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DEFININITIONS, RULES AND THEOREMS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS
Section 1- 2: The Nature of Data
Statistics a collections of methods for planning experiments, obtaining data, and then organizing, summarizing, presenting, analyzing, interpreting, and drawing conclusions based on the data. (p. 4)
Population complete collection of all elements to be studied (p. 4)
Census - collection of data from every element in a population (p. 4)
Sample a subcollection of elements drawn from a population (p. 4)
Parameter a numerical measurement describing some characteristic of a population (p. 5)
Statistic a numerical measurement describing some characteristic of a sample (p. 5)
Quantitative data numbers representing counts or measurements
Ex: incomes of students (p. 6)
Qualitative data can be separated into different categories that are distinguished by some nonnumeric characteristic
Ex: genders of students (p. 6)
Discrete data number of possible values is either a finite number or a countable number, Ex: number of cartons of milk on a shelf (p. 6)
Continuous (numerical) data infinitely many possible values on a continuous scale Ex: amounts of milk from a cow (p. 6)
Nominal level of measurement data that consist of names, labels, or categories only, Ex: survey responses of yes, no and undecided (p. 7)
Ordinal level of measurement can be arranged in some order, but differences between data values either cannot be determined or are meaningless
Ex: course grades of A, B, C, D, or F (p. 7)
Interval level of measurement like ordinal level, with the additional property that the difference between any two data values is meaningful but no natural zero starting point. Ex: Body temperatures of 98.2 and 98.6 (p. 8)
Ratio level of measurement the interval level modified to include the natural zero starting point. Ex: weights of diamond rings (p. 9)
Section 1- 3: Uses and Abuses of Statistics
Self-selected survey (voluntary response sample) one in which the respondents themselves decide whether to be included (p. 12)
Section 1 - 4: Design of Experiments
Observational study observe and measure specific characteristics, but we dont attempt to modify the subjects being studied (p. 17)
Experiment some treatment is applied, then effects on the subjects are observed (p. 17)
Confounding occurs in an experiment when the effects from two or more variables cannot be distinguished from each other (p. 18)
Random sample members of population are selected in such a way that each has an equal chance of being selected (p. 19)
Simple random sample of size n subjects is selected in such a way that every possible sample of size n has the same chance of being selected (p. 19)
Systematic sampling some starting point is selected and than every kth element in the population is selected (p. 20)
Convenience sampling simply use results that are readily available (p. 20)
Stratified sampling subdivide population into at least 2 different subgroups (strata) that share the same characteristics, then draw a sample from each stratum (p. 21)
Cluster sampling divide population area into sections (or clusters), then randomly select some of those clusters, and then choose all members from those selected clusters (p. 21)
Sampling error the difference between a sample result and the true population result; such an error results from chance sample fluctuations (p. 23)
Nonsampling error occurs when the sample data are incorrectly collected, recorded, or analyzed (p. 23)
CHAPTER 2: DESCRIBING, EXPLORING, AND COMPARING DATA
Section 2 - 2: Summarizing Data with Frequency Tables
Frequency table lists classes (or categories) of values, along with frequencies (or counts) of the number of values that fall into each class (p. 35)
Lower class limits smallest numbers that can belong to the different classes (p. 35)
Upper class limits largest numbers that can belong to the different classes (p. 35)
Class boundaries numbers used to separate classes, but without the gaps created by class limits. (p. 35)
Class midpoints average of lower and upper class limits (p. 36)
Class width difference between two consecutive lower class limits or two consecutive lower class boundaries (p. 36)
Section 2 - 3: Pictures of Data
Histogram bar graph with horizontal scale of classes, vertical scale of frequencies (p. 42)
Section 2 - 4: Measures of Center
Measure of center value at the center or middle of a data set (p. 55)
Arithmetic mean or just mean sum of values divided by total number of values. Notation: EMBED Equation.3 (pronounced x-bar) (p. 55)
Median middle value when the original data values are arrange in order from least to greatest. Notation: EMBED Equation.3 (pronounced x-tilde) (p. 56)
Mode value that occurs most frequently (p. 58)
Bimodal two modes (p. 58)
