ࡱ>     0bjbjޤ Gv ƴƴw -dd))))))))8)D 75D ){?.{mmmm)o|t,u?AAAAAA$^"de)iv%o)oivive))mmz111iv(B)m)m?1iv?110O"Gm@Ye<)q+0WuA""GG(")oiviv1ivivivivivee;iviviviviviviv"ivivivivivivivivivd m(:  Contents 1 Oral ulcerative lesions Traumatic ulcer Eosinophilic ulcer Riga-Fede disease Psychiatric ulcer Iron deficiency anaemia Plummer-Vinson syndrome Vitamin B12 deficiency Folic acid deficiency Cyclic neutropenia Acute necrotic stomatitis or mucositis Fixed drug eruption Recurrent aphthous stomatitis Behcets disease Lupus erythematosus Erythema multiforme Lichen planus Pemphigus vulagris Mucous membrane pemphigoid Linear IgA disease Bullous pemphigoid Desquamative gingivitis Dermatitis herpetiformis Epidermolysis bullosa Angina bullosa haemorrhagica 2 Oral infections Primary herpes simplex Recurrent herpes simplex Herpetic whitlow Chickenpox Herpes zoster Herpes zoster oticus Hand, foot and mouth disease Herpangina Focal epithelial hyperplasia Infectious mononucleosis Necrotising ulcerative gingivitis Tuberculosis Syphilis Actinomycosis Acute pseudomebraneous candidiasis Erythematous candidiasis Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome 3 Systemic diseases with oral manifestations Scleroderma Amyloidosis Sarcoidosis Cystic fibrosis Wegeners granulomatosis Graft versus host disease Rheumatoid arthritis Food allergy Adverse drug reactions Crohn disease Ulcerative colitis Coeliac disease 4 Tongue disorders Geographic tongue Fissured tongue Lingual thyroid Angioedema Oral hairy leukoplakia Ankyloglossia Coated tongue Black hairy tongue Burning mouth syndrome Granular cell tumor Macroglossia Lingual varicosities 5 Oral white and red lesions Fordyces granules Leukoedema White sponge naevus Linea alba buccalis Lip and cheek biting Leukoplakia Erythroplakia Nicotine stomatitis Oral submucous fibrosis 6 Oral cancers Squamous cell carcinoma Verrucous carcinoma 7 Benign oral soft tissue tumors Squamous cell papilloma Verruca vulgaris Pyogenic granuloma Peripheral giant cell granuloma Lipoma Epulis fissuratum Oral fibroma Neurofibroma Oral traumatic neuroma Hereditary haemorrhagic telangectasia Haemangioma Lymphangioma 8 Salivary gland diseases Mumps Sialolithiasis Sialadenitis Sialosis Taste disorders Salivary gland tumors Sjogren's syndrome Juvenile recurrent parotitis Mucocele Ranula Necrotising sialometaplasia Xerostomia Sialorrhea 1 Oral ulcerative lesions Traumatic ulcer Traumatic injury involving the oral cavity is one of the commonest causes of surface ulcerations, and it is frequently overlooked. If a patient presents with ulcers for the first time or of recent onset, and is quite healthy, then traumatic ulcer should be suspected first. In most cases, the source of the injury is identified and the patients usual complaint is pain or a painful ulceration. Traumatic ulcers are usually sensitive to hot, spicy or salty foods, and they heal within a few days after removal of the irritant. Aetiology Physical, chemical, electrical or thermal insults. Fractured, carious, malposed or malformed teeth, as well as premature eruption of teeth. Poorly maintained and  HYPERLINK "http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1075994-overview" ill-fitting dental prosthetic appliances. Accidentally biting oneself while talking, sleeping or secondary to mastication. Diagnosis Usually a single ulcer is seen, with an obvious cause. There may be a small degree of ipsilateral cervical lymph node enlargement. Chronic irritation may cause hyperplasia or hyperkeratosis of the adjacent mucosa. Treatment Removal of the irritant or cause. Consumption of soft bland diet. Use of antiseptic and analgesic mouth washes. Application of topical corticosteroid oral gel. If the ulceration is accompanied with secondary infection, lymphadenitis and fever, then oral antibiotic therapy is recommended. Biopsy is needed if there is any suspicion of malignancy, or if the ulcer does not heal within 2 weeks of removal of the cause. Eosinophilic ulcer Eosinophilic ulcer of the oral mucosa is an uncommon benign ulcer that develops suddenly. It affects middle-aged to elderly adults. There is a slight female predominance reported. The lateral and dorsal surfaces of the tongue are most commonly affected, accounting for 60% of reported cases, followed by the lower lip. It appears as a solitary, painful nonhealing ulcer, with size ranges from a few mm to several cm. It should be differentiated from neoplastic ulcer. If eosinophilic ulcer is formed and chronic irritation persists, a reactive hyperplasia of the surrounding epithelium occurs, which appears as a raised white border. This keratosis is not present in a neoplastic ulcer which appears as a crater-like defect with raised rolled borders and indurated base. Aetiology The cause of eosinophilic ulcer is unknown. It may be due to chronic irritation or trauma. About one-third of patients have a history of a crush injury due to biting. Diagnosis The lesion is self-limiting. It has a characteristic appearance under the microscope. If left untreated, most heal spontaneously within 1 month, and this may be accelerated by