ࡱ> |~{ bjbjqq &ee8K,8 LO L &&&{}}}}}}*̊@}u&m&q&"&&} O,O,O,&  {O,&{O,O,xT} Ai'F{Ng08 | 'P }} s~O,&&&}})P&&&8&&&& &&&&&&&&& : Activity description Students use an online statistics module to learn about regression and correlation Suitability and Time Level 3 (Advanced), 23 hours Resources and equipment Student sheets, computers with Excel and internet access, slideshow (optional) Key mathematical language Scatter graph, dependent and independent variables, regression line, line of best fit, least squares method, standard error, correlation (positive, negative, linear, strong, weak), Pearsons product moment correlation coefficient, interpolation, extrapolation, causation. Notes on the activity The slideshow can introduce the activity. It includes a weblink to the DISCUSS module students will use.  HYPERLINK "http://www.mis.coventry.ac.uk/~nhunt/regress/index.html" http://www.mis.coventry.ac.uk/~nhunt/regress/index.html The main parts of the module are listed in the tables below, with information about what students are expected to learn. The Use column indicates essential parts. The Useful column lists sections students are recommended to complete. The Omit column identifies parts to be omitted unless they are useful for the specification you are using or for students other areas of study. These could also be extension work for students who complete the rest quickly. The student worksheet leads students through the Use and Useful topics. Adapt the Word version if you wish students to do more or less than this. Questions on the last slide help students reflect on their work. During the activity Students could work in pairs. Points for discussion Discuss the use of a scatter graph to find the relationship between two variables. Stress that the relationship could be linear or non-linear, so the use of a straight line of best fit and Pearsons correlation coefficient may not be appropriate in some cases. Students should appreciate that strong correlation does not always mean that a change in one of the variables causes a change in the other. Discuss the use of interpolation to estimate values, but point out the dangers of extrapolation. SectionMain pointsUseUsefulOmitIntroductionScatter graphs. Dependent and dependent variables. The purpose of scatter plots. Revision of y = mx + c. (ExamplesA line of best fit explores the relationship between the independent variable x and the dependent variable y. The x value can be used to predict the y value. The relationship is not usually exact it involves a random unpredictable element. The relationship can be modelled by an equation. The linear model y = mx + c is not necessarily the best.(LinesThe least squares method Regression line passes through mean point. Sum of residuals is zero. Sum of residual squares is minimised. The Excel functions INTERCEPT and SLOPE can be used to find the least squares regression coefficients.(ScalingWhat happens to the regression line when a constant is added to each x or y value, and what happens if each x or y value is multiplied by a constant.(CriteriaOther ways of finding a linear model may be better in cases where there is an outlier which heavily influences the least squares line.(Goodness of fitThree statistics that are used to measure how well a line fits the data are the standard error, s, the coefficient of determination, r2, and the correlation coefficient, r.(Standard errorThe standard error, s, is the square root of the average of the squared residuals.(R-squaredThe coefficient of determination, r2, is the % of the variability (as measured by the sum of the squared residuals) explained by the regression line.(CorrelationThe Pearson correlation coefficient, r. Correlation is perfect when r = ( 1, strong when r is greater than 0.8 in size, and weak when r is less than 0.5 in size.(More correlationThe three common pitfalls when interpreting a correlation coefficient involve causality, linearity and significance. With a small data set it is easy to achieve high correlation. High correlation does not necessarily mean that the relationship is linear. A zero value does not necessarily mean that there is no relationship it could be non-linear.(CausalityStrong correlation does not necessarily mean that a change in one variable causes a change in the other. The changes may be due to a third variable.(LinearityA very strong non-linear relationship may give a low value correlation coefficient.(Significance Signficance continuedA high value of the correlation coefficient may mean very little if the sample size is very small. Spreadsheets show what a bivariate Normal distribution looks like, what samples from such a distribution look like, how likely different values of the correlation coefficient are when there is no correlation, and when there is a particular correlation.( (AssumptionsThe relationship between x and y is assumed to be: y = ( + x) +  where  represents the unpredictable element in y due to random variation or measurement error. The values of  and  can only be estimated from the intercept, a, and slope, b, of the regression line. To quantify the reliability of any predictions you must assume linearity, independence, constant variance and Normality.(LinearityNon-linearity can be detected by examining the residuals. A plot of residuals against x values can be used to test whether the relationship is linear or non-linear.(IndependenceLack of independence of the random errors, , usually leads to a pattern in the residuals.(Constant VarianceFor simplicity it is usually assumed that the variance of the random errors, , is the same for all values of x, that is the points are assumed to lie in a band of constant width.(NormalityIt is assumed that the errors have a mean of 0 and variance 2. (Note that this webpage is incomplete.)(CheckingThe assumptions of linearity, independence and constant variance can all be checked by a plot of residuals against x values. The assumption of Normailty can be checked by drawing a histogram or Normal probability plot of the residuals.(PredictionsMaking predictions by interpolation is reliable, but extrapolation is not.(VariationDifferent samples give different lines and different predictions. The more observations that are used to find the regression line, the more accurate the line and the predictions made from it.(Error marginA confidence interval for the mean value of y expected when x = x0 is:  EMBED Equatiohiu}~   ' , . 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