Multimodal 3 or more modes (p. 58)
Midrange value midway between the highest and lowest valued in the original data set, average of (p. 59)
Skewed not symmetric, extends more to one side than the other (p. 63)
Symmetric left half of its histogram is roughly a mirror image of its right half (p. 63)
Section 2 - 5: Measures of Variation
Standard deviation a measure of variation of values about the mean
Notation: s = sample s.d.;( = population s.d. (p. 70)
Variance a measure of variation equal to the square of the standard deviation
Notation: s2 = sample variance; (2 = population variance (p. 74)
Range Rule of Thumb (p. 77)
For estimation of standard deviation: s ( range/4
For interpretation: if the standard deviation s is known,
Minimum usual value ( (mean) 2 x (standard deviation)
Maximum usual value ( (mean) + 2 x (standard deviation)
Empirical Rule for Data with a Bell-Shaped Distribution (p. 78)
About 68% of all values fall within 1 standard deviation of the mean
About 95% of all values fall within 2 standard deviations of the mean
About 99.7% of all values fall within 3 standard deviations of the mean
Chebyshevs Theorem (p. 80)
The proportion of any set of data lying with K standard deviation of the mean is always at least 1-1/K2, where K is any positive number greater than 1. For K=2 and K=3, we get the following results:
At least 3/4 (or 75%) of all values lie within 2 standard deviations of the mean
At least 8/9 (or 89%) of all values lie within 3 standard deviations of the mean
Section 2 - 6: Measures of Position
Standard score, or z score the number of standard deviations that a given value x is above or below the mean
Sample Population
EMBED Equation.3 EMBED Equation.3
Section 2 - 7: Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA)
Exploratory data analysis - is the process of using statistical tools to investigate data sets in order to understand their important characteristics (p. 94)
5-number summary minimum value; the first quartile, Q1; the median, or second quartile, Q2; the third quartile, Q3; and the maximum value (p. 96)
Boxplot (or box-and-whisker diagram) graph of a data set that consists of a line extending from the minimum value to the maximum value, and a box with lines drawn at Q1; the median; and Q3. (p. 96)
CHAPTER 3: PROBABILITY
Section 3 - 1: Overview
Rare Event Rule for Inferential Statistics (p. 114)
If under a given assumption (such as a lottery being fair), the probability of a particular observed event (such as five consecutive lottery wins) is extremely small, we conclude that the assumption is probably not correct.
Section 3 - 2: Fundamentals
Event any collection of results or outcomes of a procedure (p. 114)
Simple event outcome or event that cannot be further broken down inter simpler components (p. 114)
Sample space all possible simple events for a procedure (p. 114)
Rule 1: Relative Frequency Approximation of Probability (p. 115)
P(A) = number of times A occurred
number of times trial was repeated
Rule 2: Classical Approach to Probability (Requires Equally Likely Outcomes) (p. 115) P(A) = number of ways A can occur = s number of difference simple events EMBED Equation.3
Rule 3: Subjective Probabilities (p. 115)
P(A), is found by simply guessing or estimating its value based on knowledge of the relevant circumstances.
Law of Large Numbers (p. 116)
As a procedure is repeated again and again, the relative frequency probability (from Rule 1) of an event tends to approach the actual probability.
Complement of a, denoted by(A, consists of all outcomes in which event a does not occur (p. 120)
Actual odds against ratio of event A not occurring to event A occurring:
P( EMBED Equation.3 ) / P( EMBED Equation.3 ) (p. 121)
Actual odds in favor ratio or event A occurring to event A not occurring
P( EMBED Equation.3 ) / P( EMBED Equation.3 ) (p. 121)
Payoff odds ratio of net profit (if you win) to the amount bet (p. 121)
Section 3 - 3: Addition Rule
Compound event any event combining two or more simple events (p. 128)
Formal Addition Rule (p. 128)
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) P(A and B)
Intuitive Addition Rule (p. 128)
Find the sum of the number of ways event A can occur and the number of ways event B can occur, adding in such a way that every outcome is counted only once. P(A or B) is equal to that sum, divided by the total numbers of outcomes.
Mutually exclusive cannot occur simultaneously (p. 129)
Section 3 - 4: Multiplication Rule: Basics
Independent occurrence of one event does not affect the probability of the occurrence of the other (p. 137)
Formal Multiplication Rule (p. 138)
P(A and B) = P(A) ( P(B(A)
Intuitive Multiplication Rule (p. 138)
Multiply the probability of event A by the probability of event B, but be sure that the probability of event B takes into account the previous occurrence of event A.
