ĐĎॹá>ţ˙ }ţ˙˙˙|€˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙˙ěĽÁ5@ řż÷ebjbjĎ2Ď2 +j­X­XL4$˙˙˙˙˙˙ˆÖÖÖÖÖÖÖęRARARA8ŠADÎA\ę>V(6BLB(tBtBtBtBtBtBUƒUƒUƒUƒUƒUƒU$fWR¸Yš§UQÖFtBtBFF§UÖÖtBtBřU˙O˙O˙OFžÖtBÖtBU˙OFU˙O˙OPMPÄÖÖ!UtB*B )ĐšĘRAŁKVUUV0>VURZůMđRZ!UęęÖÖÖÖRZÖ!U`tBź0C†˙OśCl"DătBtBtB§U§Uęę¤ Ž"ÄéOęęŽ"Individual Differences in Second Language Learning Age of acquisition The relationship between a learner’s age and his/her potential for success in second language learning is complex or controversial. The relationship needs to take into account 1) the learner’s cognitive development 2) the learner’s motivation 3) the learner’s goal for learning L2 (i.e., in what aspects of the L2 the learner has achieved) 4) the contexts in which the learner learns L2 (including quantity & quality of language input, learning environment, learning time, and socio-cultural contexts) Research findings: 1) L2 development in informal language learning environments where the L2 is used primarily: Children can eventually speak the L2 with native-like fluency, but their parents and older learners (i.e., post-puberty learners) are hard to achieve such high levels of mastery of the spoken language, especially in pronunciation/accent. Adults and adolescents can make more rapid progress toward mastery of an L2 in contexts where they can make use of the language on a daily basis in social, personal, professional, or academic interaction. 2) L2 development in formal language learning conditions (i.e., classrooms) where the L1 is used primarily : In the early stages of the L2 development, older learners (adolescents and adults) are more efficient than younger learners (children). Learners who began learning an L2 at the elementary school level did not necessarily do better in the long run than those who began in early adolescent. It is more difficult for post-puberty learners to attain native-like mastery of the spoken language, including pronunciation, word choice, and some grammatical features. Conclusions : - At what age should L2 instruction begin? Those who support critical period hypothesis (CPH): Younger is better (particularly in the phonological achievement) Those who consider that the age factor cannot be separated from factors such as motivation, social identity, and the conditions for learning: Older learners may well speak with an accent because they want to keep their L1 identity, and the language input for adults is different from that for children because they rarely get access to the same quantity and quality of language input that children receive in play setting. When the goal is basic communicative ability of the TL, rather than native-like mastery, and when children’s native language remains the primary language, it may be more efficient to begin L2 or FL learning later (e.g., in early adolescence – at age 10, 11, or 12). When learners receive only a few hours of instruction per week, those who start later often catch up with those who began earlier. One or two hours a week will not produce very advanced L2 speakers, no matter how young they were when they began learning. Older learners may be able to make better use of the limited leaning time. Age is only one of the characteristics which affects L2 learning. The opportunities for learning (both inside and outside the classroom), the motivation to learn, and individual differences in intelligence, aptitude, personality, and learning styles have also been found to be important determining factors that affect both rate of learning and eventual success in learning the L2. Summary The research on individual differences is complex and the results of the research are not easy to interpret. This is because of the lack of clear definitions and methods for measuring individual characteristics The fact that the characteristics are not independent of one another: learner variables interact in complex ways. It remains difficult to predict how a particular individual’s characteristics will influence his or her success as a language learner. Teachers should take learners’ individual differences into account and to create a learning environment in which more learners can be successful in learning an L2. On how age affects L2 learning in natural and instructed settings Age effects “The earlier the better” Opinions “The bilingual children I have met over the years learnt their skills at a very young age. When a child arrives in school with no English they learn quickly.” (British teacher; Enever, forthcoming) “Children are learning language anyway and pick it up naturally” (British teacher; Enever, forthcoming) “The younger they are, the more they are like sponges, the more they absorb, the more they retain.” (Spanish parent; Torras, Tragant & García,1997) ... like a sponge young children “soak up” languages Scientific facts? Critical Period Hypothesis (Lenneberg, 1967) “... after the critical period language acquisition may be impossible or incomplete” Scientific facts? Multiple sensitive periods Some variability in ages of onset and offset Environmental influence Different timings for pronunciation (age 6), morphosyntax (midteens), … Theoretical and applied dimensions Theoretical dimension A biologically determined period ’! an innate language-specific faculty A valid SLA theory needs to solve the problem of age-related outcomes (Long, 2007) Applied dimension When to begin FL teaching at schools? This talk Point out asymmetries concerning age-effects in natural and instructed learning contexts. SLA and FLA Characteristics of FL learning settings 5 asymmetries Conclusions SLA vs. FLA SLA resembles the natural way young children learn their L1, i.e., by implicitly acquiring the language while attempting to use it in communicative contexts for real-world purposes Instructed FLA draws more on conscious learning, explicit focus on form, and controlled practice. Foreign language settings 1. instruction is limited to 2-4 sessions of approx. 