ŠĻą”±į>ž’ Y[ž’’’X’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’ģ„Į#` šæÅbjbj\.\. Į>>D>DvN’’’’’’¤4DŒ.Œ.Œ.hō.4(/LD«:2€/€/–/–/–/–/–/–/*:,:,:,:,:,:,:$Ż;hE>ˆP:–/–/–/–/–/P:–/–/e:333–/<–/–/*:3–/*:33:96}ī9–/t/  ż•{ŽžĘŒ.Ņ0č¶9 *:{:0«:Ą9.Ķ>ŗ1 Ķ>ī9Ķ>ī9<–/–/3–/–/–/–/–/P:P:Ę2X–/–/–/«:–/–/–/–/DDD„ČÄDDDČDDD’’’’ Principles of Biology Lecture Notes Fall, 2006 GENETICS What genetic principles account for the transmission of traits from parents to offspring? “blending” “particulate Gregor Mendel Documented particulate inheritance by experiments with garden peas Why peas? Carefully planned experiments Started experiments with Mathematical analysis Crossing pea plants Some Genetic Vocabulary Character: a heritable feature, such as flower color Trait: a variant of a character, such as purple or white flowers P generation: The true-breeding parents F1 generation: hybrid offspring of the P generation F2 generation: produced by self-pollinated F1 individuals Gene: discrete unit of hereditary information (noun) Alleles: alternative versions of genes (adjectives) Dominant allele: determines organism’s appearance Recessive allele: no noticeable effect on organism’s appearance Homozygous: organism with a pair of identical alleles for a particular gene True-breeding: homozygous Heterozygous: organism with different alleles for a particular gene Phenotype: an organism’s physical appearance Genotype: an organism’s genetic makeup Mendel’s cross: Mendel reasoned In F1 plants: Purple flower color , white flower color Mendel’s Monohybrid Crosses for Other Traits Mendel developed a hypothesis to explain F2‘s 3:1 inheritance pattern Four related concepts make up this model Mendel’s Model 1. 2. 3. 4. Law of Segregation shown by a Punnett Square Mendel’s law of segregation, probability & Punnett Squares Genotypic Ratio Phenotypic Ratio The Testcross What does it test? How is it conducted? The Law of Independent Assortment Law of Segregation from crosses Law of Independent Assortment from crosses Law of Independent Assortment: Mendel identified by following Crossing parents true-breeding for Produces in the F1 generation, for both characters How are two characters transmitted from parents to offspring? As a package? Independently? A cross illustrates the inheritance of characters Produces phenotypes in the F2 generation Each pair of alleles segregates during The Laws of Probability Govern Mendelian Inheritance The laws of probability govern Mendelian inheritance Mendel’s laws of segregation and independent assortment reflect the rules of probability The Multiplication and Addition Rules Applied to Monohybrid Crosses The multiplication rule: using this rule The rule of addition states A