Section 3 - 5: Multiplication Rule: Complements and Conditional Probability
Conditional probability (p. 145) P(B(A) = P(A and B)
P(A)
Section 3 - 6: Probabilities Through Simulations
Simulation process that behaves the same way as the procedure, so that similar results are produced (p. 151)
Section 3 - 7: Counting
Fundamental Counting Rule (p. 156)
For a sequence of two events in which the first event can occur m ways, the second n ways, the events together can occur a total of m(n ways
Factorial Rule (p. 158)
A collection of n different items can be arranged in order n! different ways
Permutations Rule (When Items Are All Different) (p. 158)
(without replacement, order matters) nPr = EMBED Equation.3
Permutations Rule (When Some Items Are Identical to Others) (p. 160)
EMBED Equation.3
Combinations Rule (p. 161) (order does not matter)
nCr = EMBED Equation.3
CHAPTER 4: PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS
SECTION 4 - 2: Random Variables
Random variable a variable with a single numerical value, determined by chance, for each outcome of a procedure (p. 181)
Probability distribution a graph, table or formula that gives the probability for each value of the random variable (p. 181)
(P(x) = 1 where x assumes all possible values
0 ( P(x) ( 1 for every value of x
Discrete random variable finite or countable number of values (p. 181)
Continuous random variable has infinitely many values, and those values can be associated with measurements on a continuous scale with no gaps or interruptions (p. 181)
Section 4 - 3: Binomial Probability Distributions
Binomial probability distribution results from a procedure that meets all the following requirements: (p. 194)
The procedure has a fixed number of trials.
The trials must be independent.
Each trail must have all outcomes classified into two categories.
The probabilities must remain constant for each trial.
Section 4 - 5: The Poisson Distribution
Poisson distribution a discrete probability distribution that applies to occurrences of some event over a specified interval such as time, distance, area, or volume (p. 210)
P(x) = EMBED Equation.3 where e = 2.71828
CHAPTER 5: NORMAL PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS
Section 5 - 1: Overview
Normal distribution a distribution with a graph that is symmetric and bell-shaped (p. 226)
Section 5 - 2: The Standard Normal Distribution
Uniform distribution one of continuous random variable with values spread evenly over the range of possibilities and rectangular in shape (p. 227)
Density curve (or probability density function) a graph of continuous probability distribution with (p. 227)
The total area under the curve equal to 1.
Every point on the curve must have a vertical height that is 0 or greater.
Standard normal distribution a normal probability distribution that has a mean of 0 and a s.d. of 1 (p, 229)
Section 5 - 5: the Central Limit Theorem
Sampling distribution of the mean is the probability distribution of sample means, with all samples having the same sample size n.(p. 256)
Central Limit Theorem (p. 257)
Given:
The random variable x has a distribution with mean ( and s.d (.
Samples all of the same size n are randomly selected from the population of x values.
Conclusions:
The distribution of sample means(x will approach a normal distribution, as the sample size increases.
The mean of the sample means will approach the population mean (.
The standard deviation of the sample means will approach ( / n.
Section 5 - 6: Normal Distribution as approximation to Binomial Dist.
If np e" 5 a n d n q e" 5 , t h e n t h e b i n o m i a l r a n d o m v a r i a b l e i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y n o r m a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d w i t h t h e m e a n a n d s . d . g i v e n a s ( p . 2 6 8 )
( = n p ( = E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3
C o n t i n u i t y c o r r e c t i o n - A s i n g l e v a l u e x r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e i n t e r v a l f r o m x - 0 . 5 t o x + 0.5 when the normal distribution (continuous) is used as an approximation to the binomial distribution (discrete) (p. 272)
Section 5 - 7: Determining Normality
Normal quantile plot a graph of points (x, y), where each x value is from the original set of sample data, and each y value is a z score corresponding to a quantile value of the standard normal distribution.
CHAPTER 6: ESTIMATES AND SAMPLE SIZES
Section 6 - 2: Estimating a Population Mean: Large Samples
Estimator a formula or process for using sample data to estimate a population parameter (p. 297)
Estimate specific value or range of values used to approximate a population parameter (p. 297)
Point estimate a single value (or point) used to approximate a population parameter, the sample mean (x being the best point estimate (p. 297)
Confidence interval a range (or interval) of values used to estimate the true value of a population parameter (p. 298)
Degree of confidence (or level of confidence or confidence coefficient) the probability 1 - ( that is the relative frequency of times that the confidence interval actually does contain the population parameter (p. 299)
Critical value the number on the borderline separating sample statistics that are likely to occur from those that are unlikely to occur (p. 301) Za/2 is a critical value
Margin of error (E) the maximum likely difference between the observed sample mean (x and the true value of the population mean ( (p. 302)
E = Za/2 ( EMBED Equation.3
Note: If n > 30, replace ( by sample standard deviation s.
