Het is verstandig om belangrijke mensen te vleien.  10Al met al is het beter om bescheiden en eerlijk te zijn dan belangrijk en oneerlijk.  11De man die zei dat er ieder moment een mislukkeling wordt geboren, had ongelijk. 12Mensen die ongeneeslijk ziek zijn, moeten de keuze hebben om euthanasie te laten toepassen.  13Het is mogelijk om op alle fronten goed te zijn.  14De meeste mensen zijn in wezen goed en aardig.  15Er is geen excuus om tegen iemand te liegen.  16De meeste mensen vergeten de dood van (n van) hun ouders gemakkelijker dan het verlies van hun bezit.  17De meeste mensen die iets bereiken in het leven, gedragen zich moreel verantwoord.  18Over het algemeen zullen mensen niet hard werken, tenzij ze ertoe worden gedwongen.  19Het grootste verschil tussen de meeste misdadigers en gewone mensen is dat misdadigers zo stom zijn zich te laten snappen.  20De meeste mensen zijn moedig. Volledig oneensOneensEnigszins oneensNoch eens/ Noch oneensEnigszins eensEens Volledig eens       -3-2-10123 Deel 2 Er wordt nu een videofragment getoond. Deel 3 Beantwoord deze vragen na het bekijken van videofragment 1. Alle 22 vragen gaan over de verkoper die u heeft gezien in het videofragment. Het is redelijk deze verkoper te vertrouwen. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens De verkoper weet waar hij het over heeft. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens Deze verkoper weet niet wat hij zou moeten weten. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens Deze verkoper moet nog veel leren over zijn producten en diensten. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens De verkoper zou mij meer laten uitgeven, als dat hem iets zou opleveren. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens De verkoper plaats mijn belang boven zijn eigen belang. Oneens Enigszins neens Enigszins eens Eens Dezer verkoper vertel mij wat hij denkt dat ik wil horen. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens Ik kan deze verkoper vertrouwen. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens De verkoper is een vriendelijk persoon. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens Deze verkoper is niet echt aardig. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens  De verkoper is een onsympathiek persoon. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens De verkoper zou mij niet de nadelen van zijn aanbod vertellen. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens De verkoper zou nooit overdrijven. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens In moeilijke situaties zou deze verkoper zijn bedrijf op de eerste plaats zetten en de consument op de tweede. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens De verkoper is erg betrouwbaar. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens Ik zou goed over priv onderwerpen met de verkoper kunnen praten? Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens De verkoper zou een vriend van mij kunnen zijn? Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens Ik zou de verkoper waarderen als een collega/teamgenoot? Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens De verkoper zou ik als een goede aanwinst beschouwen voor in de debatgroep? Oneens Enigszins oneensNeutraal Enigszins eens Eens Ik zou goed vakantie kunnen vieren met de verkoper? Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens Ik zou het gezellig vinden om met de verkoper een drankje na het werk te drinken? Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens   EMBED PBrush  In welke mate kun je jezelf identificeren met de verkoper? In welke mate ervaar je een overlap met de verkoper? Geen overlap Lage overlag Gemiddelde overlap Hoge overlap Deel 4 Er wordt nu een tweede videofragment getoond. Deel 5 Beantwoord deze vragen na het bekijken van videofragment 2. Alle 23 vragen gaan over de verkoper die u heeft gezien in het videofragment. Het is redelijk deze verkoper te vertrouwen. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens De verkoper weet waar hij het over heeft. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens Deze verkoper weet niet wat hij zou moeten weten. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens Deze verkoper moet nog veel leren over zijn producten en diensten. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens De verkoper zou mij meer laten uitgeven, als dat hem iets zou opleveren. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens De verkoper plaats mijn belang boven zijn eigen belang. Oneens Enigszins neens Enigszins eens Eens Dezer verkoper vertel mij wat hij denkt dat ik wil horen. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens Ik kan deze verkoper vertrouwen. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens De verkoper is een vriendelijk persoon. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens Deze verkoper is niet echt aardig. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens  33.De verkoper is een onsympathiek persoon.N Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens De verkoper zou mij niet de nadelen van zijn aanbod vertellen. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens De verkoper zou nooit overdrijven. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens In moeilijke situaties zou deze verkoper zijn bedrijf op de eerste plaats zetten en de consument op de tweede. Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens De verkoper is erg betrouwbaar. OneensEnigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens Ik zou goed over priv onderwerpen met de verkoper kunnen praten? Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens De verkoper zou een vriend van mij kunnen zijn? Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens Ik zou de verkoper waarderen als een collega/teamgenoot? Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens De verkoper zou ik als een goede aanwinst beschouwen voor in de debatgroep? Oneens Enigszins oneensNeutraal Enigszins eens Eens Ik zou goed vakantie kunnen vieren met de verkoper? Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens Ik zou het gezellig vinden om met de verkoper een drankje na het werk te drinken? Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens Ik vond dit een grappig videofragment? Oneens Enigszins oneens Neutraal Enigszins eens Eens  EMBED PBrush  In welke mate kun je jezelf identificeren met de verkoper? Geen overlap Lage overlag Gemiddelde overlap Hoge overlap Deel 6 1.Ik ben een impulsief persoon.  Dit past niet bij mij Dit past enigszins bij mij Dit past volledig bij mij1234567 2.Ik neig spontaan te zijn. Dit past niet bij mij Dit past enigszins bij mij Dit past volledig bij mij1234567 3.Ik heb een redelijk sterke behoefte aan stimuli en spanning. Dit past niet bij mij Dit past enigszins bij mij Dit past volledig bij mij1234567 4.Sensatie opzoeken is een karaktertrek van mij. Dit past niet bij mij Dit past enigszins bij mij Dit past volledig bij mij1234567 5.Ik benader het leven niet angstig. Dit past niet bij mij Dit past enigszins bij mij Dit past volledig bij mij1234567 6.Risico nemen is een karaktertrek van mij.  Dit past niet bij mij Dit past enigszins bij mij Dit past volledig bij mij1234567 7.Ik ben niet een erg angstig. Dit past niet bij mij Dit past enigszins bij mij Dit past volledig bij mij1234567 8.Ik voel me zelden gestresste. Dit past niet bij mij Dit past enigszins bij mij Dit past volledig bij mij1234567 9. Als andere mensen te maken krijgen met verlies, leed of pijn voelen, dan doet mij dat niet veel. Dit past niet bij mij Dit past enigszins bij mij Dit past volledig bij mij1234567 10.Ik verplaats me zelden in andere mensen. 