excisional biopsy. Treatment The source of chronic irritation must be eliminated when an eosinophilic ulcer is due to obvious trauma. NSAIDs and topical anaesthetic oral rinses (eg lidocaine or dyclonine) may be used to provide temporary relief and comfort when the patient eats. Topical corticosteroid (eg triamcinolone oral gel or dexamethasone elixir) is often effective. As a rule, if the lesion does not resolve or if it continues to appear after 2 weeks of treatment, excisional biopsy is warranted. After biopsy, rapid healing of the ulcer is often typical, and no further treatment is necessary. Riga-Fede disease Riga-Fede disease is a form of eosinophilic ulcer that develops in infants, and typically is seen in children aged 1 week to 1 year. It usually occurs on the anterior ventral surface of the tongue. Aetiology It develops as a result of chronic mucosal trauma from adjacent anterior primary teeth, and it usually occurs in association with breastfeeding. Diagnosis The distinctive, self-limiting ulceration heals spontaneously upon removal of the trauma. Treatment Although extraction of the anterior primary teeth is not recommended, this may resolve the ulceration. If the teeth are stable, they should be retained and breastfeeding should be discontinued, or a protective shield should be constructed to prevent any further trauma. These measures are usually sufficient to resolve the condition. Psychiatric ulcer Rarely, oral ulceration may be self-induced (stomatitis artefacta) in the same way that some patients deliberately cause skin lesions in dermatitis artefacta. It is sometimes difficult to diagnose, and it is uncommon in children. It varies and depends on mode of production. Aetiology Lesions are produced or perpetuated by the patients own action. External causes include fingernails, sharp instruments, and chemicals. Diagnosis A vague history with frequent recurrence of ulcerations in the same area, which is accessible to the patient, delayed healing, non-specific histological features, and healing without scarring usually leads to diagnosis. Treatment Patients with repeated self-induced ulcerations may be considered for referral to a psychiatrist or psychologist. Iron deficiency anaemia It is the most common haematological deficiency, and can result in oral ulceration. Patients usually present complaining of a red sore tip of tongue, especially when eating hot or spicy food, which is an early sign of iron deficiency. Clinical examination may not reveal any obvious abnormality; although in long standing cases, loss of the fungiform and filiform papillae produce a smooth surface and a patchy atrophy with thinning of the mucosa. As the deficiency advances, the epithelium becomes eroded, leaving shallow ulcers resembling aphthae. Occasionally, in severe cases, large chronic ulcers are seen surrounded by areas of hyperkeratosis, which may resemble carcinoma. Angular cheilitis is common in iron deficiency, and pallor is unreliable, but may occur with low haemoglobin. Aetiology Poor absorption of iron by the body. Inadequate daily intake of iron. Blood loss due to heavy menstruation or internal bleeding.  HYPERLINK "http://www.mamashealth.com/pregnancy/" Pregnancy. Growth spurts. Diagnosis CBC and serum ferritin level should be routinely performed. In iron deficiency anaemia the blood picture is of hypochromic microcytic. Glossitis due to iron deficiency can occur even before the condition has progressed to anaemia, as measured by the haemoglobin level (sideropenic or latent anaemia). Treatment Analgesic mouth washes for oral ulcers. Ferrous sulphate or gluconate iron supplement for 3-6 months. Taking  HYPERLINK "http://www.mamashealth.com/oranges.asp" vitamin-C aides iron absorption. Referral to a haematologist is indicated. Plummer-Vinson syndrome Plummer-Vinson syndrome (PVS), also called Paterson-Brown-Kelly syndrome or sideropenic dysphagia, presents as a triad of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysphagia" \o "Dysphagia" dysphagia (due to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esophageal_webs" \o "Esophageal webs" esophageal webs),  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossitis" \o "Glossitis" glossitis, and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_deficiency_anemia" \o "Iron deficiency anemia" iron deficiency anaemia. Plummer-Vinson syndrome sufferers often complain of burning sensation of the tongue and oral mucosa; and atrophy of lingual papillae produces a smooth, shiny red tongue dorsum. Women are at higher risk than men, particularly in middle age. In these patients, esophageal  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squamous_cell_carcinoma" \o "Squamous cell carcinoma" squamous cell carcinoma risk is increased. Therefore, it is considered a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premalignant" \o "Premalignant" premalignant condition. Aetiology The cause is unknown.