If n < 30, the population must have a normal distribution and we must know the value of ( to use this formula
Confidence interval limits the two values (x E and (x + E (p. 303)
Section 6 - 3: Estimating a Population Mean: Small Samples
Degrees of freedom the number of sample values that vary after certain restrictions have been imposed on all data values (p. 314)
Margin of error (E) for the Estimate of ( when n < 30 and population is normal (p. 314) E = ta/2 ( EMBED Equation.3 where ta/2 has n 1 degrees of freedom Formula 6-2
Confidence Interval for the Estimate of ( (p. 315)
(x E < ( < (x + E where E = ta/2 ( EMBED Equation.3
Section 6 4: Determining Sample Size Required to Estimate (
Sample Size for Estimating Mean ( (p. 323)
n = za/2( 2 Formula 6-3
E
Where za/2 = critical z score based on the desired degree of confidence
E = desired margin of error EMBED Equation.3 = population standard deviation
Section 6 - 5: Estimating a Population Proportion
Margin of Error of the Estimate of p (p, 331) E = za/2 EMBED Equation.3 Formula 6-4
Confidence Interval for the p (p, 331) p E < p < p + E
where E = za/2 EMBED Equation.3
Sample Size for Estimating Proportion p (p. 334)
When an estimate p is known: EMBED Equation.3 Formula 6-5
When no estimate p is known EMBED Equation.3 Formula 6-6
Sectiion 6 - 7: Estimating a Population Variance
Chi-Square Distribution (p. 343) (2 = (n-1)s2 Formula 6-7
( 2
EMBED Equation.3 where n = sample size, s2 = sample variance, ( 2 = population variance
Confidence Interval for the Population Variance ( 2
EMBED Equation.3 < ( 2 < EMBED Equation.3
CHAPTER 7: HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Section 7 - 1: Overview
Hypothesis a claim or statement about a property of a population (p. 366)
Section 7 - 2: Fundamental of Hypothesis Testing
Test Statistic (p. 372) EMBED Equation.3 w h e r e n > 3 0 F o r m u l a 7 - 1
P o w e r - t h e p r o b a b i l i t y ( 1 ) o f r e j e c t i n g a f a l s e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s ( p . 3 7 8 )
S e c t i o n 7 - 3 : T e s t i n g a C l a i m a b o u t a M e a n : L a r g e S a m p l e s
P - v a l u e p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g a v a l u e o f t h e s a m p l e t e s t s t a t i s t i c t h a t i s a t l e a s t a s e x t r e m e a s t h e o n e f o u n d f r o m t h e s a m p l e d a t a , a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s i s t r u e ( p . 3 8 7 )
S e c t i o n 7 - 4 : T e s t i n g a C l a i m a b o u t a M e a n : S m a l l S a m p l e s
T e s t S t a t i s t i c f o r C l a i m s a b o u t ( w h e n n d" 3 0 a n d ( i s U n k n o w n ( p. 400)
EMBED Equation.3
Test Statistic for Testing Hypotheses about ( or (2 (p. 418) Use Formula 6-7
CHAPTER 8: Inferences from Two Samples (n1 + n2)
Section 8 - 2: Inferences about 2 Means: Independent and Large Samples
Independent if sample values selected from one population are not related to or somehow paired with sample values selected from other population (p. 438)
Dependent if values in one sample are related to values in other sample often referred to as matched pairs (p. 438)
Test Statistic for Two Means: Independent and Large Samples (p. 439)
EMBED Equation.3
(1 and (2: If (1 and (2 are not known use s1 and s2 in their places, provided that both samples are large.
P-value: Use the computed value of the test statistic z, and find the P-value by following the procedure summarized in Figure 7-8 (p. 388).
Critical v a l u e s : B a s e d o n t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e l e v e l , f i n d c r i t i c a l v a l u e s b y u s i n g t h e p r o c e d u r e s i n t r o d u c e d i n S e c t i o n 7 - 2 .
