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es u es l l d) 7 l l 7 The Dialectology of Cebuano: Bohol, Cebu and Davao
Divine Angeli P. Endriga
University of Asia and the Pacific
Pearl Drive, Ortigas, Pasig City; University of the Philippines-Diliman
Unit 442, Bldg. 4, Guadalupe Bliss Condominiums
Phase I, Cembo, Makati City
+63-905-340-1792
dapendriga@gmail.com
dendriga@uap.edu.ph
ABSTRACT
This paper is a description of the dialectology of Cebuano spoken in the provinces of Bohol, Cebu and Davao. It notes the similarities and differences between the dialects with regards to phonology (only consonants and vowels are included) and other constructions relevant to the study.
Most of the data were gathered from Cebuano speakers from the respective provinces.
The author hopes that this study will be helpful in writing materials, to decide on a standard orthography etc. It will also help in understanding the nuances of Cebuano, so it can be taught easily and facilitate easier shift from the mother tongue into Filipino and English when students reach the stage of learning them.
THE CEBUANO LANGUAGE
Cebuano is the language spoken in the provinces of Cebu, Negros Oriental, Bohol, Southern Leyte and Southern Masbate. It is also the majority language and lingua franca in almost all of Mindanao except in the provinces of Sultan Kudarat, South Cotabato and Lanao del Sur. It is used as a trade language in Mindanao.
Cebuanos linguistic lineage is Austronesian, Malayo-Polynesian, Western Malayo-Polynesian, Meso-Philippine, Central Philippine, Bisayan and Cebuan. It has the ISO 639-2 three letter code ceb.
It is spoken by 19% of the population in 1948, 21% in 1960, 23% in 1975, 28% in 1990, and 29.29% in 1995. The speakers number from 15 to 20 million. The 2000 census is subject to debates because new categories were included, separating Boholano and Binisaya/Bisaya from Cebuano, making them distinct languages. 13% (10,030,667) speak Cebuano, 8% (5,778,435) Binisaya/Bisaya and 2% (1,837,361) Boholano which when taken together would comprise 23% of the population. Cebuano has more native speakers than Tagalog but Tagalog has more speakers, most of them are second-language learners.
Before the Spaniards and other Europeans came to the Visayas, there was no word or place called Cebu and no language was called Cebuano. There was a town named Sugbo and the Spaniards hispanized the name into Cebu and Cebuano to refer to the people and language spoken in Sugbo and adjacent areas.
What could have made the Spaniards name the language and the people as Cebuano? Historically, the province of Cebu had been the center of trade and politics in the Visayas Islands earning it the title The Queen City of the South. During the Spanish period, the Diocese (now Archdiocese) of Cebu included what are now the Diocese of Dumaguete (Negros Oriental and Siquijor), the Diocese of Maasin (Southern Leyte), andthe Dioceses of Tagbilaran and Talibon (Bohol). Cebu was the administrative center or Diocese. The missionaries might have noticed that the vernaculars spoken in Cebu, Southern Leyte, Eastern Leyte, Bohol, Negros Oriental, and Siquijor were mutually intelligible and they grouped them as dialects of one language.
The missionaries caused Cebuano to flourish. It was them who studied the system of the language, wrote it in the Roman alphabet and had them published or preserved. As early as 1521, Cebuano was recorded in word lists (~168) written by Antonio Pigafetta, the chronicler of Ferdinand Magellans expedition. It was also studied by the Augustinians and the Jesuits upon their arrival, but the books are written in Spanish. Examples of these grammar books, dictionaries and compilations are Martin de Radas (OSA) Bisayan Grammar (circa 1578), Juan Antonio Campions (S.J) Bisayan dictionary and collection of sermons, Pedro Oriols (S.J) undated manuscript of Vocabulario en Lengua Bisaya, Guillens Gramatica Bisaya and Esguerras Arte de la Lengua Bisaya. Other works were written by Mateo Sanchez, S.J, Alonso de Mentrida (OSA) and Francisco Encina (OSA). Masses were said in Latin; the readings and gospel were also in Latin but during the sermon, the priests translate them into Cebuano so the natives could understand. This was how the Mass is said when the order of Vatican II was not yet passed. The Bible was not formally translated into Cebuano but the priests interpret and translate them orally for preaching and their evangelizing work.
During the Spanish era, even until now, the Catholic Churchhas beenusing the Sialo vernacular (a.k.a. Carcar-Dalaguet version or south-eastern Cebuano) as the standard for Cebuano translations of religious publications which include the Bible, printed prayers, novenas as well as other materials like that of the lives of the saints and other instructional materials. Some of the earlier materials survive until today and they show that Cebuano has changed considerably from the 17th century up to the present. Following the order of Vatican II, the mass is also said in the vernacular.
From what can be deduced, Cebuano hastwo meanings. Primarily it applies to the people and language of the Province of Cebu. Dissecting the word morphologically as Cebu added with ano, it is clearly evident that it is related to Cebu. The suffix ano would mean of Cebu/ something which is related to Cebu. Cebuano is a Spanish word meaning of/from Cebu, like Cubano (Cuban), Argentino (Argentinian), Mexicano (Mexican) and Colombiano (Colombian).
Secondarily, it applies to all speakers of vernaculars mutually intelligible with the vernaculars of Cebu, regardless of origin or location,as well as to the language they speak.
The second meaning garnered objections. For example, generations of Cebuano speakers in northern Mindanao (Dipolog,Dapitan, Misamis Oriental, Misamis Occidental, coastal areas of Butuan) say that their ancestry traces back to Cebuano speakers native to their place and not from immigrants or settlers from the Visayas. Furthermore, they refer to themselves as Bisaya and not Cebuano and their language Binisaya. Many are surprised to learn that what they are speaking is really Cebuano. (See next section for the discussion on Cebuano, Bisaya and Binisaya).
The opposition to the second meaning was seen in the 2000 Census. The 2000 Census started new categories like Bisaya/Binisaya which is spoken by 8% of the population. This refers to Cebuano speakers in Mindanao. It also introduced Boholano as separate from Cebuano and is spoken by 2% of the population. Some observers in Dipolog note that there is a language called Bisaya which is closely related to Cebuano. This is certainly a result of confusion arising from not understanding that native speakers use Cebuano and Binisaya interchangeably. Dr. Jes Tirol, an expert on Cebuano said that all these are just different dialects of Cebuano because they have the same grammar with the exception of some different lexicon.
To summarize, Cebuano refers primarily to theinhabitants of the Province of Cebu, their descendants,and to the language they speak. It refers to both the people and the language. No one argues with this definition. Secondarily, though there are some who disagree with this, Cebuano applies to all speakers of vernaculars mutually intelligible with the vernaculars of Cebu, regardless of origin or location of the speakers, and their ancestry.
2. CEBUANO, BISAYA, BINISAYA
In common/everyday parlance, Bisaya is the term used to refer to Cebuano. Whenever a person or a language is called Bisaya (lang. Binisaya), it is a common notion or it would immediately refer to Cebuano despite the fact that there are many languages in the Visayas which in general are called Visayan or Binisaya. Is Bisaya any different from Cebuano? How do they differ?
This impression probably came about in 1948, when Cebuano speakers comprise one fourth of the Philippine population. This however had gone down to 22% in the 1995 Census and the result of the 2000 census is still debatable.
There are many languages categorized as Binisaya (Visayan)- Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Waray etc. They are separate languages because they are not mutually intelligible and that the syntax and morphology are different although they are of the same subgroup. Their speakers are called Bisaya. If in Aklanon, Hiligaynon, Kinaray-a and other languages in the Western Visayan region, it is pronounced with the stress on the penultima [b js j A] w h e r e a s i n C e b u a n o , S u r i g a o n o n a n d o t h e r l a n g u a g e s i n t h e E a s t e r n V i s a y a s , i t h a s t h e s t r e s s o n t h e u l t i m a [ b js j A] ( Z o r c , 1 9 7 5 : 6 [ f o o t n o t e ] ) . T h e l a n g u a g e i s n o t e x c l u s i v e t o t h e V i s a y a s i s l a n d s s i n c e t h e i r e x t e n t i n c l u d e s t h a t o f M i n d a n a o a n d other areas in Luzon. According to Alzina (Zorc 1975:9), the Visayan region before includes Masbate, Southern Sorsogon and the northeastern part of Mindanao or the Surigao peninsula. The inclusion of Surigao is further attested by an account of V. de Napoles.
This situation can be compared to that in Bicol. Bicol has four main groupings, each with its own set of languages but each grouping and each language is identified as Bicolano.