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" \o "Genetics" Genetic factors and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrition" \o "Nutrition" nutritional deficiencies may play a role. Diagnosis Serial contrasted gastrointestinal  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiography" \o "Radiography" radiography or upper gastrointestinal  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endoscopy" \o "Endoscopy" endoscopy may reveal the web in the esophagus. Biopsy taken of suspicious lesions may show epithelial atypia or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysplasia" \o "Dysplasia" dysplasia.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_tests" \o "Blood tests" Blood tests show a hypochromic  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcytic_anemia" \o "Microcytic anemia" microcytic anaemia that is consistent with iron deficiency anaemia. Treatment Primarily aimed at correcting the iron deficiency anaemia. Patients with PVS should receive  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron" \o "Iron" iron supplementation in their  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diet_(nutrition)" \o "Diet (nutrition)" diet, which may improve dysphagia and pain. If no improvement, then the web can be dilated during  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_endoscopy" \o "Upper endoscopy" upper endoscopy to allow normal swallowing and passage of food. Vitamin B12 deficiency Clinical presentation is similar to that with iron deficiency anaemia; and the initial sign is a tender red tip, which spreads over the entire dorsum. This active inflammatory reaction produces the red raw beefy tongue, which later regresses as the filiform, fungiform and circumvallate papillae atrophy. Finally, the entire tongue is smooth and atrophic, prone to traumatic ulceration and surface erosions. The ventral surface may also become reddened and sore with small ulcers similar to aphthae. Generalised mucosal atrophy may take months or years to develop. Angular cheilitis is rare in vitamin B12 deficiency. Aetiology It may be idiopathic, secondary to gastric surgery, autoimmune, or may be due to diseases of the terminal ileum. Diagnosis Routine blood screening for CBC, serum vitamin B12 level, and antiparietal cell antibodies (APCA) (autoantibodies against the intrinsic factor in pernicious anaemia) will lead to a diagnosis. Vitamin B12 deficiency results in a megaloblastic macrocytic anaemia. A Schilling test may also be helpful if pernicious anaemia is suspected. Schilling test Radiolabelled vitamin B12 (small dose) given orally. Unlabelled vitamin B12 (large dose), given intramuscular 2 hours later. Collect urine over 24 hours. Normal: excrete more than 15% of radiolabelled B12 in 24 hours. B12 deficiency: excrete less than 15% of radiolabelled B12 in 24 hours. Repeat with added oral intrinsic factor. Pernicious anaemia: excretion of B12 increases to normal. Ileal disease: excretion of B12 remains low. Treatment Vitamin B12 can be given as intramuscular injections of cyanocobalamin; the dose and duration of treatment depend on aetiology. Oral replacement is now an accepted route, as it has become increasingly appreciated that sufficient quantities of B12 are absorbed when large doses are given (1-2 mg daily). This absorption does not rely on the presence of intrinsic factor or an intact ileum. However, with the advent of sublingual pill and intranasal spray administration, tablet usage is becoming outdated. The tongue changes are reversed rapidly following therapy. Folic acid deficiency In folic acid deficiency, oral mucosal atrophy is uncommon, but angular cheilitis always occurs. In infants and children, folate deficiency can slow growth rate. It should be remembered that large and prolonged doses of folic acid can lower the blood concentration of vitamin B12. Folic acid should never be given alone in treatment of pernicious anaemia or other B12 macrocytic anaemia because of the risk of precipitating subacute combined degeneration of the spinal cord. Aetiology Malabsorption syndrome such as coeliac disease is the commonest cause of folic acid deficiency, which usually presents in adolescence or early adulthood. It may also be associated with inadequate dietary intake, pregnancy, cytotoxic drugs, or due to drugs with long-term treatment such as anticonvulsants (eg carbamazepine or phenytoin). Diagnosis It can be made from the history. CBC, low serum folate and red cell folate level. Advanced folate deficiency results in a megaloblastic macrocytic anaemia. Treatment Folic acid tablets reverse the symptoms including those caused by malabsorption syndromes, in addition to gluten free diet in case of coeliac disease. Cyclic neutropenia It is a rare blood disorder characterised by recurrent periods of extremely low blood levels of neutrophils which results in frequent infections. The low levels usually occur every 21 days, and last for about 7 days. Levels of other blood components may also be affected. This condition occurs in both children and adults, and often presents in several members of the same family. Symptoms include fever, neutropenic ulcers, necrotising ulcerative gingivitis, and oral infections on regular intervals. Children