C o n f i d e n c e I n t e r v a l E s t i m a t e o f ( 1 - ( 2 : ( I n d e p e n d e n t a n d L a r g e S a m p l e s )
( ( x 1 - x 2 ) E < ( ( 1 - ( 2 ) < ( ( x 1 - x 2 ) + E ( p . 4 4 2
C A L CULATOR: STAT, TESTS, 2-SampZTest
Section 8 - 3: Inferences about Two Means: Matched Pairs
Test Statistic for Matched Pairs of Sample Data (p. 450)
EMBED Equation.3 where df = n - 1 d = mean value of the differences d
Critical values: If n d" 3 0 , c r i t i c a l v a l u e s a r e f o u n d i n T a b l e A - 3 ( t d i s t r i b u t i o n )
I f n > 3 0 , c r i t i c a l v a l u e s a r e f o u n d i n T a b l e A - 2 ( z d i s t r i b u t i o n )
C o n f i d e n c e I n t e r v a l s d E < ( d < d E
w h e r e E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 a n d d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m = n - 1
C A L C U L A T O R : E n t e r d a t a i n L 1 L 2 ! L 3 , S T A T , T E S T S , T - T e s t , u s e D a t a , E N T E R
S e c t i o n 8 - 4 : I n f e r e n c e s a b o u t T w o P r o p o r t i o n s
P o o l e d E s t i m a t e o f p 1 a n d p 2 ( p . 4 5 9 )
x 1 + x 2
( p = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
n 1 + n 2
C o m p l e m e n t o f ( p i s ( q , s o ( q = 1 - ( p
Confidence Interval Estimate of p1 and p2 (p. 463)
( EMBED Equation.3 1 EMBED Equation.3 2) E < (p1 p2) < ( EMBED Equation.3 1 EMBED Equation.3 2) + E
Section 8 - 5: Comparing Variation in Two Samples
Test Statistic for Hypothesis Tests with Two Variances (p. 472)
EMBED Equation.3
Critical values: Using Table A-5, we obtain critical F values that are determined by the following three values:
The significance level (.
Numerator degrees of freedom = n1 1
Denominator degrees of freedom = n2 1
CALCULATOR: TESTS, 2-SampFTEST
Test Statistic (Small Samples with Equal Variances) (p. 481)
EMBED Equation.3 where EMBED Equation.3 and df = n1 + n2 + 1
Confidence Interval (Small Independent Samples and Equal Variances) (p. 481)
EMBED Equation.3 EMBED Equation.3
Test Statistic (Small Samples with Unequal Variances) (p. 484)
EMBED Equation.3 where df = small of n1 1 and n2 1
Confidence Interval (Small Independent Samples and Unequal Variances) (p. 484)
EMBED Equation.3 EMBED Equation.3
and df = small of n1 1 and n2 2
CALCULATOR: TESTS, 2-SampTTEST (for a hypothesis test) or 2-SampTInt (for a confidence interval)
CHAPTER 9: CORRELATION AND REGRESSION
Section 9 - 2: Correlation
Correlation exists between two variables when one of them is related to the other in some way (p. 506)
Scatterplot (or scatter diagram) a graph in which the paired (x, y) sample data are plotted with a horizontal x-axis and a v e r t i c a l y - a x i s . E a c h i n d i v i d u a l ( x , y ) p a i r i s p l o t t e d a s a s i n g l e p o i n t . ( p . 5 0 7 )
L i n e a r c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t r m e a s u r e s t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e p a i r e d x - a n d y - v a l u e s i n a s a m p l e .
r = n x y ( x ) ( y ) - 1 d" r d" 1 F o r m u l a 9 - 1
n ( x 2 ) ( x ) 2 n ( y 2 ) - ( y ) 2
T e s t S t a t i s t i c t f o r L i n e a r C o r r e l a t i o n ( p . 5 1 4 )
E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 C r i t i c a l v a l u e s : U s e T a b l e A - 3 w i t h d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m = n 2
T e s t S t a t i s t i c r f o r L i n e a r C o r r e l a t i o n ( p . 5 1 4 ) Critical values: Refer to Table A-6
Centroid the point EMBED Equation.3 of a collection of paired (x, y) data (p. 517)
CALCULATOR: Enter paired data in L1 and L2, STAT, TESTS, LinRegTTest. 2nd, Y=, Enter, Enter, Set the X list and Y list labels to L1 and L2, ZOOM, ZoomStat, Enter
Regression equation algebraically describes the relationship between the two variables (p. 525) y = bo + b1 x
Regression line (or line of best fit) graph of the regression equation (p. 525)
Only for linear relationships
Marginal change in a variable amount that the regression equation changes when the other variable changes by exactly one unit (p. 531)
Outlier point lying far away from the other data points in a scatterplot (p. 531)
Influential points points that strongly affect the graph of the regression line (p. 531)
Residual difference (y y) between an observed sample y-value and the value of y, which is the value of y that is predicted by using the regression equation. (p. 532)
Least-squares property satisfied by straight line if the sume of the squares of the residuals is the smallest sum possible (p. 533)
CALCULATOR: Enter data in lists L1 and L2, STAT, TESTS, LinRegTTest.