dihybrid or other multicharacter cross Solving Complex Genetics Problems with the Rules of Probability We can apply the rules of probability to predict the outcome of crosses involving multiple characters The Spectrum of Dominance Complete dominance occurs when Codominance Two alleles affect the phenotype in ways an example of codominance is Incomplete Dominance The phenotype of F1 hybrids is phenotypes of the two parents The Relation Between Dominance and Phenotype Dominant and recessive alleles do not really “interact” Each leads to synthesis of different proteins that produce a phenotype Frequency of Dominant Alleles Dominant alleles are common in populations than recessive alleles Multiple Alleles Most genes exist in populations in allelic forms The ABO blood group in humans is determined by multiple alleles Is equivalent to two or more independent monohybrid crosses occurring simultaneously In calculating the chances for various genotypes from such crosses Each character first is considered separately and then the individual probabilities are multiplied together Inheritance patterns are often more complex than predicted by simple Mendelian genetics The relationship between genotype and phenotype is rarely simple Pedigree Analysis A pedigree is Inheritance patterns of particular traits can be traced and described using pedigrees Pedigrees can also be used to make predictions about future offspring Extending Mendelian Genetics `For a Single Gene inheritance of characters may deviate from simple Mendelian patterns Pleiotropy A gene has Extending Mendelian Genetics for Two or More Genes Some traits may be determined by two or more genes Epistasis In epistasis An example Polygenic Inheritance Many human characters Vary in the population along and are called usually indicates polygenic inheritance An additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotype Nature and Nurture: The Environmental Impact on Phenotype Another departure from simple Mendelian genetics arises when the phenotype for a character depends on environment as well as on genotype Multifactorial characters influenced by Integrating a Mendelian View of Heredity and Variation An organism’s phenotype includes its physical appearance, internal anatomy, physiology, and behavior Reflects its overall genotype and unique environmental history Even in more complex inheritance patterns Mendel’s fundamental laws of segregation and independent assortment still apply Many human traits follow Mendelian patterns of inheritance Humans are not convenient subjects for genetic research However, the study of human genetics continues to advance     BI211F06 GeneticsLectureNotes  DATE \@ "M/d/yyyy" 11/2/2006 56?