Bisaya, therefore, is a generic word. It is used like the word Filipino; Cebuanos are Filipino, Tagalogs are Filipino, Ilocanos are Filipino, but not all Filipinos are Cebuano, not all Filipinos are Tagalog, not allFilipinos are Ilocano. Similarly, not all Bisaya are Cebuano, not all Bisaya are Ilonggo, not all Bisaya are Waray, but the Cebuanos, Ilonggos, Warays are Bisaya. As used by a Cebuano, Bisaya is interchangeable with Cebuano. To someone in Bacolod, Bisaya is interchangeable with Ilonggo (Hiligaynon). To someone in Tacloban or Samar, Bisaya is interchangeable with Waray but Cebuano, Ilonggo and Waray are not interchangeable (Atty. Faelnar; personal communication). Another observation is that, for the people in the academe and non-Cebuano speakers, the language is called Cebuano but for the native speakers the language, it is called Binisaya. If the speakers want to speak the language, they would say MagBinisaya lang ta or Binisay-on lang nato Lets speak/talk in Binisaya.
The identity Bisaya is not exclusive to the Philippines because it also refers to some minorit y t r i b e s i n S a r a w a k , B r u n e i a n d S a b a h . T h e d i s c o v e r y o f B i s a y a [ b js j A] t r i b e s t h e r e , a s e v i d e n c e d b y a r t i c l e s f r o m t h e S a r a w a k M u s e u m J o u r n a l a n d t h e S a b a h S o c i e t y J o u r n a l ( Z o r c , 1 9 7 5 : 5 5 ) , s t i r r e d a f l u r r y o f s t u d i e s o n t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e P h i l ippine Bisaya and the origin of the Bisaya people. However, the Bisaya in Borneo belongs to the Dusunic group (Prentice 1970: 377, as quoted in Zorc 1975:56), whereas Philippine Bisaya is subgrouped under the Central Philippine languages. Also, the Sultan of Brunei was identified by Western writers as Bisaya (Dr. Tiu; p.c).
As to the origin of the word Bisaya, there are many possibilities, as quoted in Zorc (1975; 52-55). It is said to have an Indic or Austronesian origin. It may be derived from the Sanskrit vijaya victory, victorious; visaya subject(s), dominion, territory, country, kingdom; vaicya third caste or sahaya slave. Another theory is that it came from vicara thought, thinking. This word is used for speak in Banton (Bantuanon subgroup ) , O d i o n g a n o n a n d S i b a l e n h o n , i n o p p o s i t i o n t o l a n g u a g e s w h i c h u s e * s a r i t a [ s a r i t a A] l i k e T a g a l o g s a l i t a . A s f o r t h e M a l a y o - P o l y n e s i a n e t y m o l o g y , i t i s p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e r e i s a n * - a y a r o o t w h i c h m e a n s c h a p , p e r s o n o r * d a y a w h i c h m e a n s i n l a n d o r u p r i v e r . A n o t h e r t h e o r y i n v o l v e s t h e r o o t * s a y a A h a p p y , c a r e f r e e .
A s t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n B i n i s a y a a n d B i s a y a , t h e s e a r e t h e d e f i n i t i o n s b y M r . E d g a r G o d i n , A s s o c i a t e E d i t o r o f t h e B i s a y a M a g a s i n .
B i s a y a p u n g a n ( n o u n ) u s a k a t a w o k u n l i n a l a n g n g a l u m ad sa Kabisay-an; katawhan sa Isla sa Kabisay-an; o natawo ug nanimuyo sa bisan diing dapit sa nasod o kalibotan kansang ginikanan kaliwat og Bisaya kun taga Kabisay-an og kagikan. (is a noun; a person native to the Visayas; born or living anywhere in the world whose parents are from the Visayas); therefore referring to the person
Binisaya 1. pungan (noun) lengguwahe o pinulongan sa katawhan sa Kabisay-an; 2. pungway (adjective) iya sa o kalabot sa mga Bisaya, sama sa lihok, kinaiya, proseso o pamaagi, ubp. (noun: language by the people in the Visayas , 2. Adjective, those of the Visayans, i.e movement, ownership, processes etc. ); therefore referring to the language and those that are of the Visayan people.
Also, Binisaya serves as a cover term for different languages in the Visayas and their dialects in Mindanao and also some languages in Mindanao.
In summary, Cebuano and Binisaya as a language and Cebuano and Bisaya as a people are interchangeable.
3. PHONOLOGY
3.1 Consonants
There are 16 phonemic consonants in Cebuano. Their variations between dialects are discussed below. All these consonants are unaspirated.
They can occur in syllable-initial and final positions. They can also be found in all word positions-initial, medial and final. /h/ is almost always found only in the syllable-initial and word-medial and initial position though it can also occur in syllable and word-final position. According to Zorc, it is possible to have a final [h] as a convention but it is in free variation with a final zero (Zorc 1975). For this paper, the author decided to use the final zero instead of positing a final [h]. Only /l,r,w,j,s/ can occur in syllable-medial position as a member of a consonant cluster, though in the discussion of clusters below /s/ and /t/ can become clusters as [st].
There are seven stops: /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, / g / a n d / A/ . / t / a n d / d / a r e d e n t a l s , n o t a l v e o l a r s . A l v e o l a r s a r e a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h t h e t o n g u e t o u c h i n g o r b r o u g h t n e a r t h e a l v e o l a r r i d g e w h i c h i s a s m a l l r i d g e p r o t r u d i n g j u s t b e h i n d t h e u p p e r f r o n t t e e t h w i t h i n t h e o r a l c a v i t y . H o w e v e r , i n C e b u a n o , t h e s e s e g m e n t s a r e p r o n o u n c e d a s d e n t a l s a n d a r e a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h t h e t o n g u e p u s h i n g a g a i n s t t h e b a c k o f t h e u p p e r t e e t h .
T h e v o i c e l e s s g l o t t a l s t o p / A/ i s t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l c o n s o n a n t o n s e t o f o r t h o g r a p h i c a l l y v o w e l - i n i t i a l w o r d s . I t a p p e a r s i n t h e m i d d l e b e t ween vowel sequences. It can occur in all positions. This is also called by Rodolfo Cabonce, S.J who wrote the An English-Cebuano Visayan Dictionary (p.17) as a sound stop. This phoneme causes a noticeable stop in articulation which was also noticed by the researcher in her informants. It happens most often in the middle of the word between vowel sequences (i.e [d ATl ] n e a r ; [ d An o l d ] o r a c l o s e d s y l l a b l e f o l l o w e d b y a v o w e l ( i . e [ t n Aw ] l o o k ; l j A g i n g e r ) .
T h e r e a r e t h r e e n a s a l s : / m / , / n / a n d / K/ .
T h e r e i s o n e t r i l l t h e / r / . T o p r o d u c e a t r i l l , t h e a i r i s i n t e r r u p t e d r e p e a t e d l y b y a v i b r a t i n g articulator. Most Cebuano words (as seen in dictionaries) with an initial and final /r/ are borrowed words but these words are already incorporated in the Cebuano lexicon.
The Cebuano r is originally a trill but there are people, as observed by the researcher, who pronounce the r as the English r which is an approximant. This is common among students who are exposed to English and their sound systems become interchanged. However, this does not cause any change in meaning. It would only sound different t o o n e a c c u s t o m e d t o h e a r i n g t h e r a s a t r i l l , a s i t r e a l l y i s .
I n s o m e p a r t s o f B o h o l , t h e l e t t e r r i s r e p l a c e d w i t h d w h e n i t i s f o u n d i n s i d e t h e w o r d o r i n w o r d - m e d i a l i n t e r v o c a l i c p o s i t i o n . E x a m p l e s a r e [ Ajd jK] f o r [ Ajr jK] c a t , a n d [ Ajd TA] f o r [ Ajr TA] d o g . T h i s m a y l e a d t o t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r / r / i s a s e p a r a t e p h o n e m e o r j u s t a n a l l o p h o n e o f / d / . T h e a u t h o r r e t a i n s t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t / r / i s a s e p a r a t e p h o n e m e . A l t h o u g h i t i s r a r e l y f o u n d i n n a t i v e w o r d s a n d m o s t l y i n b o r r o w e d w o r d s , t h e sound is already incorporated in the language and the Cebuanos have used the words as their own. Also, words with the /r/, except in some places in Bohol, are considered wrong when they are pronounced using other phonemes, like /d/.
Cebuano has two fricatives, the alveolar /s/ and the glottal /h/. /s/ appears in all positions while /h/ can only be found in word-initial and medial positions. It does not necessarily mean that words can end in vowels. As explained above, it is possible to have a final [h] as a convention but it is in free variation with a final zero (Zorc 1975) and for this work, the author opted for a final zero.
Cebuano phonology consists of only one lateral approximant- the alveolar /l/. It occurs in word-initial, medial and final positions. Like the voiced alveolar trill /r/, it can also be used to form consonant clusters. This phoneme undergoes many changes.