50 min. / week 2. exposure to the TL during those class periods may be limited both in source (mainly the teacher) and quantity 3. the TL is not the language of communication between peers 4. the teacher’ s oral fluency may be limited 5. the TL is not spoken outside the classroom 5 asymmetries 1. Age-related advantages 2. Age of acquisition 3. Ultimate attainment 4. Length of exposure 5. Learning mechanisms Asymmetry 1: Learning outcomes Naturalistic L2 learning Late starters – short-term rate advantage Early starters – long-term ultimate attainment advantage Johnson & Newport (1989), DeKeyser (2000), Snow & Hoefnagel-Höhle (1978), … Learning outcomes Instructed L2 settings? …. can we automatically generalize?! Instructed FL learning. Explore age effects in a foreign language setting at different points in time (short/long term defined by increments of instruction/exposure) for different language abilities mixed design including longitudinal data ...late starters are more efficient Advantage not uniform with respect to: - phonetics/phonology - morphosyntax - listening comprehension Gap reduced when difference in age (and cognitive development) is reduced as well Phonetics Initial age of learning not conclusive determinant… (Fullana, 2006) “Accented L2 input hypothesis” Morphosyntax ES < LS Increase in morphosyntax gains around puberty years ... in the long-term? In an instructed L2 learning setting do younger starters outperform older starters in the long-term? ... in the long-term? “… if the older learners’ advantage is mainly due to their superior cognitive development, no differences in proficiency are to be expected when differences in cognitive development also disappear with age.” (Muńoz, 2006: 34) …getting a clearer picture of age effects in a school setting … Same amount of instruction different age at testing. Early starters < Late starters In the long term, early starters may catch up but no long-term advantage > Late starters are more efficient learners Different amount of instruction same age at testing Early starters > Late starters in oral/aural skills In the long term, late starters catch up to early starters in literacy skills Burstall (1975); Oller & Nagato (1974); Harley (1986); Swain & Lapkin (1986); Turnbull et al. (1998); … Different amount of instruction same age at testing - When there is enough exposure, older starters show higher learning efficiency in literacy skills as well. - Are younger starters’ higher oral/aural skills an effect of their initial age of learning or of exposure/instruction? … Age effects or Time effects?? “… no explanation has yet been provided for why in school settings the additional time associated with an early headstart has not been found to provide more substantial long-term proficiency benefits.” (Harley, 1998) Asymmetry 2: Age of acquisition Natural settings Age of acquisition = = beginning of significant exposure Significant exposure “… to participate in social settings effectively dominated by the L2” (Stevens, 2006) = …learners are able to carry out a variety of speech acts over a wide range of situations and topics “... immersion in the L2 context (Birdsong, 2006) Significant exposure? NO social settings dominated by L2 in which to participate learners are not able to carry out a variety of speech acts over a wide range of situations and topics NO immersion: 3-4 hours / week Significant exposure? Previous instruction in home country? No correlation found (Johnson & Newport, 1989, etc.) Exception (Urpunen, 2004) Disregarded: ”insignificant” (White & Genesee, 1996) Asymmetry 2: Initial point Instructed settings Age of acquisition = Beginning of insignificant exposure Asymmetry 3: Ultimate attainment UA = final product of L2 acquisition = +/- nativelikeness Final product entails cessation of learning that appears in spite of optimal learning conditions (including input that is neither quantitatively nor qualitatively limited). Han (2004); Han & Odlin (2006); Selinker & Lamendella (1979) .. Asymmetry 3: Ultimate attainment Instructed settings The requirement of having optimal learning conditions (including input that is neither quantitatively nor qualitatively limited) is not fulfilled in foreign language learning. Asymmetry 4: Length of exposure Natural settings: Length of time of residence ’! ultimate attainment in L2 (native-like) Snow (1983): 2 yrs > 5 yrs Slavoff & Johnson (1995): 3 yrs not enough Krashen et al. (1979): 5 yrs DeKeyser (2000): 10 yrs Asymmetry 4: length of exposure Instructed settings 10 years (14 h / day) = 51.100 hours = 12.775 weeks (4h / week) = 245 years … Asymmetry 5: Learning mechanisms Natural settings “...automatic acquisition from mere exposure to a language may disappear after puberty…” (Lenneberg,1967: 176) “… between the ages of 6-7 and 16-17, everybody loses the mental equipment required for the implicit induction of the abstract patterns underlying a human language.” (DeKeyser, 2000) Implicit acquisition “the implicit acquisition processes… require massive amounts of input, that only a total immersion program can provide, not a program with a few hours of foreign language per week.” (DeKeyser, 2000) Asymmetry 5: implicit vs. explicit Natural settings provide enough comprehensible input to make form-meaning mappings ... suited for younger learners Instructed settings provide explicit instruction (“short-cuts”)… suited for older learners, but do not provide the amount and intensity of input necessary for implicit learning. Conclusions Contribution of studies in natural contexts Overgeneralization The earlier the better in any situation and independently of learning conditions (exposure, pedagogical, etc.) Contribution of studies in instructed contexts ... provided it is associated with enough significant exposure - distributed intensively - and with opportunities for participating in a variety of L2 social contexts ... children need water like a sponge! Research agenda To determine the amount of input required for an early start to be effective in promoting language learning To focus on the relative gains of different-age pupils with different types of time distribution The distinction between short-term and long-term benefits of starting at different ages The comparative study of the learning rate of different-age learners to inform educators about what to expect after n years of FL instruction from different-age learners (Muńoz, 2008) Further reading: (visit  HYPERLINK "http://dewalika.yolasite.com" http://dewalika.yolasite.com) Age and SLA: A critical review Bibliographical references Krashen, S., Long, M., and Scarcella, R. (1979) Age, rate and eventual attainment in second language acquisition. TESOL Quarterly 9, 573-582. Reprinted in S.D. Krashen, R.C. Scarcella and M.H. Long (eds) (1982) Child-Adult Differences in Second Language Acquisition (pp. 161-72). 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Lamendella. 1979. The role of extrinsic feedback in interlanguage fossilization: A discussion of “rule fossilization: A tentative model”. Language Learning 29/2: 363-375. Skehan, P. (1998) A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Snow, C. and Hoefnagel-Höhle, M. (1978) The critical period for language acquisition: Evidence from second language learning. 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