with cyclic neutropenia usually improve after puberty. Aetiology Cyclic neutropenia is the result of autosomal dominantly inherited mutations in the neutrophil elastase gene ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ELA2" \o "ELA2" ELA2). Diagnosis Measure WCC and DWCC as a compensatory rise in numbers of other leucocyte types lead to normal total count. Acute and convalescent serum to exclude viral infections. Bone marrow biopsy. Treatment Treatment includes granulocyte colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) which stimulates the production of WBC. Chlorhexidine mouth wash and anaesthetic oral rinse or gel can give relief from pain and infection of oral ulcers. Acute necrotic stomatitis or mucositis The absence of granulocytes in peripheral blood may present as oral ulcerations, which initially are shallow and associated with irregular inflammatory red patches of mucosa. Eventually the ulcerations may progress to extensive necrotic painful lesions. Thus, during or after chemotherapy, a cancer patient may present with severe mucositis, and the condition may clear up in few days, unless recovery is slowed by malnutrition. If symptoms persist, viral or fungal infection should be examined. In addition, radiation treatment of the head and neck can destroy the salivary glands resulting in oral dryness and mucositis. Aetiology Bone marrow disease. Chemotherapy drugs. Radiation therapy. Diagnosis It can be made from history and CBC. Treatment Treatment is mostly supportive until the cells regenerate themselves. Maintain optimal oral hygiene measures. Use soft-bristle toothbrush (those used for children are the softest) and a bland tooth paste with fluoride. Floss gently with unwaxed dental floss (if platelets count adequate). Ill-fitting dental appliances or sharp teeth should be corrected by a dentist. Avoid spicy, coarse, or rough textured food, very hot or cold beverages and foods, citric juices or foods containing citric acid (tomatoes, oranges, lemon, etc.), tea, coffee, tobacco, alcohol, alcoholic mouth washes, and carbonated drinks as they tend to dry the mouth. Follow a soft diet and maintain hydration. Use equal parts of: corticosteroid oral rinse, nystatin suspension, acyclovir suspension (alcohol-free), and lidocaine oral solution. Mix ingredients thoroughly, swish and gargle for 2 minutes and spit out immediately, repeat hour before each meal and at bed time until resolution. A solution of salt and baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) (1 tsp of each dissolved in 8 ounces of warm water) can also be used as oral rinse every 2 hours. For oral dryness, biotine oral rinse and tooth paste, and biotene oral balance gel are used often to moisten the mouth while sores are healing and this also helps control oral bacteria. NSAIDs are often required to ease pain. Provide zinc supplementation for loss of taste. A humidifier in the sleeping area will alleviate or reduce nighttime oral dryness. Monthly recalls during the first year is recommended. Fixed drug eruption Fixed drug eruption is an uncommon occurrence which characteristically recurs in the same site or sites each time a particular drug is taken. With each new exposure however, the number of involved sites may increase. Usually just one drug is involved; although independent lesions from more than one drug have been described. They are sometimes solitary patches at first, but with repeated attacks new lesions may appear, and existing ones may increase in size. Lesions may occur around the mouth or the eyes. The genitals or inside the mouth may be involved in association with skin lesions or on their own. Oral lesions are characterised by a single or several erythematous, eczematous, or bullous plaques. Pruritus is rare, but burning and discomfort are possible. Aetiology It is a type of allergic reaction to a medicine. Commonly implicated drugs are fluconazole, ciprofloxacin, tetracyclines, doxycycline, clarithromycin, penicillins, metronidazole, sulphonamides, NSAIDs, aspirin, anticonvulsants,  HYPERLINK "http://www.patient.co.uk/DisplayConcepts.asp?WordId=BENZODIAZEPINES&MaxResults=50" benzodiazepines,  HYPERLINK "http://www.patient.co.uk/DisplayConcepts.asp?WordId=CETIRIZINE&MaxResults=50" cetirizine, loratadine, and oral contraceptives. Diagnosis From history as the lesion usually develops within 30 minutes to 8 hours of taking a certain drug, and recurs at the same site each time the drug is reintroduced. Treatment Prompt identification and withdrawal of the offending agent may help limit the toxic effects associated with the drug. The decision to discontinue a potentially vital drug often presents a dilemma. If the condition resolves as expected, make notes to the effect that the patient has an adverse reaction to that drug. Provided that they are not thought to be part of the problem,  HYPERLINK "http://www.patient.co.uk/DisplayConcepts.asp?WordId=ANTIHISTAMINES&MaxResults=50" antihistamines may give some symptomatic relief. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis Recurrent aphthous stomatitis (RAS), also known as canker sore, is a condition characterised by recurrent discrete areas of ulceration which are almost always painful. It is one of the most common oral conditions. At least 10% of the population has it, and women are more often affected than men. The onset of RAS usually is during childhood, with a tendency for ulcers to diminish in frequency and severity with age. In about 80% of patients with RAS, the condition develops before 30 years of age. The onset in later years suggests a possibility of definable predisposing factors leading to RAS, or that the ulceration is not a simple RAS, but rather a part of a more complex disorder such as Behcets disease. A prodrome of localised burning or pain for 24-48 hours can precede the ulcers. The lesions are painful, well-defined, shallow, round or oval, with a shallow necrotic center covered with a yellow grayish pseudomembrane and surrounded by raised margins and erythematous haloes. There are 3 main clinical types: minor, major, and herpetiform ulcers. Minor aphthae, also called Mikuliczs aphthae or mild aphthous ulcers, account for 75-85% of all cases of RAS. It can involve every nonkeratinised mucosa of the oral cavity, usually the labial and buccal mucosae, floor of the mouth, and the ventral or lateral surface of the tongue. Ulcers are smaller than 8-10 mm and tend to heal within 10-14 days without scarring. Major aphthae, also referred to as periadenitis mucosa necrotica recurrens or Suttons disease, tend to involve mucosa overlying minor salivary glands. Approximately 10-15% of RAS cases are major aphthae, usually appearing after puberty. The prodromal symptoms are more intense than those of minor aphthae, and the ulcers usually are deeper and larger and last significantly longer than do minor aphthae. They have a raised irregular border and frequently exceed 1 cm in diameter, are painful and tend to appear on the lips, soft palate and throat. They can last for weeks or months and often leave a scar after healing. Fever, dysphagia, and malaise sometimes can occur early in the disease process. Herpetiform ulcers are rare and constitute only 5-10% of all RAS cases. Multiple, small, rounded and painful ulcers (5-100 in number) resembling ulcers of herpes simplex are seen anywhere on the oral mucosa. They tend to fuse and produce much larger ulcers lasting 10-14 days, and they heal without scarring. These ulcers tend to appear in women and generally have a later age onset than other types of RAS. Most patients have mild ulcers with recurrences only 2-4 times each year (simple aphthosis). Some may have almost continuous disease activity with new lesions developing as older lesions heal (complex aphthosis). Although 3 clinical variants of RAS are now recognised, it is still unclear if they are variants of one disease or represent different disorders which manifest as recurrent oral ulceration. In most cases, remission occurs spontaneously several years later. Aetiology Although many theories on the cause of RAS have been proposed, no single causative factor has been identified. About 3040% of patients with RAS report a family history. Precipitating factors include stress, trauma, allergies, endocrine alterations, and dietary components such as acidic foods and juices, and foods that contain gluten. Patients with frequent recurrences should be screened for diseases such as anaemia, vitamin deficiency, coeliac disease, diabetes mellitus, and immunosuppression. Higher prevalence has been found in upper socioeconomic groups. Diagnosis It is made on the basis of history and clinical criteria since there are no specific laboratory tests available. Family history is important and full medical history should be taken to rule out other ulcerative disorders and conditions such as Crohn disease, neutropenia, HIV infection, and Behcets disease. CBC, serum ferritin, serum vitamin B12 level, serum red cell folate level, and serum zinc level to exclude deficiencies. IgA anti-gliadin antibody (AGA), IgA anti-endomysial antibody (EmA), and anti-tissue transglutaminase antibody (ATA) are indicated tests to rule out coeliac disease. Treatment Since the aetiology of RAS remains unknown, there is no definitive treatment. Relief of pain and reduction of ulcer duration are the main goals of therapy. The treatment approach should be determined by the patients medical history, disease severity, frequency of flare-ups, and the patients ability to tolerate the medication. In all patients with RAS, it is important to identify and correct predisposing factors before introducing more specific therapy. Suggestions to reduce the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain" \o "Pain" pain caused by an oral ulcer include atraumatic toothbrushing (eg with a small-headed, soft toothbrush), avoid eating spicy, hard or sharp food such as toast or potato crisps, rinsing with  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saline_water" \o "Saline water" salt warm water, and proper  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_hygiene" \o "Oral hygiene" oral hygiene measures. Treatment