In Bohol and in Cebu (Cebu City), this phoneme becomes the glide [w] in intervocalic position, between the vowels / / a n d / / a n d v i c e - v e r s a . / w / , a l t h o u g h i t i s a s e p a r a t e p h o n e m e i n o t h e r c a s e s , i s j u s t a n a l l o p h o n e o f / l / i n t h i s e n v i r o n m e n t . I t i s o n l y a n a l l o p h o n e b e c a u s e i t d o e s n o t t r i g g e r m e a n i n g d i f f e r e n c e s a n d a C e b u a n o s p e a k e r o f B o h o l c a n s t i l l u n d e r s t a n d i t even if spoken in the Carcar-Cebu way. They are just alternative forms. After the change of /l/ to [w], the vowel which is after /l/ is deleted, but this is just an optional change. The researcher says that the vowel following /l/ which is now [w] is deleted because it can also have an alternative longer form. This is not a case of the diphthongization of the vowels [ ] a n d [ ] , a s i n [ l l m ] ( [ l m ] ( [ ] a n d [ ] j o i n i n g t o g e t h e r t o f o r m [ w ] , b u t [ l l m ] ( [ l w m ] ( [ l w m ] d e e p
I f / l / i s b e t w e e n [ ] a n d [ ] , t h e s e c o n d v o w e l , i n t h i s c a s e [ ] c a n b e d e l e t e d b u t i f i t i s b e t w e e n [ ] a n d [ ] , t h e v o w e l a f t e r / l / w h i c h i s [ ] c a n n o t b e e r a s e d ; i t i s t h e v o w e l b e f o r e w h i c h i s d e l e t e d .
E x . B e t w e e n [ ] a n d [ ]
[ Ajl l m ] ( [ Ajl w m ] ( [ Ajl w m ] u n d e r
[ b l d ] ( [ b w d ] ( [ b w d ] w a v e
B e t w e e n [ ] a n d [ ]
[ p l ] ( [ p w ] ( [ p w ] r e d
[ b l n ] ( [ b w n ] ( [ b w n ] m o o n , m o n t h
I n t e r v o c a l i c / l / c a n a l s o b e d e l e t e d b e t w e e n t w o l i k e v o w e l s . T h i s i s c o m m o n i n C e b u a n o - C e b u ( C e b u C i t y ) a n d B o h o l , b u t n o t i n S o u t h e a s t e r n C e b u t h o u g h t h e r e a r e t e r m s w h i c h a r e m o r e c o m m o n l y p r o n o u n c e d w i t h o u t t h e / l / l i k e [ w A] f o r [ w l A] n o n e a n d [ b j ] f o r [ b l j ] h o u s e . O r t h o g r a p h i c a l l y , t h e v o w e l a f t e r i t i s n o t w r i t t e n b u t p h o n e t i c a l l y , i t i s a c c o u n t e d b y t h e o b l i g a t o r y l e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e v o w e l l e f t e x c e p t i n c l o s e d s y l l a b l e s o r w h e n t h e / l / b e g i n s t h e a n t e p e n u l t i m a .
[ d l n ] ( [ d n ] r o a d
[ b l j ] ( [ b j ] h o u s e
[ w l ] ( [ w ] l e f t / l e f t h a n d
[ w l A] ( [ w A] n o n e , n o t h i n g
[ k l j T] ( [ k j T] f i r e
[ Al ] ( [ A] h e a d
N o l e n g t h e n i n g
[ k l t k t ] ( [ k t k t ] c l i m b
[ k l m Kg j ] ( [ k m Kg j ] m a l u n g g a y ( v e g e t a b l e )
I n C e b u a n o - D a v a o , s p e a k e r s a r e l e s s i n c l i n e d t o d r o p p i n g [ l ] o r c h a n g i n g i t t o [ w ] e x c e p t w h e n t h e y a r e i m m i g r a n t s f r o m p l a c e s i n C e b u w h e r e t h e / l / i s d r o p p e d o r c h a n g e d t o [ w ] , b u t t h e i n f o r m a n t s f o r t h i s p a p e r t e n d t o u s e t h e / l / .
F i n a l / l / a l s o t e n d s t o b e r e p l a c e d w i t h [ w ] i n w o r d - f i n a l p o s i t i o n i n B o h o l , e s p e c i a l l y i n A l b u q u e r q u e .
[ t m b l ] ( [ t m b w ] m e d i c i n e
[ b n l ] ( [ b n w ] s t r i k e ( u s u a l l y w i t h s c o l d i n g )
/ l / c a n a l s o b e c o m e / j / i n s o m e p l a c e s i n C e b u .
[ t jKl j] ( [ t jKj j] m a y b e
T h e r e a r e t w o g l i d e s - t h e v o i c e d l a b i a l - v e l a r / w / a n d t h e v o i c e d p a l a t a l / j / . B o t h o c c u r i n a l l w o r d p o s i t i o n s - i n i t i a l , m e d i a l a n d f i n a l . W h e n p r e c e d e d b y a v o w e l o n t h e s a m e s y l l a b l e , b o t h c a n b e u s e d t o f o r m d i p h t h o n g s . A l s o , t h e y c a n b e u s e d a s t h e s e c o n d m e m b e r o f a c o n s o n a n t c l u s t e r .
/ j / b e c o m e s t h e a f f r i c a t e [ ] i n B o h o l . T h i s i s t h e m o s t e v i d e n t s o u n d t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s C e b u a n o - B o h o l f r o m t h a t o f t h e o t h e r t w o . T h i s i s a l s o t h e c a s e w i t h S o u t h e r n L e y t e . B u t t h i s d o e s n o t h o l d t r u e f o r t h e w h o l e o f B o h o l . T o w n s f a c i n g C e b u C i t y ( e . g T u b i g o n , C l a r i n , S a g b a y a n , e t c . ) d o n o t u s e [ ] w h e r e a s t h o s e i n t h e n o r t h e a s t ( e . g U b a y , T a l i b o n , e t c . ) u s e t h e s o u n d . T a g b i l a r a n d o e s n o t u s e [ ] . T h e t o w n s u s i n g [ ] a r e t h e o n e s f a c i n g t h e p r o v i n c e o f S o u t h e r n L e y t e w h e r e t h e u s e o f [ ] i s m o r e p r o n o u n c e d a n d i s u s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e p r o v i n c e . S o u t h e r n L e y t e o s c a l l t h e i r C e b u a n o d i a l e c t a s B i n u l - a n o n o r s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f B o h o l . A l s o , y o u n g e r g e n e r a t i o n s t e n d t o u s e [ j ] i n s t e a d o f [ ] w h e n s p e a k i n g . [ ] i s j u s t a n a l l o p h o n e . P e o p l e c a n u s e e i t h e r o f t h e t w o a n d i t w i l l n o t l e a d t o a c h a n g e i n m e a n i n g .
/ j / c a n n o t b e [ ] i n a l l e n v i r o n m e n t s . I t h a s i t s r u l e . I t c a n o n l y b e c o m e [ ] w h e n i t i s i n s y l l a b l e - i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n .
[ j t ] ( [ t ] e a r t h , s o i l
[ s jj ] ( [ s j] h e / s h e ( 3 r d p e r s o n p r o n o u n )
[ k l j ] ( [ k j ] ( [ k ] f i r e
W h e n i t i s i n s y l l a b l e - f i n a l p o s i t i o n , i t c a n a l s o b e c o m e [ ] p r o v i d e d t h a t a n a f f i x a w i l l b e a d d e d . B y t h e n , i t w i l l m o v e t o a s y l l a b l e - i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n . T h i s i s a l r e a d y a p a r t o f m o r p h o p h o n e m i c s b u t i t i s d i s c u s s e d h e r e t o i l l u s t r a t e s o m e c h a n g e s .
[ b b Tj ] + a ( [ b b T] a s i n T a m b o k a a n a n g b a b o y a [ b b T] u y ! T h a t p i g i s v e r y f a t .
[ b l j ] ( [ b j ] + a ( [ b ] a s i n P a g k a d a k u a n a n g b a y a [ b ] . T h a t h o u s e i s v e r y b i g .
H o w e v e r , t h e r e a r e v e r y f e w e x c e p t i o n s . E v e n t h o u g h i t i s s y l l a b l e - i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n , i t c a n n o t b e c o m e [ ] .