›„§³“µĀ    / 2 L M d e x z { | ” ž Ÿ ” Ė Š Ņ Õ    ; < = H J L r s t  €  ‚ ƒ   ” ® ² “ · ę ķ ļ ņ  , . / P ` b c ‘ œ  Ÿ ß śšęßęßęßŲęßęßŌßŌßŌßŲęŲęßęĢßŌßĢßŌßĢßŌßĢĀĢßŌßĢĀĢßŌßŌßŗßĢßŌßĢßŌßĢßŌßĢßŌßĢßŌßhrsŸhrsŸH*hrsŸhrsŸ5H*hrsŸhrsŸ5hrsŸ hrsŸ5\ hrsŸhrsŸhrsŸhrsŸ5\h_ĄhrsŸ5>* hrsŸ5I56?š§“µ    L M c d e y z { | ” Ė  : q ® śśņśśśśśśśśśśśśśśśśśśęęęęę „dą^„gdrsŸ$a$gdrsŸgdrsŸvÄżż® ę  P ‘ ß ū A p ™ š « ¬ ¼ Ė ö ÷ $ l • – „ ¦ © Ŗ ­ ® óóóóóóóóóīīīīåååīīīåąååååågd*„„Š`„ŠgdrsŸgdrsŸ „dą^„gdrsŸß ģ ī š ū  A K L N p y z | š Ŗ « ¼ Ą Į Ž ą õ ö ÷ $ O P • – ¤ „ ® Æ ² ³ ŗ » č "#IJXjk€‚¤¼Įęķīļ÷ų÷šģš÷šģš÷šģš÷šģšāŪāšÓšģšģšāšÓšģĘ¼ģøģšģšāšøšģø±¤øģø±šāšøšøšøšŪ h*„5\hrsŸhrsŸ56\] hrsŸh*„h*„hrsŸh*„5\hrsŸh*„56\]hrsŸhrsŸH* hrsŸ5\hrsŸhrsŸ5\hrsŸ hrsŸhrsŸhrsŸhrsŸ5>® Æ ³ “ ø ¹ ŗ » č #$HIJXkl‚¤É÷ų78\]—ööńöööńńńńńńńńńńńńńńńńńńńńńńgdrsŸ„Š`„ŠgdrsŸ)*678I[\]fhqr‚—˜Ö×äč÷ųłū ",-.79LMXYZz|„…†ˆ½ńņ)+JKL§Ø©ø¹»¼Š×ŲŁöļėļēąļėēąļėļŲļėļĪļėļėļĪļėļėļėļēąļėļŲļēąļėļėļĒĪļėļėļēąĪĄ¼µĄ¼Ą«Ą¼Ą«ĄhrsŸhOö5\ hOöhOöhOö hrsŸhOö h*„5\hrsŸhrsŸ5\hrsŸhrsŸH* hrsŸh*„hrsŸh*„ hrsŸhrsŸhrsŸh*„5\C—˜Ö×÷ų-.YZ†‡ˆ½ņKL»¼ŲŁE«śśśśśśśśśśśśśńńśśńģńģńńśśśśgdOö„Š`„ŠgdOögdrsŸEjl«¬·ŃŅäęńó&)/0IMNOPewxƒ‡£¤„§Ōņō STr‚„‡‹øŗĖźģīšž’łõńēłõłŻÓĘ¼“õłõēłõłõłõłõ°õ©ēł”łõłõłšēłõłõłõłšēłõłõłŻĘłõłõłēł h*„5\hrsŸhrsŸH* hrsŸh*„hrsŸh*„hrsŸ5hrsŸhrsŸ6]hrsŸhrsŸ56\]hOö56\]h*„56\]hrsŸhrsŸ5\hOöh*„ hrsŸhrsŸ<«¬­®Æ°±²³“µ¶·Ņņó/0NOPe„¦§śśśśśśśśśśśśśńśńäśäääśŪśś„Š`„ŠgdOö „Š„Š^„Š`„Šgd*„„Š`„Šgd*„gdrsŸ§Ō STrø¹ŗĖž’?@•ŲDEŽßń’WXžśńńśśńśśśčśčśśśśśśśśśčśśčśč„Š`„ŠgdOö„Š`„Šgd*„gdrsŸ?@DEŽßńūž*,WXacžŸ ¾ĄŠŃėģ"#-.0cnp–—”®Æ¹ŗ»Ń@AB€»ņōDE^_üõėõėćõÜėõüõėõüõėõüõŲüŃėÜĒŃõüõŲüŃŗ³Ńŗüėõüõ©ŗõėüõ©ŗõüõėõŲŃõÜėõüõėõühOö56\] hOöhOöhrsŸhrsŸ56\]hrsŸhOö5\ hrsŸhOöhrsŸ hOö5\hOöhrsŸ5hrsŸhrsŸ5\ hrsŸhrsŸhOöBžŸ ¾./0c–—”®Æŗ»ŃēAB€ööńööööńńńöńńöńöńńöčńŪŪöń „p„Š^„p`„ŠgdOö„Š^„ŠgdOögdrsŸ„Š`„ŠgdOö»DEnopqØM„ČÉ<vxy{|~śńśččččśßŅččŅśśč芊ŠŠŠŠŠ „Š„Š^„Š`„ŠgdOö„Š^„ŠgdOö„Š`„ŠgdOö„ ^„ gdOögdrsŸ_mnpqØæĮvw¤„ČÉvwyz|}€‚”¢¶·ĄĮĀĆÄÅłõńźąłńłńłńłńłąŲłŠĢŠĢŠĢŠĢĮ²Į²¢²ĮžĢłhÉ]ShrsŸhÉ]SCJaJmHnHujhrsŸhÉ]SCJUaJhrsŸhÉ]SCJaJhu?yjhu?yUhOöhrsŸ5hrsŸhrsŸ5\ hrsŸhOöhOöhrsŸ hrsŸhrsŸ#‚ĀĆÄÅżūżżņ„Š`„ŠgdOö50P:prsŸ°Š/ °ą=!°ģ"°ģ#v$ %°°Š°Š ŠN 00P:prsŸ°Š/ °ą=!°ģ"°ģ#v$ %°°Š°Š P0 Šņ”ņŠņ”8 00P:p*„°Š/ °ą=!°ģ"°ģ#v$8%°°Š°Š Š†œ@@ń’@ NormalCJ_HaJmH sH tH DA@ņ’”D Default Paragraph FontRi@ó’³R  Table Normalö4Ö l4Öaö (k@ō’Į(No List4@ņ4 rsŸHeader  ĘąĄ!4 @4 rsŸFooter  ĘąĄ!–¹Å > ’’’’ 7> ’’’’ ‡> ’’’’56?š§“µLMcdeyz{|”Ė:q®ęP‘ßūAp™š«¬¼Ėö÷$l•–„¦©Ŗ­®Æ³“ø¹ŗ»č#$HIJXkl‚¤É÷ų78\]—˜Ö×÷ų-.YZ†‡ˆ½ņK L  » ¼ Ų Ł     E « ¬ ­ ® Æ ° ± ² ³ “ µ ¶ · Ņ ņ ó / 0 N O P e „ ¦ § Ō S T r ø ¹ ŗ Ė ž ’ ? @ • Ų DEŽßń’WXžŸ ¾./0c–—”®Æŗ»ŃēAB€»DEnopqØM„ČÉ<vxy{|~‚ĀĆĘ˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜@0€€˜0€€˜@0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€˜0€€hĪ00hŽ00 hĪ00hŽ00 hĪ00hŽ00 hĪ00hŽ00 @0€€hĪ00 hŽ00 56?