Section 9 - 4: Variation and Prediction Intervals
Total deviation - from the mean is the vertical distance EMBED Equation.3 which is the distance between the point (x, y) and the horizontal line passing through the sample mean EMBED Equation.3 (p. 539)
Explained deviation vertical distance EMBED Equation.3 - EMBED Equation.3 , which is the distance between the predicted y-value and the horizontal line passing through the sample EMBED Equation.3 (p. 539)
Unexplained deviation vertical distance EMBED Equation.3 - EMBED Equation.3 , which is the vertical distance between the point (x, y) and the regression line. (p. 539)
Coefficient of determination the amount of variation in y that is explained by the regression line computed as EMBED Equation.3
Standard error of estimate a measure of the differences (or distances) between the observed sample y-values and the predicted values y that are obtained using the regression equation give as (p. 541)
EMBED Equation.3
Prediction Interval for an Individual y (p. 543)
Given the fixed value EMBED Equation.3
Where the margin of error E is
EMBED Equation.3 xo represents the given value of x and ta/2 has n 2 df
CALCULATOR: Enter paired data in lists L1 and L2, STAT, TESTS, LinRegTTest.
Section 9 - 5: Multiple Regression
Multiple regression equation expression of linear relationship between a dependent variable y and two or more independent variables (x1, x2, xk) (p. 549)
Adjusted coefficient of determination - the multiple coefficient of determination R2 modified to account for the number of variables and the sample size calculated by Formula 9-7 (p. 552)
EMBED Equation.3 EMBED Equation.3 Formula 9-7
where n = sample size and k = number of independent (x) variables
Section 9 - 6: Modeling
CALCULATOR: 2ND CATALOG, choose DiagnosticOn, ENTER, ENTER, STAT, CALC, ENTER, enter L1, L2, ENTER
CHAPTER 10: MULTINOMIAL EXPERIMENTS AND CONTINGENCY TABLES
Section 10 - 2: Multinomial Experiments: Goodness-of-Fit
Multinomial experiment an experiment that meets the following conditions:
The number of trials is fixed. (p. 575)
The trials are independent.
All outcomes of each trial must be classified into exactly one of several different categories.
The probabilities for the different categories remain constant for each trial.
Goodness-of-fit test used to test the hypothesis that an observed frequency distribution fits (or conforms to) some claimed distribution (p. 576)
Test Statistic for Goodness-of-Fit Tests in Multinomial Experiments (p. 577)
EMBED Equation.3
where O represents the observed frequency of an outcome
Section 10 - 3: Contingency Tables: Independence and Homogeneity
Contingency table (or two-way frequency table) a table in which frequencies correspond to two variables (p. 589)
Test of independence tests the null hypothesis that the row variable and the column variable in a contingency table are not related (p. 590)
EMBED Equation.3
Critical values found in Table A-4 using degrees of freedom = (r 1) (c 1)
CALCULATOR: 2ND X-1, EDIT, ENTER, Enter MATRIX dimensions, STAT, TESTS, (2-Test, scroll down to Calculate, ENTER
CHAPTER 11: ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
Section 11 - 1: Overview
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) a method of testing the equality of three or more population means by analyzing sample variances (p. 615)
Section 11 - 2: One-Way ANOVA
Treatment (or factor) a property, or characteristic, that allows us to distinguish the different populations from one another (p. 618)
Test Statistic for One-Way ANOVA (p. 620) EMBED Equation.3
Degrees of Freedom with k Samples of the Same Size n (p. 621)
numerator df = k 1 denominator df = k(n 1)
SS(total), or total sum of squares a measure of the total variation (around x) in all of the
sample data combined (p. 622) EMBED Equation.3 Formula 11-1
SS(treatment) a measure of the variation between the sample means. (p. 623)
EMBED Equation.3 Formula 11-3
SS(error) sum of squares representing the variability that is assumed to be common to all the populations being considered (p. 623)
SS(error) = (n1 1)s21 + (n2 1)s22 + ``` + ( n k 1 ) s 2 k F o r m u l a 1 1 - 4
= ( ( n i 1 ) s 2 i