[ b s jj T] ( * [ b s jT] e m p t y b o t t l e
[ b b j [] ( * [ b b [] w o m a n
3 . 2 V o w e l s
C e b u a n o h a s t h r e e p h o n e m i c v o w e l s - t h e h i g h , b a c k , r o u n d e d , l a x / / , t h e h i g h , f r o n t , u n r o u n d e d , l a x / j/ a n d t h e o p e n - m i d , b a c k , u n r o u n d e d , l a x / / . A s c a n b e n o t i c e d , a l l o f t h e s e v o w e l s a r e l a x . T h e v o w e l s d o n o t o c c u r i n w o r d - i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n b e c a u s e c o n v e n t i o n a l l y , a v o i c e l e s s g l o t t a l s t o p / A/ p r e c e d e s a l l w o r d s a n d s y l l a b l e s s t a r t i n g w i t h a v o w e l . T h o u g h o r t h o g r a p h i c a l l y w o r d s c a n s t a r t w i t h a v o w e l , t h i s i s n o t t h e c a s e w i t h p h o n o l o g y . T h u s , v o w e l s c a n o n l y o c c u r i n w o r d - m e d i a l a n d f i n a l p o s i t i o n s .
/ j/ h a s t h e h i g h , f r o n t , u n r o u n d e d t e n s e [ i ] a n d m i d , f r o n t , u n r o u n d e d l a x [ [] a s v a r i a t i o n s ; / / h a s t h e h i g h , b a c k , r o u n d e d t e n s e [ u ] a n d m i d , b a c k , r o u n d e d l a x [ T] a s v a r i a n t s . T h e s e a r e a l l i n f r e e v a r i a t i o n , p r o n o u n c i n g o n e w i t h t h e u s e o f i t s v a r i a n t w i l l n o t l e a d t o m e a n i n g d i f f e r e n c e s . T h e r e a r e o n l y t h r e e p h o n e m i c v o w e l s ; t h e i n c l u s i o n o f [ [] a n d [ T] u s u a l l y o c c u r s w i t h b o r r o w e d w o r d s a n d w i t h c e r t a i n p h o n o l o g i c a l c h a n g e s . [ [] i s w r i t t e n a s e a n d [ T] a s o , b u t t h e i r p r o n u n c i a t i o n s t i l l v a r i e s . A c c o r d i n g t o A n d r e w N e l s o n ( A n I n t r o d u c tion to Cebuano, 1964, xvi), in Cebuano, the vowel sounds may vary from one speaker to another, from one place to another, but the tolerance to the variation is such that it does not cause meaning differences whatever vowel sound variant is used.
There is a t e n d e n c y f o r t h e v o w e l s t o b e p r o n o u n c e d l o n g e r w h e n t h e y a p p e a r i n a n o p e n a c c e n t e d s y l l a b l e ( C V ) a n d s h o r t e r i n u n a c c e n t e d o p e n s y l l a b l e ( C V ) a n d c l o s e d s y l l a b l e s ( C V C ) .
T h e C e b u a n o U ( o r t h o g r a p h i c ) i s p r o n o u n c e d b e t w e e n U a n d O . T h e l i p s a r e c l o s e r t o g e t h e r a n d n o t a s r o u n d e d a s w h e n o n e p r o n o u n c e s t h e S p a n i s h U o r E n g l i s h O O .
R o d o l f o C a b o n c e , S . J . i n h i s C e b u a n o D i c t i o n a r y d e s c r i b e d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t s o f t h e v a r i a t i o n s . [ u ] a n d [ ] a r e e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e o r t h o g r a p h i c u a n d [ T] t o o . I t i s u s u a l l y [u] or [u]: (1) In the first (and middle) syllables; (2) in closed syllables before the bilabials (he wrote labial) b, p, m ; (3) before the dentals [t] and [d] and the alveolar [s] which are stressed; (4) in duplicate syllables (words which have the same segments i.e kubkub, supsup) before b, m, p, k, g, l, d, s, t, and y; and (5) in syllables with juxtaposed vowels, (adjacent vowels- i.e luub, luuk ) before b, m, p, k, g, l, d, s, and t. They are juxtaposed orthographically but in phonology, a glottal s t o p p r e c e d e s t h e s e c o n d v o w e l .
E x a m p l e s :
1 . [ Ad t ] n o o n ; [ b h t ] w o r k , c h o r e
2 . [ d k p ] c a t c h , a p p r e h e n d ; [ k l b ] c o v e r e d
3 . [ t k s ] m e a s u r e ; [ k m t ] h a n d
4 . [ s p s p ] t o s i p , s u c k ; [ k b k u b ] t o d i g
5 . [ t jb Ak ] w h o l e ; [ d Al n e a r
[ T] i s u s e d i n : ( 1 ) M o n o s y l l a b i c w o r d s ; ( 2 ) b e f o r e k , g , n g ( K) , n , l , a n d y ; ( 3 ) b e f o r e u n s t r e s s e d t , d , a n d s ; a n d ( 4 ) i n d u p l i c a t e s y l l a b l e s b e f o r e n g a n d n .
E x a m p l e s :
1 . [ k T] m e , m i n e ; [ m T] y o u , y o u r s
2 . [ t m b Tk ] f a t ; [ d b TK] u n r i p e
3 . [ t h Td ] k n e e
4 . [ b TKb TK] , [ t Tn t Tn ] ( t h e s e a r e n a m e s o f p e r s o n s )
F o r j u x t a p o s e d v o w e l s b e f o r e n g , n a n d y , h e s a i d t h a t t h e y u s e [ T] b u t t h r o u g h o b s e r v a t i o n s , t h e r e s e a r c h e r t h i n k s t h a t [ ] i s m o r e o f t e n u s e d .
[ b jt An ] s t a r i n s t e a d o f [ b j t TATn ]
[ l Aj ] p a t h e t i c , p i t i f u l i n s t e a d o f [ l TATj ]
[ T] i s a l s o o f t e n u s e d i n b o r r o w e d w o r d s . B i s a y a M a g a s i n r e t a i n s t h e o i n t h e b o r r o w e d w o r d s i n s t e a d o f w r i t i n g i t a s u , i . e p o l i s i n s t e a d o f p u l i s f o r p o l i c e .
T h e m o r e g e n e r a l r u l e i s t h a t [ T] c a n r e p l a c e / / i n a n y p o s i t i o n b u t u s u a l l y w h e n i t i s t h e f i n a l s e g m e n t o f a w o r d o r w h e n i t i s i n t h e u l t i m a . I t i s [ u ] o r [ ] i n o p e n a n d s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e w h i c h i s n o t i n t h e u l t i m a . D e s p i t e a l l t h e s e r u l e s , [ T] , [ ] a n d [ u ] a r e i n f r e e v a r i a t i o n . M i s p r o n u n c i a t i o n w i l l n o t l e a d t o a c h a n g e i n m e a n i n g . I t m a y s o u n d w e i r d b u t i t i s s t i l l u n d e r s t a n d a b l e .
/ j/ i s p r o n o u n c e d l i k e t h e I i n f i s h a n d i s . I t i s i n f r e e v a r i a t i o n w i t h t h e h i g h f r o n t u n r o u n d e d t e n s e [ i ] a n d t h e m i d , f r o n t , u n r o u n d e d l a x [ [] . I t h a s a t e n d e n c y t o b e p r o n o u n c e d a s t h e h i g h f r o n t u n r o u n d e d t e n s e [ i ] w h e n i t a p p e a r s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a s y l l a b l e o r t h o g r a p h i c a l l y . I t i s [ i ] o r [ j] i n s t r e s s e d o p e n s y l l a b l e s . I t u s u a l l y b e c o m e s [ [] i n s y l l a b l e f i n a l p o s i t i o n .
[ t jn j] ( [ t jn [] i n t e s t i n e
[ p t jA] ( [ p t [A] w h i t e
O r t h o g r a p h i c a l l y , t h e [ [] i s r e t a i n e d i n b o r r o w e d w o r d s w i t h t h a t s o u n d . ( e x . c a k e k e y k ]
/ / i s t h e o n l y v o w e l w i t h n o v a r i a t i o n , t h o u g h a s w h a t w a s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , i t i s p r o n o u n c e d s l i g h t l y h i g h e r i n o p e n s y l l a b l e s a n d l o w e r i n c l o s e d s y l l a b l e s . B e f o r e / w / , i t i s s o m e t i m e s p r o n o u n c e d l i k e [ T] [ l Tw ] l i k e i n [ w l T] b e c o m i n g [ w Tl T] , [ w l A] b e c o m i n g [ w Tl A] , b u t i t c a n a l s o b e p r o n o u n c e d o p e n l y a s [ ] . T h i s m a y b e a n e f f e c t o f t h e p h o n e m e / w / w h i c h i s l a b i a l - v e l a r i n a r t i c u l a t i o n w i t h t h e l i p s r o u n d e d . T h e r e f o r e , t h e a ( o r t h o g r a p h i c ) t h a t f o l l o w s / w / a s s i m i l a t e s w i t h t h e r o u n d i n g o f t h e l i p s r e s u l t i n g t o t h e u s e o f a r o u n d e d v o w e l .
