ࡱ> GIF{ #bjbjzz 7:u)JJ8$<*tPPfffAAA6*8*8*8*8*8*8*$+,.|\*AA\*ffq*222vff6*26*22r#-)f`n%A,2)"**0*@)VY/Y/)Y/)A>,2$AAA\*\*nAAA*Y/AAAAAAAAAJ j: Chapter 1 Introducing Psychology and Research Methods What Is Psychology? Psychology Psyche: Logos: Definition: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes Behavior: Overt; i.e., can be directly observed Mental Processes: Covert; i.e., cannot be directly observed Based on Empirical Evidencesystematically observe behavior and collect data to draw conclusions about behavior. How? By using scientific observation and research methods PsychologistsGuaranteed not to shrink (p. 37 - 40) Psychologists: Usually have masters or doctorate. Trained in methods, knowledge, and theories of psychology. Clinical Psychologists: Treat psychological problems with talk therapy or do research on therapies and mental illnesses (degree: Ph.D) Counseling Psychologists: Treat milder problems, such as poor adjustment at work or at a school (degree: M.A. or Ph.D) Psychiatrists: M.D.; usually use medications to treat problems. Generally do not have extensive training in providing talk therapy. Psychoanalysts: Receive additional Freudian psychoanalytic training post-Ph.D. or M.D. at an institute. Counselors: Advisers who help solve problems with marriage, career, school, or work Psychiatric Social Workers: Many have masters degrees and perform psychotherapy. Use social science principles. Presently a very popular profession. Not all psychologists perform therapy! Some psychologists specialize in research. Research Specialties Development:: Course of human growth and development Learning: How and why it occurs in humans and animals Personality: Traits, motivations, and individual differences Sensation and Perception: How we come to know the world through our five senses Social: Human and social behavior Cultural: How culture affects human behavior Cognitive: How reasoning, problem solving, and other mental processes relate to human behavior Evolutionary: How our behavior is guided by patterns that evolved during human history What Are the Goals of Psychology? Describe Behaviors: name and classify Understand: stating the causes of behavior Predict: accurately forecasting behavior Control: Altering conditions that affect behaviors Positive Use: Negative Use: History of Psychology (Brief!): Beginnings Wilhelm Wundt: Father of Psychology 1879: Set up first lab to study conscious experience Introspection: looking inward -- Titchener brought Wundts ideas to the U.S.called Structuralismgoal was to break down the structure of mental life into building blocks. History of Psychology: William James William James (American) and Functionalism How the mind functions to help us adapt to our environment Functionalists admired Darwin and his theory of Natural Selection History of Psychology: Behaviorism and Cognitive Behaviorism Behaviorism: Watson and Skinner Psychology must study observable behavior objectively Cognitive: Study mental processes Cognitive Behaviorism: Ellis and Bandura Our thoughts influence our behaviors; used often in treatment of depression History of Psychology: Gestalt The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Key names: Wertheimer, Perls History of Psychology: Freud Psychoanalytic: Freud Our behavior is largely influenced by our unconscious wishes, thoughts, and desires, especially sex and aggression. Freud performed dream analysis Repression: History of Psychology: Humanism Humanism: Rogers and Maslow Goal of psychology is to study unique aspects of the person; focuses on subjective human experience. Each person has innate goodness and is able to make free choices Maslow: Self-actualization: Develop ones full potential and become the best person you can be Three Perspectives on Psychology The Biological Perspective: Explains behavior in terms of biological principles such as brain processes, evolution, and genetics. The Psychological Perspective: Views behavior as a result of psychological processes within each person. The Sociocultural Perspective: Stresses the impact that social and cultural contexts have on our behavior See table 1.3 on p. 30 Trends in Psychology Today Biopsychology: Our behavior can be explained through physiological processes Uses brain scans to gather data (CT, MRI, PET) Looks at neurotransmitters Treats psychological problems with medications Positive Psychology: Study of human strengths, virtues, and optimal behavior Cultural awareness--Many thoughts and behaviors are influenced by our culture. Psychologists need to be aware of the impact cultural diversity may have on our behaviors. The Scientific Method (p. 26) Six Basic Elements Observing Defining a problem Proposing a hypothesis (an educated guess that can be tested) Gathering evidence/testing the hypothesis Publishing results Building a theory Some Terms Hypothesis: Testable hunch or educated guess about behavior Operational Definition: States exact procedures used to represent a concept. Allows abstract ideas to be tested in real-world terms. Placebo effectchanges in behavior caused by belief that one has taken a drug Experimenter effectresearcher unintentionally influences the behavior of the subjects Single-blind experiment vs. double-blind experiment Critical Thinking (p. 21-25) Ability to analyze, evaluate, compare, critique, and synthesize information Based on four principles Few truths transcend the need for empirical testing Judging the quality of evidence is crucial Authority or claimed expertise does not automatically make an idea true Critical thinking requires an open mind How to Critically Evaluate New Information Ask the following: What claims are being made? What test (if any) of these claims has been made? Who did the test; how good is the evidence? What was the nature and quality of the tests? Are they credible and can they be repeated? How reliable and trustworthy were the investigators? How much credibility can the claim be given? Pseudo-Psychologies Pseudo means false. Any unfounded system that resembles psychology and is NOT based on scientific testing Why are there so many believers? Uncritical Acceptance: Tendency to believe positive or flattering descriptions of yourself Fallacy of Positive Instances: When we remember or notice things that confirm our expectations and forget the rest. Barnum Effect: Always have a little something for everyone. Make sure all palm readings, horoscopes, etc. are so general that something in them will always apply to any one person! (e.g., Crossing Over with John Edward) Separating Fact from Fiction Be skeptical. Consider the source of information. Ask yourself, Was there a control group? Look for errors in distinguishing between correlation and causation (are claims based on correlational results yet passed off as causations?). Be sure to distinguish between observation and inference (e.g., Robert is crying, but do we know why he is crying?). Beware of oversimplifications, especially those motivated by monetary reasons. 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