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t644 la $If^ & F & FPPPPPPPQQFkd{$$Ifl֞>_ 1p8 B!!?8 t644 la$IfQQQQ Q Q QQ $$Ifa$QQQ-QLJ> $If^kd|$$Ifl֞>_ 1p8 B!!?8 t644 la-Q.Q/QEQFQGQHQcQdQeQfQQ$If>kd}$$Ifl J! t644 la QQQQQQQQQOFFFFFFF $$Ifa$kd}$$Ifl֞  \ v t644 laQQQQOMA $If^kd~$$Ifl֞  \ v t644 laQQ4RdReRRRRS}SSSSSThTTTQUUUV(E((('))))*D***?+++*,,,)-+-Z---^../7///50r000012222ùájhE*0JUhE*OJQJ^JmHsHhE*mHsHUhE*hE*mH sH !hE*>*OJQJ^JaJmHsHhE*CJOJQJ^JmHsHhE*OJQJ^JaJmHsH;QQQQQQQRRR R#R$If>kdz$$Ifl J! t644 la #R$R&R(R*R,R.R0R2ROFFFFFFF $$Ifa$kd$$Ifl֞  \ v t644 la2R3R4ReROMA $If^kd$$Ifl֞  \ v t644 laeRfRgR}R~RRRRRRRR$If>kdN$$Ifl J! t644 la RRRRRRRRROFFFFFFF $$Ifa$kd$$Ifl֞  \ v t644 laRRRROMA $If^kdZ$$Ifl֞  \ v t644 laRRRSSS S$S%S&S'SAS$If>kd"$$Ifl J! t644 la ASBSDSFSHSJSLSNSPSOFFFFFFF $$Ifa$kdf$$Ifl֞  \ v t644 laPSQSRS~SSOMAA $If^kd.$$Ifl֞  \ v t644 laSSSSSSSSSSSS$If>kd$$Ifl J! t644 la SSSSSSSSSOFFFFFFF $$Ifa$kd:$$Ifl֞  \ v t644 laSSSSTOMMA $If^kd$$Ifl֞  \ v t644 laTTTTTTT:T;Tkdʆ$$Ifl J! t644 la WTXTZT\T^T`TbTdTfTOFFFFFFF $$Ifa$kd$$Ifl֞  \ v t644 lafTgThTTOMA $If^kdև$$Ifl֞  \ v t644 laTTTTTTTTTTTT$If>kd$$Ifl J! t644 la TTTTTTTTTOFFFFFFF $$Ifa$kd$$Ifl֞  \ v t644 laTTTQUOMA $If^kd$$Ifl֞  \ v t644 laQURUSUiUjUkUlUUUUUU$If>kdr$$Ifl J! t644 la UUUUUUUUUOFFFFFFF $$Ifa$kd$$Ifl֞  \ v t644 laUUUUOMA $If^kd~$$Ifl֞  \ v t644 laUUUUUUU((((4($If>kdF$$Ifl J! t644 la past enigszins bij mij Dit past volledig bij mij1234567 11.Wanneer ik iemand beledig of pijn doe, dan voel ik me daar niet schuldig over. Dit past niet bij mij Dit past enigszins bij mij Dit past volledig bij mij1234567 12. Ik ben niet een erg emotioneel persoon. Dit past niet bij mij Dit past enigszins bij mij Dit past volledig bij mij1234567 13. Ik vind dat ik me cool gedraag. Dit past niet bij mij Dit past enigszins bij mij Dit past volledig bij mij1234567 14. Berouw is een emotie die ik zelden voel. Dit past niet bij mij Dit past enigszins bij mij Dit past volledig bij mij1234567 15.Ik gedraag ik me gevoelloos naar andere mensen. Dit past niet bij mij Dit past enigszins bij mij Dit past volledig bij mij1234567 16.Ik ben niet erg genteresseerd in de gevoelens van andere mensen. Dit past niet bij mij Dit past enigszins bij mij Dit past volledig bij mij1234567 17.Ik kan me goed charmant voordoen, wanneer dit noodzakelijk is. Dit past niet bij mij Dit past enigszins bij mij Dit past volledig bij mij1234567 18.Mensen kunnen mij als welbespraakt karakteriseren.  Dit past niet bij mij Dit past enigszins bij mij Dit past volledig bij mij1234567 19.Ik ben goed in het manipuleren van anderen. Dit past niet bij mij Dit past enigszins bij mij Dit past volledig bij mij1234567 20.Wanneer het noodzakelijk is, kan ik onbetrouwbaar zijn. Dit past niet bij mij Dit past enigszins bij mij Dit past volledig bij mij1234567 21.Op sommige momenten, ben ik van mening dat liegen me beter helpt presteren. Dit past niet bij mij Dit past enigszins bij mij Dit past volledig bij mij1234567 22.Mensen zien mij soms als arrogant. Dit past niet bij mij Dit past enigszins bij mij Dit past volledig bij mij1234567 23.Ik ben meer doortrapt dan de gemiddelde persoon. Dit past niet bij mij Dit past enigszins bij mij Dit past volledig bij mij1234567 24.In sommige momenten, kan ik heel erg vol zijn van mezelf. Dit past niet bij mij Dit past enigszins bij mij Dit past volledig bij mij1234567 Deel 7 Wat is uw leeftijd? Wat is uw geslacht? Vrouw Man In welke sector met u actief? Economische sector Sociale sector Technische sector Juridische sector Anders namelijk. Hartelijk dank voor uw medewerking  Except the correlation of sensation seeking and Machiavellianism. 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