O r t h o g r a p h i c a l l y , t h e p h o n e m e s a r e w r i t t e n a s i s w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f / K/ w h i c h i s w r i t t e n a s n g a n d / j / a s y . T h e g l o t t a l s t o p i s n o t w r i t t e n a t a l l o r i s s o m e t i m e s r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h a d a s h ( - ) i n w o r d - m e d i a l p o s i t i o n o r a n a p o s t r o p h e i n t h e f i n a l p o s i t i o n . T h e B o h o l [ ] i s s o m e t i m e s w r i t t e n a s j o r a s y . T h e v o w e l s a r e w r i t t e n a s a , i , a n d u . [ [] i s w r i t t e n a s e a n d [ T] a s o . T h e y a r e u s u a l l y r e t a i n e d i n b o r r o w e d w o r d s w h i c h a r e s p e l t w i t h e a n d o .
4 . S I M I L A R I T I E S A N D D I F F E R E N C E S
4 . 1 S i m i l a r i t i e s
A l l d i a l e c t s o f C e b u a n o h a v e l e n g t h e n e d v o w e l s , l i k e t h e D u t c h l a n g u a g e . T h i s i s c o m m o n t o w o r d s w h e r e t h e / l / o r / l / p l u s a n a c c o m p a n y i n g v o w e l , i s d r o p p e d . T h e l e n g t h e n i n g c o m p e n s a t e s f o r t h e l o s s o f t h e / l / l i k e i n w a [ w A] n o n e ( o r i g i n a l l y , w a l a [ w l A] ) . I n t s a t e a , t h e a i s p r o n o u n c e d l i k e t h e a a i n D u t c h v a a l , a s i n [ t s ] a n d n o t l i k e t h e T a g a l o g [ t s A] . A n o t h e r e x a m p l e i s t h e w o r d f o r y e s . A l t h o u g h i t i s w r i t t e n a s O o i t i s p r o n o u n c e d a s [ AT] a n d n o t l i k e t h e T a g a l o g [ ATAT]
A l l t y p e s o f C e b u a n o a r e f u l l o f t h e o g [ ATg ] a n d u g [ Ag ] s o u n d , a l t h o u g h t h e y h a v e d i f f e r e nt meanings depending on the usage. Og/Ug are polymorphic; they only have one form but they have different meanings. It is also full of the y [j] sound as in wa'y; unyay, kamiy, siyay. It is interesting to note that the y here can be used to replace the Tagalog marker ang.
Cebuano speakers have difficulty with non-Cebuano words with an i or e. Thus pink i s p r o n o u n c e d [ p [n k ] a n d r e d i s [ r jd ] . W i t n e s s b e c o m e s w e t n e s s [ w [t n [s ] . T h i s i s a l s o t h e c a s e w i t h o a n d u . I n s p e a k i n g E n g l i s h o r T a g a l o g , t h e y a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y t h e h a r d e a n d o . T h i s h a s l e d t o m a n y s t e r e o t y p e s a n d e x a g g e r a t i o n s b u t t h i s o n l y holds true for some, for there are speakers who does not have the gahing dila lit. hard tongue. This difficulty may have arisen from the original sound system of Cebuano which only includes three vowels.
4.2 Differences in sound
4.2.1 Cebuano- Bohol
Cebuano-Bohol or Binul-anon/Bol-anon is most known for its [ ] s o u n d w h i c h t a k e s t h e p l a c e o f / j / y i n s y l l a b l e - i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n . [ ] i n o r t h o g r a p h y i s w r i t t e n a s j a n d a l s o y . A s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e p a r t o n p h o n o l o g y ( a l t h o u g h i t i s a l r e a d y p a r t o f m o r p h o p h o n e m i c s ) , w h e n y [ j ] e n d s a w o r d , i t c a n a l s o b e c o m e [ ] j w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n o f a s u f f i x , w h i c h w o u l d m a k e i t s y l l a b l e - i n i t i a l a s i n [ b b Tj ] ( [ b b T] i n t h e s e n t e n c e T a m b o k a a n a n g b a b o j a u y ! T h a t p i g i s v e r y f a t . O t h e r e x a m p l e s a r e :
P a g k a d a k u a n a n g b a j a ( b a l a y a ) T h a t h o u s e i s v e r y b i g .
K a t a a s a n a n g k a h o j a ( k a h o y a ) . T h a t t r e e i s v e r y t a l l
P i n a n g g a j u d k o a n a n g n a n a j a ( n a n a y a ) . T h a t m o t h e r l o v e s m e v e r y m u c h .
W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f [ ] , w o r d s a r e p r o n o u n c e d l i k e t h a t i n C e b u C i t y w i t h t h e [ w ] s t h a n l i k e t h a t o f s o u t h e a s t e r n C e b u w i t h t h e [l]s.
Although the affricate is the distinguishing sound of Bol-anon, it does not hold true for the whole province. In some towns facing Cebu City (i.e Tubigon, Clarin, Sagbayan, Calape, Baclayon etc), they do not have it. Tagbilaran, the capital, also uses [j] instead of [ ] t h o u g h t h e r e a r e s o m e w h o u s e i t , e s p e c i a l l y t h e o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n s . T h o s e i n t h e n o r t h e a s t ( i . e U b a y , T a l i b o n , e t c . ) , i n C e n t r a l B o h o l , E a s t e r n B o h o l a n d i n t h e L o o n - M a r i b o j o c a r e a u s e t h e [ ] f r e q u e n t l y . T h e s e t o w n s a r e g a t e w a y s t o S o u t h e r n L e y t e w h e r e [ ] i s u s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e p r o v i n c e . A l s o , i f i t i s o f a n y r e l a t i o n , M e x i c a n s a l s o p r o n o u n c e t h e S p a n i s h y [ j ] t h i s w a y .
T h e l l o s t i t s s o u n d i n b e t w e e n t w o s a m e s o u n d i n g v o w e l s a n d b e c o m e w i n b e t w e e n a a n d o / u a n d v i c e - v e r s a . I n s o m e t o w n s , [ l ] c a n a l s o b e r e p l a c e d w i t h [ w ] i f i t e n d s a w o r d a s i n k a s a w f o r k a s a l w e d d i n g , k u r a w f o r k u r a l f e n c e , k a n a w f o r k a n a l c a n a l , b a g o w f o r b a g o l c o c o n u t s h e l l , a n d h a b o w f o r h a b o l b l a n k e t . W h e r e a s , i n D a u i s o n P a n g l a o I s l a n d , a n d i n B a c l a y o n , b o t h i n s o u t h w e s t e r n B o h o l , i f t h e s y l l a b l e w o e n d s a w o r d , i t i s p r o n o u n c e d a s i s a n d n o t s h o r t e n e d t o t h e l e t t e r w . E x a m p l e s : k a h i b a l o o r k a h i b a w k n o w , t o k n o w i s k a h i b a w o ; k a l o h a t i s k a - w o ; t a w o o r t a w h u m a n , m a n i s t a - w o . B a w ( B o h o l a n o e q u i v a l e n t f o r a m b o t I d o n t k n o w ) i s b a - w o .
I n L o o n a n d i n m a n y c e n t r a l l y l o c a t e d m u n i c i p a l i t i e s o f B o h o l ( S a n M i g u e l , C a t i g b i a n , D a n a o , D a g o h o y , e t c . ) , t h e u i s s o m e t i m e s p r o n o u n c e d l i k e t h e u i n c h u r c h . T h e s a m e u s o u n d i s u s e d i n t h e e a s t e r n t o w n o f A l i c i a . I p o s i t i t a s t h e s c h w a [ Y] s o u n d , s a m e a s t h e e i n F r e n c h l e [ l Y] t h e . I n t h e s e t o w n s , [ Y] c a n b e a c c o u n t e d a s a p h o n e m e , h e n c e / Y/ , s i n c e i t c a n c a u s e a d i f f e r e n c e i n m e a n i n g , a s i n t h e e x a m p l e .
T h e y s a y g i p a m u l o n g [ g jp m l TK] o r g i p a m u n g [ g jp m K] t o m e a n s o m e t h i n g i s u t t e r e d b u t w h e n i t i s p r o n o u n c e d a s g i p a m u n g [ g jp m YK] , i t m e a n s s o m e o n e i s i n t h e a c t o f l o o k i n g f o r s o m e t h i n g l o s t o r c a n n o t b e f o u n d .