should be initiated as soon as the ulcers appear. Topical corticosteroid therapy should be the first line of treatment. It can reduce the severity and duration of RAS, but it does not significantly influence the frequency of the episodes. For mild ulcers of the anterior mouth, use chlorhexidine mouth wash (alcohol free) and a short course of topical steroid oral gel until resolution. For multiple and severe RAS use equal parts of: high-potency topical steroid oral rinse, nystatin suspension, and analgesic mouth wash. Mix ingredients thoroughly, swish and gargle for 2 minutes and spit out immediately. Repeat after each meal and at bed time until resolution, then reduce by one dose every other day until 2 times daily as a maintenance dose, or stop. Prolonged use of potent topical steroids may result in mucosal atrophy, and may increase the potential for systemic absorption. Intralesional injections of corticosteroid such as triamcinolone hexacetonide may be used to enhance or boost the local response. In patients with recalcitrant RAS, a short course of systemic steroid therapy may be required. This course of treatment is best left to the specialist. Topical tetracyclines plus nicotinamide or doxycycline alone administered as oral rinse, may provide relief and reduce ulcer duration especially in herpetiform type. Using toothpaste free of SLS has been found to help reduce the amount, size and recurrence of oral ulcers in up to 80% of patients.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B12" \o "Vitamin B12" Vitamin B12 pills (1 mg dissolved under the tongue each evening) has been found to be effective in treating RAS, regardless of whether there is a vitamin deficiency present.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_deficiency" \o "Zinc deficiency" Zinc deficiency has been reported in people with RAS, and zinc supplementation has positive results, although some research has found no therapeutic effect. Behcets disease Behcets disease or syndrome is a form of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasculitis" \o "Vasculitis" vasculitis that can lead to ulceration and other lesions. It affects more males than females (10:1) of 20-40 years of age. It can be interpreted as a chronic disturbance in the bodys  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_system" \o "Immune system" immune system. This system, which normally protects the body against  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infection" \o "Infection" infections through controlled  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflammation" \o "Inflammation" inflammation, becomes overactive and produces unpredictable outbreaks of exaggerated inflammation. This extra inflammation affects  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_vessel" \o "Blood vessel" blood vessels, usually the small ones. Aetiology The ultimate cause of Behcet's disease remains unknown. Current evidence suggests that interplay of genetic and environmental factors may be responsible. Diagnosis There is no specific pathological test for Behcet disease. It is diagnosed clinically by specific patterns of symptoms and repeated outbreaks. Other causes for these symptoms have to be ruled out before making the diagnosis, and biopsy is rarely indicated. According to the internationl study group (ISG) for Behcet's disease, to be diagnosed with this condition, a person must have oral  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphthous" \o "Aphthous" aphthous ulcers of any shape, size or number at least 3 times in one year, along with 2 or more out of the next 4  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallmark" \o "Hallmark" hallmark symptoms: -Genital ulcers (including  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anus" \o "Anus" anal ulcers and spots in the genital region, and swollen  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testicle" \o "Testicle" testicles or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epididymitis" \o "Epididymitis" epididymitis in men) - HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin" \o "Skin" Skin  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesion" \o "Lesion" lesions (papulo-pustules,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folliculitis" \o "Folliculitis" folliculitis,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythema_nodosum" \o "Erythema nodosum" erythema nodosum,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acne" \o "Acne" acne in post-adolescents not on corticosteroids) -Eye inflammation ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iritis" \o "Iritis" iritis,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uveitis" \o "Uveitis" uveitis, retinal vasculitis, and cells in the vitreous) - HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathergy_reaction" \o "Pathergy reaction" Pathergy reaction (papule more than 2mm in diameter, 1-2 days or more after needle- prick) Treatment Local therapy Topical tetracycline or doxycycline oral rinse remains the drug of choice for aphthous ulcers of Behcets