š§“Lcd{|”Ė:q®ęP‘ßūAp™š¬¼Ė÷$l•„³»čJX‚¤É÷8]—˜Ö÷ų.Z†½L  » ¼ Ų Ł   E « Ņ / P e „ Ō S r ø Ė ž ’ ? @ • Ų DEŽń’WX ¾.c–”®ÆŗŃēB€»DEqØMČÉ<ĘjŽ00Ģš 0€€š0€€š 0€€€š 0€€€š 0€€€š@ 0€€€š0€€€š 0€€€š 0 €€€š 0 €€€š0€€€š0€€€š0€€€š0€€€š 0€€€š 0€€€š 0€€€š 0€€€š 0€€€š 0€€€š 0€€€š 0€€€š 0€€€š 0€€€š 0€€€š 0€€€š 0€€€š 0€€€š0€€€š0€€€š0€€€š 0€€€š 0€€€š0€€€š 0€€€š 0 €€€š@0€€€š 0#€€€š0€€€š0€€€š0€€€š0€€€š 01€€€š0€€€š0€€€š 05€€€š 06€€€š0€€€š 09€€€š 0:€€€š 0;€€€š0€€€š 0<€€€š 0>€€€š0€€€š 0@€€€š 0A€€€š 0C€€€š0€€€š 0F€€€š0€€€š@ 0^€€€š@0€€€š@ 0`€€€š@0€€€š@ 0a€€€š 0G€€€š0€€€š 0L€€€š0€€€š0€€€š 0O€€€š 0Q€€€š0€€€š 0S€€€š0€€€š 0U€€€š 0V€€€š0€€€š 0X€€€š0€€€š 0Z€€€š0€€€š 0\€€€š0€€€š 0b€€€š 0c€€€š 0d€€€š0€€€š 0e€€€š 0f€€€š0€€€š 0g€€€š 0h€€€š0€€€š 0j€€€š0€€€š 0l€€€š0€€€š 0n€€€š0€€€š0€€€š 0r€€€š0€€€š 0s€€€š0€€€š 0u€€€š0€€€š 0v€€€š 0w€€€š0€€€š 0x€€€š 0y€€€š0€€€š 0{€€€š0€€€š 0€€€š0€€€š 0€€€š 0‚€€€š 0„€€€š0€€€š 0…€€€š 0†€€€š€€ MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMPß _Å® ® —«§žÅÄ+@JP’•„µ»§°ÜåŪ ć ķ ū ó ž > I Š“Ŗ³ ":C— ¤­ŁāESˆāėvvxxyy{|~‚‹ŸĆĘœ¤Ø³ERAH×äčö0 2 “ » † ”  „°vvxxyy{|~‚ĆĘ333333333333  EE^_mpØØæĮōōMMvw¤„ÉÉ<<uvvxxyy{|~ĮĘvvxxyy{|~‚ĆĘž’’’p?Læ’’’’’’’’’’lG䜄’’’’’’’’’*„Š„˜žĘŠ^„Š`„˜žOJQJo(‡hˆH·š„ „˜žĘ ^„ `„˜žOJQJ^Jo(‡hˆHo€„p„˜žĘp^„p`„˜žOJQJo(‡hˆH§š€„@ „˜žĘ@ ^„@ `„˜žOJQJo(‡hˆH·š€„„˜žĘ^„`„˜žOJQJ^Jo(‡hˆHo€„ą„˜žĘą^„ą`„˜žOJQJo(‡hˆH§š€„°„˜žĘ°^„°`„˜žOJQJo(‡hˆH·š€„€„˜žĘ€^„€`„˜žOJQJ^Jo(‡hˆHo€„P„˜žĘP^„P`„˜žOJQJo(‡hˆH§š ž’’’n) ž’’’`n) ž’’’øn) ž’’’o) ž’’’€T) ž’’’X) ž’’’PX) ž’’’ØX) ž’’’Y) ž’’’XY) ž’’’°Y) ’lG’’’’n) @CJOJQJ^Jo(" ’’’’ln) @CJOJQJ^Jo( ’’’’Än) @CJOJQJ^Jo(" ’’’’TT) @CJOJQJ^Jo( ’’’’ŒT) @CJOJQJ^Jo( ’’’’ X) @CJOJQJ^Jo(" ’’’’\X) @CJOJQJ^Jo(" ’’’’“X) @CJOJQJ^Jo(" ’’’’ Y) @CJOJQJ^Jo( ’’’’dY) @CJOJQJ^Jo(" ’’’’[) @CJOJQJ^Jo( ’’’’’’’’          å~.É]SW-fu?y*„rsŸzhŖ®%ĪOö’@€uut8uuÅĄ@’’Unknown’’’’’’’’’’’’G‡z €’Times New Roman5€Symbol3& ‡z €’Arial?5 ‡z €’Courier New;€Wingdings"1ˆšŠh«†«† i % i %!šģv““4ll 2ƒqšHX š’?ä’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’rsŸ2’’#Principles of Biology Lecture Notescrowejcrowej  ž’ą…ŸņłOh«‘+'³Ł0Œ˜ÄŠąģų  ( H T `lt|„ä$Principles of Biology Lecture Notescrowej Normal.dotcrowej2Microsoft Office Word@@PŸ[ŽžĘ@PŸ[ŽžĘ iž’ÕĶ՜.“—+,ł®0  hp|„Œ” œ¤¬“ ¼ ģäWOU% l« $Principles of Biology Lecture Notes Title ž’’’!"#$%&'ž’’’)*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGž’’’IJKLMNOž’’’QRSTUVWž’’’ż’’’Zž’’’ž’’’ž’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’Root Entry’’’’’’’’ ĄF n˜{ŽžĘ\€Data ’’’’’’’’’’’’ 1Table’’’’(į>WordDocument’’’’Į>SummaryInformation(’’’’’’’’’’’’HDocumentSummaryInformation8’’’’’’’’PCompObj’’’’’’’’’’’’q’’’’’’’’’’’’ž’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’ž’ ’’’’ ĄFMicrosoft Office Word Document MSWordDocWord.Document.8ō9²q