I n T a g b i l a r a n , t h e C e b u a n o i s l i k e t h a t o f C e b u C i t y b u t w i t h a p e c u l i a r sing-song (rise-and-fall) sound. Other different-sounding speakers are those from the north (abrupt rise and fall, like that in Inabanga town) and south (gradual rise and fall). Also, an informant noted that from Cortez to Baclayon, the tone is like that of Cebuano in Misamis, with the exception of Barrio Biking in Panglao wherein their Cebuano is somewhat same as that of Siquijor.
However, with respect to the structure of the dialect, it is the same as Sinugbuanon.
4.2.2 Cebuano- Cebu
The main differen c e b e t w e e n t h e v e r n a c u l a r s o f C e b u i n v o l v e s t h e s e g m e n t s [ w ] a n d [ l ] . T h a t o f C e b u C i t y i s f u l l o f w ' s i n p l a c e o f l i n w o r d s w h e r e t h e l i s n o t d r o p p e d ; i . e k a h i b a w o i n s t e a d o f k a h i b a l o t o k n o w ; u w a n i n s t e a d o f u l a n r a i n . A s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p h o n o l o g y p a r t , i t a l s o d r o p s t h e l i f i t i s i n t e r v o c a l i c p o s i t i o n a n d i f t h e v o w e l s a r e a l i k e ; i . e w a A i n s t e a d o f w a l a A n o n e ; k a y o i n s t e a d o f k a l a y o f i r e .
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , S i a l o o r s o u t h e a s t e r n C e b u a n o i s f u l l o f L ' s : b u l o m b o n g w a l l i n s t e a d o f b u n g b o n g , k a l a t k a t c l i m b i n s t e a d o f k a t k a t , l a l u m d e e p i n s t e a d o f l a w o m .
I n t h e f a r n o r t h e a s t e r n p a r t o f C e b u , t h e / l / b e c o m e s a [ j ] ; i . e [ t jKl j] ( [ t jKj j] m a y b e .
T h e r e a r e a l s o i n s t a n c e s w h e r e t h e f i n a l a y e i s p r o n o u n c e d o n l y a s t h e d i p t h o n g / j / a s i n b a b a y e [ b b j [] ( [ b b j ] f e m a l e . A l s o , f i n a l a w o i s p r o n o u n c e d o n l y a s [ w ] ( i . e t a w o [ t w T] ( [ t w ] h u m a n ) .
C e r t a i n C e b u t o w n s h a v e a p e c u l i a r d e s c e n d i n g p a t t e r n t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f a s t a t e m e n t , l i k e t h o s e i n t h e s o u t h ( i . e Dalaguete, Alcoy and Boljoon). Northern (Bogo-Tabogon-Borbon) and Cebu City has the fastness of tone which is sometimes improperly interpreted as anger. Mid-north (Sogod) has the singsong feature and can also be heard in Southern towns. The variant of Cebu City is used in the metropolitan areas.
4.2.3 Cebuano- Davao
Davao, with respect to my informants, seems to have two types of Cebuano. The first is the one spoken by migrants from the Visayas and their descendants, which would correspond closely with the provinces where they came from. Over time, they tend to standardize into that of Cebu City or southeastern Cebuano. They are the people who use a vocabulary that can be considered deep, which consists of purely Cebuano words. The second type of Cebuano in Davaois spoken by migrants, rich or poor, from non-Visayan provinces and products of intermarriages and their descendants. Their dialect is a hodge podge of Cebuano, Tagalog and Ilonggo and other languages. Davao-Cebuano has a lot of borrowed words from Tagalog and other languages.
The first type of Cebuano in Davao would sound very similar to that of Cebu. Davaoenos either use the Cebu City variety where l is either dropped or replaced with w or the Sialo variety where there is a constant presence of l. My informants use more of the Southeastern Cebuano which is full of [l]s and also where segments are not often deleted. The second type is a product of the interaction of different people in Davao. This type is often heard in urban areas and th e f i r s t t y p e a m o n g t h e r u r a l a r e a s . M o r e v o e r , t h e s e c o n d t y p e w o u l d d i f f e r w i t h C e b u a n d B o h o l w i t h r e g a r d s t o s y n t a x a n d l e x i c o n .
4 . 3 L e x i c a l V a r i a t i o n s
4 . 3 . 1 C e b u a n o - B o h o l
I n B o h o l , e s p e c i a l l y i n A l b u q u e r q u e , t h e y s a y b a w o i n s t e a d o f a m b o t t o m e a n I d o n t k n o w ; T a g . a y w a n / e w a n ) . B a w o i s t h e s h o r t f o r m f o r W a l a k o m a k a h i b a l o I d o n t k n o w .
B o h o l a n o s a l s o u s e t h e w o r d d i s - a f o r a s a / d i i n w h e r e a n d s a n i f o r u n s a w h a t . T h e y s a y p a l a m u o t [ p l m AYt ] i n s t e a d o f k a t a w - a n a n s o m e t h i n g f u n n y , w h i c h i s c o m m o n i n C e b u a n d D a v a o .
S o m e w o r d s a r e e x c l u s i v e t o B o h o l T h e s e a r e : d a n g g a y h u m u s , h i m i d i r t y , i t i t o d r y u p ( a s i n n a - i t i n a a n g l i n u n g - a g f o r m i h u b a s n a a n g g i t a k - a n g T h e r i c e h a s n o w a t e r a l r e a d y ) , a n d t u k t u k [ t Yk t Yk ] t o s t a n d m o t i o n l e s s . A l s o , p e o p l e f r o m D a v a o f i n d t h e w o r d t u l i j u k [ t l jYk ] o r t u j u k [ t Yj Yk ] t o g o / t u r n a r o u n d ( t u l i y o k / t u y o k i n C e b u , t u y o k i n D a v a o ) , h a r d t o u n d e r s t a n d .
Y a m o i s a l s o a n e x c l u s i v e w o r d . I t m e a n s n o n e o r w a l a i n m o s t C e b u a n o d i a l e c t s . T h e e x p r e s s i o n w a l a y a m o i s a d o u b l e n e g a t i v e , e q u i v a l e n t t o a i n t n o t h i n g , a n d n o t t h e o p p o s i t e o f y a m o . T h i s w o r d i s p r o n o u n c e d a s [ j m T] o r w i t h t h e [ ] a s i n [ m T] d e p e n d i n g o n w h i c h p a r t o f B o h o l i s i t s p o k e n . I t c a n a l s o m e a n v e r y o r a s u p e r l a t i v e p a r t i c l e w h i c h i s k a a y o i n m o s t d i a l e c t s .
F o r t h e f i r s t p e r s o n s i n g u l a r g e n i t i v e p r o n o u n , i n s t e a d o f a k o A/ a k o Aa , t h e y s a y a h o A/ a h o Aa . T h i s l e a d s t o m i s c o n c e p t i o n s t h a t k ( h i n B o h o l a n o , b u t t h i s i s j u s t o n e i s o l a t e d c a s e .
4 . 3 . 2 C e b u a n o - C e b u
R e s i dents of Cebu City, Mandaue andMactan usually use contracted words, like stanan for sangatanan all, gyud or dyud/jud for gayud affirming and stressing particle, and kabaw for kahibalo to know. They also use din-a, dip-a, dis-a, wan-a, and wap-a for dili na not anymore, dili pa not yet, diin where, wala na none, and wala pa not present yet, respectively. These variants can be heard in the whole of Cebu City, also in Carcar, Dalaguet, Toledo and Bato.
In Cebu City, the possessive pronoun can be used as a dative, as in para nako for me, para nimo for you, sg, para niya for him/her/it, para nato for us, para ninyo for you, pl, and para nila for them. The possessive is added with the bound morpheme na or n- which is sa in Davao. In Sialo, the form is a true dative: para kanako, para kanimo, para kaniya, para kanamo, para kaninyo, and para kanila (same glosses as above).
The Sialo variation always uses three forms for where, which is similar to Russian. They use diin when asking for place of origin or denoting past action, hain when asking for the location of a thing, person or place, or denoting present action, and asa when asking for where people are going or denoting future action. This is also heard in Cebu City and northeastern Cebu, but then, Cebu City is a very cosmopolitan area where one can hear the usage from other places and provinces.
In Argao in southwestern Cebu, they say hae instead of hain and asa instead of diin. They also use ag instead of ang the which is similar to some parts of Southern Leyte.
In all vernaculars of Cebu, words for "come here" and "go there", are always collocated and rhyming: ari diri come here (closer); anhi dinhi come here; anha dinha Go there; and adto didto go yonder.
4.3.3 Cebuano-Davao
As noted above, Cebuano-Davao has two varieties. The first type does not vary significantly with that of Cebu. Davao, being home to diverse ethnicities, developed a second type of Cebuano which is a merry mix of languages, mostly Cebuano, Tagalog and Hiligaynon.