disease. Topical corticosteroids are effective for oral or genital ulcerations if they are applied during the prodromal stage of ulceration. The usage of hyaluronic acid oral solution reduces pain and inflammation of oral ulcers. Systemic therapy No single drug has proven effective, and oral corticosteroid therapy is the mainstay of treatment for all the various clinical manifestations. Uveitis and central nervous system involvement is treated with systemic corticosteroids, azathioprine or cyclosporine. Oral tacrolimus is an immunosuppressive agent similar to cyclosporine and is effective in treating refractory uveitis. Mucocutaneous lesions and arthritis have been treated with NSAIDs, zinc gluconate, levamisole, colchicine, dapsone, sulfapyridine, or thalidomide (use is strictly limited because of its teratogenicity). Other therapeutic approaches have included interferon (IFN) alfa or gamma, acyclovir, or dexamethasone-cyclophosphamide pulse therapy (discontinuous intravenous infusion of very high doses of corticosteroids over a short time to achieve a faster response and stronger efficacy and to decrease the need for long-term use of systemic corticosteroids). With the possible role of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-A) in the pathogenesis of Behcet disease, infliximab, a chimeric monoclonal IgG antibody that inhibits TNF-A, and etanercept, a TNF receptor blocker, have steroid sparing effects and have decreased the frequency of attacks in patients with Behcets disease. Lupus erythematosus Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoimmunity" \o "Autoimmunity" autoimmune  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connective_tissue_disease" \o "Connective tissue disease" connective tissue disease that can affect any part of the body, most often the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart" \o "Heart" heart,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint" \o "Joint" joints,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin" \o "Skin" skin,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lung" \o "Lung" lungs,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_vessel" \o "Blood vessel" blood vessels,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver" \o "Liver" liver,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidney" \o "Kidney" kidneys, and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_system" \l "Vertebrates" \o "Nervous system" nervous system. The course of the disease is unpredictable, with periods of relapse or flares alternating with  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remission_(medicine)" \o "Remission (medicine)" remissions. The disease occurs 9 times more often in women than in men, especially between the ages of 15-50 years, and is more common in those of non-European descent. It is characterised by a butterfly-like redness across the bridge of the nose and cheeks (malar butterfly rash). Other symptoms may include skin rash, arthritis, fatigue, weight loss,  HYPERLINK "http://www.healthscout.com/ency/68/429/main.html" hair loss, nephritis, and other serious problems. Skin bullae and ulcers are rare, although ulcers do commonly occur on the palate, buccal mucosa, gingiva, and inside the nose. Painless oral ulcers may appear as persistent atrophic or erosive area surrounded by a radiating white striae. A form of lupus that can be isolated to the skin, without internal disease, is called  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=8067" discoid lupus erythematosus (DLE) which is a chronic skin condition of sores with inflammation and scarring favouring the face, ears, scalp, and at times on other body areas. Up to 10% of persons with DLE eventually develop the systemic form of lupus. The outlook for patients with lupus today is much better than years ago because of greater awareness and more accurate tests leading to earlier diagnosis and treatment as well as more effective and safer medications. Aetiology It is an autoimmune disease in which the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_system" \o "Immune system" immune system attacks the bodys cells and tissues, resulting in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflammation" \o "Inflammation" inflammation and tissue damage. Possible triggers include heredity, infections, drugs, and sunlight. Hormonal changes may play a role which could explain why it is much more common in women. Diagnosis By taking incisional biopsy from the edge of oral ulcer that shows perivascular inflammatory infiltrate. Blood tests include CBC, U&E, liver enzymes,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renal_function" \o "Renal function" renal function (disturbed if the kidney is involved), and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complement_system" \o "Complement system" complement system levels (low levels suggest consumption by the immune system). ANA and anti-double stranded DNA (dsDNA) antibody testing are recommended. Treatment There is no cure for SLE and the treatment is directed toward decreasing inflammation and the level of autoimmune activity. Patients with SLE can help prevent flares of disease by avoiding sun exposure, and by not abruptly discontinuing medications. Occupational exposure to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silica" \o "Silica" silica,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticide" \o "Pesticide" pesticides, and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(element)" \o "Mercury (element)" mercury can worsen the disease. Mild or remittent disease can sometimes be safely left untreated.