M S ( t r e a t m e n t ) a m e a n s q u a r e f o r t r e a t m e n t ( p . 6 2 3 )
M S ( t r e a t m e n t ) = S S ( t r e a t m e n t ) F o r m u l a 1 1 - 5
k 1
M S ( e r r o r ) m e a n s q u a r e f o r e r r o r ( p . 6 2 4 )
M S ( e r r o r ) = S S ( t o t a l ) Formula 11-6
N k
MS(total) mean square for the total variation (p. 624)
MS(total) = SS(total) Formula 11-7
N 1
Test Statistic for ANOVA with Unequal Sample Sizes (p. 624)
F = MS(treatment) Formula 11-8
MS(error)
Has an F distribution (when the null hypothesis Ho is true) with degrees of freedom given by
numerator df = k 1 denominator df = N k
CALCULATOR: Enter data as lists in L1, L2, L3, STAT, TESTS, ANOVA, Enter the column labels (L1, L2, L3), ENTER
Section 11 - 3: Two-Way ANOVA
Interaction between two factors exists if the effect of one of the factors changes for different categories of the other factor (p. 632)
CHAPTER 12: STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL
Section 12 - 2: Control Charts for Variation and Mean
Process data data arranged according to some time sequence which are measurements of a characteristic of goods or services that results from some combination of equipment, people, materials, methods, and conditions (p. 654)
Run chart sequential plot of individual data values with axis (usually vertical) used for data values, and the other axis (usually horizontal axis) used for the time sequence (p. 655)
Statically stable (or within statistical control) a process is if it has only natural variation with no patterns, cycles or unusual points (p. 656)
Random variation due to chance inherent in any process that is not capable of producing every good or service exactly the same way every time (p. 658)
Assignable variation results from causes that can be identified (such factors as defective machinery, untrained employees, etc.) (p. 658)
CHAPTER 13: NONPARAMETRIC STATISTICS
Section 13 - 1: Overview
Parametric tests require assumptions about the nature or shape of the populations involved (p. 684)
Nonparametric tests (or distribution-free tests) dont require assumptions about the nature or shape of the populations involved (p. 684)
Rank number assigned to an individual sample item according to its order in a sorted list, the 1st item is assigned rank of 1, the 2nd rank of 2 and so on (p. 685)
Section 13 - 2: Sign Test
Sign test a nonparametric test that uses plus and minus signs to test different claims, including: (p. 687)
Claims involving matched pairs of sample data Ho: There is no difference
Claims involved nominal data H1: There is a difference.
Claims about the median of a single population
Test Statistic for the Sign Test (p. 689)
For n d" 2 5 : x ( t h e n u m b e r o f t i m e s t h e l e s s f r e q u e n t s i g n o c c u r s )
F o r n > 2 5 : E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3
C A L C U L A T O R : @ n d , V A R S , b i n o m c d f , c o m p l e t e t h e e n t r y o f b i n o m c d f ( n , p , x ) w i t h n = t o t a l n u m b e r o f p l u s a n d m i n u s s i g n s , 0 . 5 f o r p , a n d x = t h e n u m b e r o f t h e l e ss frequent sign, ENTER.
Section 13 - 3: Wilcoxon Signed-Ranks Test for Matched Pairs
Wilcoxon signed-ranks test - a nonparametric test uses ranks of sample data consisting of matched pairs (p. 698)
Ho: The two samples come from populations with the same distribution.
H1: The two samples come from populations with different distributions.
Test Statistic for the Wilcoxon Signed-Ranks Test for Matched Pairs (p. 699)
For n d" 3 0 : T F o r n > 3 0 : E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3
W h e r e T = t h e s m a l l e r o f t h e f o l l o w i n g t w o s u m s :
T h e s u m o f t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e s o f t h e n e g a t i v e r a n k s
T h e s u m o f t h e p o s i t i v e r a n k s
S e c t i o n 1 3 - 4 : W i l c o x o n R a n k - S u m T e s t f o r T w o I n d e p e n d e n t S a m p l e s
W i l c o x o n rank-sum test a nonparametric test that uses ranks of sample data from two independent populations (p. 703)
Ho: The two samples come from populations with same distribution
H1: The two samples come from populations with different distributions.