Dis-a or asa is used in Davao when asking for place of origin, or denoting past action. It is diin in Cebu. Ex. Dis-a man nimo gibutang ang gunting? Asa man nimo gibutang ang gunting? Where did you put the scissors?
There is less elision or contraction. Thus, call istawaga rather than tawga; cut is putulon rather than putlon, soften the meat by boiling well ispalata-i instead of palat-i.
To mean the superlative, they use the Tagalog pinaka- instead of kina- -an, i.e pinakadaku instead of kinadak-an biggest. They use halata instead of makamatikod to notice. They also use kay instead of kang as a marker for proper nouns; i.e Gipada na naho kay Mr. Sy I already sent it to Mr. Sy.
They use Adto diri go here to mean come here which is said as Anhi dinhi or Ari diri. They also use kadto diri, which according to my informants, is probably a borrowing from Hiligaynon because kadto/mokadto is the Hiligaynon word for come or go depending on the context i.e kadto diri come here, and kadto didto go there. They also use the prefix naga- in almost anything even when speaking in Tagalog, i.e nagakain instead of kumakain eat (progressive).
Cebuano verbs may sometimes have a Tagalog ending followed by Tagalog pronouns Pukawin mo ako Wake me up; sumbagin kita I will box/punch you. The kita in this example is the Tagalog kita (portmanteau of ko + ikaw) and not the Cebuano which means us.
They sometimes use hindi or dili for negation instead of wala and use the Tagalog conjugation for the verb, i.e hindi pa nakakaon instead of wala pa makakaon have not yet eaten. If wala is used at all, the syntax is Tagalog or that of a Luzon language, i.e wala nailisdan or wala gi-ilisdan instead of wala ilisdi was not replaced
Concerning the dative case of the personal pronoun, they use the preposition sa plus the possessive para sa akoa for me, para sa imoha for you, sg. para sa iyaha for him/her/it, para sa amoa for us, para sa inyoha for you pl, and para sa ilaha for them. This syntax is similar to Tagalog, Hiligaynon and Sorsoganon. The pronouns themselves are the variant form of the possessive pronouns.
They say Ihatag na sa iyaor Ihatag na sa iyaha Give that to him/her instead of Ihatag na niya o kaniya. In greetings, they say Maayong buntag sa imo instead of maayong buntag kanimo Good morning to you. It is common in Davao and my informant later learned that it sounds weird, yet understandable, for someone from Cebu.
The younger generation us e s n a i n s t e a d o f n g a a s a n a r t i c l e / d e t e r m i n e r . E x . G i m i n g a w n a k o k a n g ( M a r i s s a , n a ( i n s t e a d o f n g a ) n a g s u r o y o g m a r u y a a l a s t r e s s a h a p o n . I a m m i s s i n g M a r i s s a w h o p e d d l e s ( s e l l s ) m a r u y a a t 3 p m . I t c a n a l s o b e o b s e r v e d i n t h i s :
N a g h i g o t k o u g d u y a n ( p a r a s a i m u h a w a l a k a m i s a k a y ( h a d l u k k a m a h u l o g k u n g m u t a b y o g n i u g k u s o g . P e r o n a k i t a n a k o n i s a k a y k a s a d u y a n n a ( i n s t e a d o f n g a ) g i h i g o t n i y a .
I t i e d a c r a d l e f o r y o u . Y o u d i d n o t r i d e , y o u r e a f r a i d t o f a l l i f i t r o c k s h a r d . B u t I s a w y o u r i d e i n the cradle that he tied.
As an illustration on how the Davaoeos mix languages, read the following examples. Words which are not Cebuano are in bold letters.
To state a fact, Manileos say, Talagang mabait si Weng. In Davao, it is Mabait bitaw gyud si Weng Weng is really very good/nice.
Gagokaba diay para maniwala sa kanya Are you a fool to believe him? Huwag lagi ba! Dont/ Dont, I really mean it.
Kuyaw lagi `yan siya! Hes really extraordinary
Hindi ako makatu-o saginawa niya! I cant believe with what he did
Alam man nakin `yan ba! I really know that! (Note: Nakin is similar to the pronoun ko)
There are also some reconstructions done to words or conjugations which are not Cebuano like GI+ verb- Gisabi kasi ni Helen na mag-absent si Bernard bukas Helen said that Bernard will be absent tomorrow.; KA + adjective - Kapayat gyud ni Jasonngayon. Jason is very thin now; MAKA + verb - Maka-inis talagasi Albert, uy! Albert is really annoying/irritating; NAG + verb - Nagsabi kasi si Tita Prescy na pupunta daw tayo ng airport Aunt Prescy said that well go to the airport.
5. STANDARD CEBUANO
Out of all the dialects of Cebuano, with three given a description here, what can be considered as the standard for the language?
As mentioned above, the Sialo vernacular of Cebu (Carcar-Dalaguet or Southeastern Cebu) was and is the de facto standard used by the Catholic Church. It may be said that for written Cebuano, the de facto standard is the Sialo or Carcar-Dalaguet vernacular. This is further attested by informants who were asked to translate some sentences into their dialect that in writing they use the Sialo-Carcar variety. It can be said that spelling is separate from the phonetics and phonemics of the language. The Bohol variety may h a v e t h e [ d ] s o u n d , b u t i t i s w r i t t e n a s y . T h e s c h w a i n s o m e p a r t s o f B o h o l i s w r i t t e n a s u . I n d i a l e c t s w h e r e t h e / l / i s d r o p p e d , t h e y a r e s t i l l w r i t t e n w i t h / l / . T h e e x c e p t i o n m a y b e f o r t h e / w / t h a t r e p l a c e s / l / . I t i s n o t w r i t t e n a s l b u t a s w . Currently, there is still no orthography that can be considered standard by all. It is still in the works.
With the awakened interest in the language and the flowering of writers' groups like LUDABI (Lubas sa Dagang Bisaya - Core of Visayan Writers), BATHALAD (Bathalan-ong Halad sa Dagang - Godly Gift of the Quill), the Dagang Foundation, Inc., Kaliwat sa Karyapa of Bohol, Davao Writers' Guild, rivalry arose among the different dialects. The Sialo venacular dominates Catholic materials. The vernaculars of Cebu City, Iligan, Cagayan de Oro and Davao are gaining a stronghold because of their respective economic power, presence of universities, active writers' groups, and mass media (TV, radio, and print media). The dialects of Bohol and Southern Leyte are strong in their homelands.
There is no standard orthography but there are groups trying to set up one. Bisaya Magasin of the Manila Bulletin, the SunStar publications in the Cebuanolanguage - SunStarSuper Balita-Cebu,SunStar Super Balita-Cagayan de Oro, and SunStar Super Balita- Davao, the Banat News of the Philippine Star/Freemanand Bantay Balita of Bohol, have their own guidelines on spelling, syntax, morphology, style and usage (Atty. Faelnar, p.c). As an example, Bisaya Magasin retains the e and o in borrowed words, i.e bentana instead of bintana window; polis instead of pulis police. This is somewhat akin to the English-speaking countries where style and usage is determined by the large publishing houses and universities and not by the government. Also writers from Cebu City have started a trend of writing Cebuano as it is spoken in Cebu City. Others adhere to the Sialo-Carcar variety or to that of whatever magazine they are writing for.
With regards to spoken Cebuano, for some, the Sialo vernacular is also the standard although it is regarded with reservation with respect to words which retained the /l/ in intervocalic position, between two like vowels because in this position, the /l/ is usually dropped. Examples are dalagan run , balagtok, kalamunggay malunggay , and kalatkat climb instead of dagan, bagtok, kamunggay and katkat. This is not widely used elsewhere with the exception of Dumaguete and some towns in Negros Oriental. There are also words that retain the /l/ in the aforementioned position yet are as popularly spoken without it. Examples are wala left, balay house and kalayo fire (for wa, bay and kayo). The vernacular Bible is the best example for what can be considered as standard Cebuano, as well as public speeches. In Bohol, this variant of Cebuano is used for meetings, electoral campaigns and formal occasions instead of Binol-anon. It is also used in their balak (drama/community theater).
But all in all, there is yet no standard for spoken Cebuano. Having a standard language is a matter of power, acceptability and extensive usage. In each of the respective territories of Cebuano, there is a dominant variety, i.e those in their economic and educational centers.
6.THE CURRENT LANGUAGE SITUATION
The Cebuano language may be the strongest language next to Tagalog, with its number of speakers, many advocacy groups advancing its use and the usage of the language by its speakers. However, this language is still faced with problems.
In Bohol, Cebuano has a strong hold on the population for majority of the people there are originally Cebuano or migrants from Cebuano-speaking areas. It also has a prominent university-the University of Bohol- which houses studies on the Cebuano language. There are also many cultural organizations focused on preserving the heritage of Bohol and its language.
In Davao, almost 80% of the population are Cebuanos. Davao became a Cebuano speaking area because of the migration of the people, which happened full-scale in the 1930s. During the Spanish period, Tagalog was the lingua franca of Davao, because it was where the dregs of Luzon society were thrown, together with other people from the Visayas and the soldiers. It was already a melting pot of cultures which remains until today. Davao is a metropolitan region which is one of the developed areas in Mindanao. Cebuano-Davao faces threat from Tagalog. There are many people, especially those in the urban areas who use Tagalog as their medium of communication, even students in their classes. But this scenario is found only in the cities. In rural areas, Cebuano is still the language for everybody. Although Tagalog had remained in Davao, there is strength in numbers, therefore, Cebuano remains as the majority language.
Unlike Davao, Cebu was not a settlement area but still, Tagalog has been gaining a stronghold. This is mostly due to the mass media and the language used in schools as medium of instruction.
As the years go by, Cebuanos saw their numbers dwindle and the people are being stereotyped in the media as the Indays and Dodongs, servants, low-class people who are often the subject of comedy and mockery. They are distinguished by pronouncing the Tagalog/English e as [ j] o r [ i ] , a n d t h e o a s [ ] o r [ u ] . T h i s m a y b e t r u e f o r s o m e , b u t i n s h o w s , t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s o f t e n e x a g g e r a t e d . M a n y g r o u p s r e a c t e d t o o n e m o v i e e n t i t l e d S a k a l , S a k a l i , S a k a l o w h e r e i n G l o r i a D i a z , t h e g r a n d m o t h e r , t o l d h e r m a i d B a t m o p i n a l a k i n g Bisaya ang apo ko? Why did you rear my grandson as Bisaya? (can be equivalent to Cebuano), to which Judy Ann Santos, the mother adds, Dapat Tagalog para Pinoy It should be Tagalog to be Filipino. Following this paradigm, then, more or less 70% of the Philippine population are not Filipinos because they are not Tagalog native speakers or even second language speakers.
Movements were formed to protect the language, from professional writers to enthusiasts who are interested in preserving the language as well as the culture and identity of its speakers.
7. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
In the 2000 Census, the NSO created new categories of Boholano and Binisaya as distinct languages from Cebuano. According to the survey, 13% (10,030,667) speak Cebuano, 8% (5,778,435) speak Bisaya/Binisaya and 2% (1,837,361) speak Boholano. If they are counted altogether, it would comprise 23% (17,646,463)of the population. Bisaya/Binisaya obviously means Cebuano spoken in Mindanao though it has to be further studied since there are also many Hiligaynon speakers in Mindanao.
According to Dr. Jes Tirol, the Cebuano in Cebu and Bohol are the same, they are dialects of one language as they have the same grammar. Also, John Wolff noted that the Cebuano language is remarkably uniform (Wolff, 1972:vii). He compared Cebuano with English, noting that the differences in Cebuano are just the same as the differences between the various varieties of English spoken worldwide, with only minimal differences.
Though there are some lexical var i a t i o n s , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e t h r e e i s f u r t h e r a t t e s t e d h i s t o r i c a l l y i n Z o r c ( 1 9 7 5 : 3 5 4 - 3 5 5 ) w h e r e h e l i s t e d w o r d s w h i c h u n d e r w e n t t h e s a m e c h a n g e s i n B o h o l , C e b u a n d L e y t e d i s t i n c t f r o m o t h e r l a n g u a g e s w h i c h a r e B i n i s a y a . T h e s e a r e : 1 ) [ Ag ] , i n d e f i n i t e g e n i t i v e m a r k e r ; 2 ) [ An s ] w h a t ; 3 ) [ k jn s ] w h o ; 4 ) [ n j A] l a t e r o n ( s a m e d a y ) ; 5 ) [ g n jh ] e a r l i e r ( s a m e d a y ) ( k a n i n a / k a Ai n a i n o t h e r s ) ; 6 ) g a - p a s t t i m e p r e f i x a s i n g a n i h a e a r l i e r , g a h a p u n y e s t e r d a y g a b i i l a s t n i g h t ( k a - i n o t h e r s ) .
T h e f o l l o w i n g w o r d s a p p e a r t o b e e x c l u s i v e l y s h a r e d a n d l i m i t e d o n l y t o C e b u , B o h o l a n d L e y t e ( Z o r c 1 9 7 5 : 3 5 4 - 3 5 5 ) : 1 ) [ p Ak ] b i t e ( k g t i n o t h e r s ) ; 2 ) [ Ajg Ag w ] c o u s i n ; 3 ) [ b n t g ] m o r n i n g ; 4 ) [ d Al ] n e a r ( o t h e r s * r p jt o r * r a n j] N o t e : t h e * s t a n d s f o r t h e p r o t o f o r m ) ; 5 ) [ d l A] t o p l a y ; 6 ) [ s jKt ] s w e a t a n d 7 ) [ b l jb g ] t h r o w a w a y .
A l t h o u g h o n l y B o h o l a n d C e b u a n o a r e i n c l u d e d i n Z o r c s l i s t o f l e x i c a l i n n o v a t i o n s , t h e s e w o r d s a r e a l s o u s e d i n D a v a o . A c c o r d i n g t o D r . M c W h o r ter, dialects may differ in words but it is not enough to categorize them as different languages.
With regards to syntax, they are all the same. It is clear in Cebuano-Cebu and Bohol, as well as in Davao. Even though in Davao they use a mlange of languages, it only happens in the urban areas. In the rural areas, the speakers use the traditional Cebuano syntax and they also use the formal syntax (not the mixed one) in formal writing, formal affairs and conferences. Davaos lexicon is still Cebuano. They also follow Cebuano syntax most of the times than the syntax of other languages.
They are also dialects by virtue of mutual intelligibility. The speakers from these three dialects understand the dialect of the other. There may be differences but these are minimal compared to their sameness. The author for one can attest to this fact. She speaks the Southern Leyte variety which is close to Bol-anon but she can still understand the other three varieties. Her informants also notice this since they maintain correspondences. It is also the case with the different Cebuano speakers in the UP Diliman campus observed by the researcher and in other places as well. Communication is not a problem. There are no issues either concerning geopolitics and culture, two categories cited by Dr. McWhorter as influences in categorizing dialects and languages outside purely linguistic considerations.
The author concludes that Boholano, Sinugbuanon and Cebuano-Davao are dialects of one language which is called Cebuano or Binisaya for its native speakers. Therefore, they should all be counted as one language by the NSO and not as three separate categories like in the 2000 Census.
8. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author would like to thank the following people for the valuable help they gave in writing this paper (which is originally a thesis for Linguistics): Atty. Manuel Lino Faelnar, Dr. Macario Tiu, Edgar Godin, Reigh Monreal, Vincent Isles, Vincent Libot, John Endriga, Divina Endriga, Baltazar Endriga.
9. REFERENCES
Bunye, M.V.R & Yap, E.P. 1971. Cebuano for beginners. Honolulu : University of Hawaii Press.
Cabonce, R. 1983. An English- Cebuano Visayan dictionary. Caloocan: National Book Store.
Nelson, A. 1964. An introduction to Cebuano. Cebu: Rotary Press, Inc.
OGrady, W., Archibald, J. (eds.), Aronoff, M., and Miller, J.R. 2001. Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction, 4th ed. USA: Bedford/St. Martins.
Rubrico, J.G. 1996. An annotated bibliography of works and studies on the history, structure and lexicon of the Cebuano language : 1610-1996. Masters Thesis. Department of Linguistics, CSSP, UP-Diliman, Quezon City.
Trosdal, M. 1990. Formal-Functional Cebuano-English Dictionary. Cebu City.
Wolff, J.U. 1972. Dictionary of Cebuano Visayan. New York: Cornell University, Southeast Asia Program and Linguistic Society of the Philippines.
Zorc, R.D.P. 1975. The Bisayan dialects of the Philippines : sub-grouping and reconstruction. Michigan: Ann Arbor.
Manuel Lino Faelnar. Ang Atong Himatyon nga mga Sinultian (Paper presented at the Ludabi National Convention held at Casino Espaol, Cebu City, Jan. 19, 2008.)
Plong, P. 2006. About Cebuano. Retrieved February 20, 2009, from Southeast Asia Digital Library. http://sea.lib.niu.edu/lang/cebuano.html
Ethnologue. n.d.. Retrieved March 15, 2009, from Ethnologue. http://www.ethnologue.com/14/show_lang_family.asp?code=CEB
John McWhorter. Where Do You Draw the Line (video)? Manhattan Institute of Technology.
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