Test Statistic for the Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Test for 2 Independent Variables (p. 705)
EMBED Equation.3 , EMBED Equation.3 EMBED Equation.3
n1 = size of the sample from which the rank sum R is found
n2 = size of the other sample R = sum of ranks of the sample with size n1
Section 13 - 5: Kruskal-Wallis Test
Kruskal-Wallis Test (also called the H test) nonparametric test using ranks of sample data from three or more independent populations to test (p. 710)
Ho: The samples come from populations with the same distribution.
H1: The two samples come from populations with different distributions.
EMBED Equation.3
Section 13 - 6: Rank Correlation
Rank correlation test (or Spearmans rank correlation test) nonparametric test that uses r a n k s o f s a m p l e d a t a c o n s i s t i n g o f m a t c h e d p a i r s t o t e s t ( p . 7 1 9 )
H o : p s = 0 ( T h e r e i s n o c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o v a r i a b l e s . )
H 1 : p s `" 0 ( T h e r e i s a c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o v a r i a b l e s . )
T e s t S t a t i s t i c f o r t h e R a n k C o r r e l a t i o n C o e f f i c i e n t ( p . 7 2 0 )
E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3
w h e r e e a c h v a l u e o f d i s a d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e r a n k s f o r a p a i r o f s a m p l e d a t a .
n d" 3 0 : c r i t i c a l v a l u e s a r e f o u n d i n T a b l e A - 9 .
n > 3 0 : c r i t i c a l v a l u e s o f r s a r e f o u n d b y u s i n g E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 F o r m u l a 1 3 - 1
C A L C U L A T OR: Enter data in L1 and L2, STAT, TESTS, LinRegTTest
Section 13 - 7: Runs Test for Randomness
Run a sequence of data having the same characteristic; the sequence is preceded and followed by data with a different characteristic or by no data at all (p. 729)
Runs test uses the number of runs in a sequence of sample data to test for randomness in the order of the data (p. 729)
5% Cutoff Criterion (p. 731)
Reject randomness if the number runs G is so small or so large i.e.
Less than or equal to the small e r e n t r y i n T a b l e A - 1 0
O r g r e a t e r t h a n o r e q u a l t o t h e l a r g e r e n t r y i n T a b l e A - 1 0 .
T e s t S t a t i s t i c f o r t h e R u n s T e s t f o r R a n d o m n e s s ( p . 7 3 3 )
I f ( = 0 . 0 5 a n d n 1 d" 2 0 a n d n 2 d" 2 0 , t h e t e s t s t a t i s t i c i s G
I f ( `" 0 . 0 5 o r n 1 > 2 0 o r n 2 > 2 0 , t h e t e s t s t a t i s tic is
Z = G (G
(G
Where (G = EMBED Equation.3 Formula 13-2
Where (G = EMBED Equation.3 Formula 13-3
ROUND OFF RULES
Simple rule Carry one more decimal place than ;is present in the original set of values, (p. 60)
Rounding off probabilities either give the exact fraction or decimal or round off final decimal results to 3 significant digits. (p. 120)
For EMBED Equation.3 - round results by carrying one more decimal place than the number of decimal places used f o r r a n d o m v a r i a b l e x . I f t h e v a l u e s o f x a r e i n t e g e r s , r o u n d E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 t o o n e d e c i m a l p l a c e . ( p . 1 8 6 )
C o n f i d e n c e i n t e r v a l s u s e d t o e s t i m a t e ( p . 3 0 4 )
W h e n u s i n g t h e o r i g i n a l s e t o f d a t a t o c o n s t r u c t a c o n f i d e n c e i n t e r v a l , r o u n d t h e c o n f i d e nce interval limits to one more decimal place than is used for the original set of data.
When the original set of data is unknown and only the summary statistics EMBED Equation.3 are used, round the confidence interval limits to the same number of decimal places used for the sample mean.
For sample size n if the used of Formula 6-3 does not result in a whole number, always increase the value of n to the next larger whole number. (p. 324)
Confidence interval estimates of p Round to 3 significant digits. (p. 332)
Determining sample size If the computed sample size is not a whole number, round it up to the next higher whole number. (p. 334)
Linear correlation coefficient round r to 3 decimal places. (p. 510)
Y-intercept bo and Slope b1 - try to round each of these to 3 significant digits. (p. 527)
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z = x "2x s C o m p O b j f O b j I n f o
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2A E q u a t i o n N a t i v e 4 _ 1 0 6 0 5 9 5 4 9 0 F ս7ս7 O l e
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( x 1
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t = ( x 1
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T = r
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r 2
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s c
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x 0
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