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclophosphamide" \o "Cyclophosphamide" Cyclophosphamide,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corticosteroid" \o "Corticosteroid" corticosteroids and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunosuppression" \o "Immunosuppression" immunosuppressants ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methotrexate" \o "Methotrexate" methotrexate or azathioprine) are prescribed when vital organs are involved. NSAIDs and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" \o "Malaria" antimalarials (hydroxychloroquine) may be used. With treatment, most people with lupus can lead active lives. Erythema multiforme Erythema multiforme (EM) is a common, self-limited mucocutaneous disorder with peak incidence at the age of 20-30 years. Males are slightly more affected than females. It is of acute onset that is characterised by typical target skin lesions, with oral or ocular involvement in some cases, and a marked tendency to recur. The attacks occur once or twice a year and the condition usually resolves after 6 or 7 episodes. The condition varies from a mild self-limited rash (EM minor) to a severe life-threatening form (EM major). The mild form is far more common than the severe form and it usually presents with mildly itchy, pink-red blotches, symmetrically arranged, and starting on the extremities. It often takes on the classical target lesion appearance within a 72 hours period, with a pink-red ring around a pale center. Oral lesions include cracked, bleeding, crusted lips and diffuse, widely spread ulceration mostly pronounced in the anterior parts of the mouth. Attacks may last 2-4 weeks, but it may recur. Recurrences are more common in the spring and can probably be triggered by sunlight. The frequency of recurrence usually decreases with time. Erythema multiforme major may be related to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stevens-Johnson_syndrome" \o "Stevens-Johnson syndrome" Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS) and  HYPERLINK "http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229698-overview" toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) (SJS and TEN probably represent differing severities of the same disease process). The severe form usually begins as febrile erosive stomatitis, severe conjunctivitis, and disseminated cutaneous eruption. Lesions typically begin on the face and trunk. They are flat, atypical lesions, described as irregular purpuric macules with occasional blistering. Most patients also have extensive mucosal involvement. This is a more serious illness and is potentially life threatening. Aetiology It is of unknown aetiology. EM minor usually follows an antecedent herpes simplex or mycoplasma infection. More than 50% of EM major is attributed to medications. Chronic EM has been linked to ingestion of benzoic acid which occurs naturally in some fruits, or to sodium benzoate which is a common food preservative. Diagnosis It is based mainly on the appearance of the skin lesion, especially if there is a history of risk factors or related diseases. It can be confirmed by biopsy and microscopic examination of the tissue. Treatment Mild form Topical steroid oral rinse and gel to treat oral ulcerations. Topical anaesthetics to ease oral pain that interferes with eating and drinking. Paracetamol to reduce fever and discomfort. Antihistamines to control itching. Patients with frequent recurrences may benefit from an antiviral drug, such as oral acyclovir, given at the first sign of an outbreak. Severe form It is difficult to treat. Stop suspected medications with doctor's approval. Oral antibiotics to control infections. Systemic corticosteroids to control inflammation. Hospitalisation and treatment in an intensive care or burn care unit for severe cases of SJS and TEN. High dose intravenous immunoglobulin may be used to stop the disease process. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophthalmologist" \o "Ophthalmologist"Ophthalmologist should be consulted immediately as this form frequently causes the formation of scar tissue inside the eyelids leading to impaired vision. Lichen planus Lichen planus (LP) is a relatively common, chronic inflammatory disease that affects HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_mucosa" \o "Oral mucosa"oral mucosa, with or without the involvement of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin" \o "Skin"skin and other HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucous_membrane" \o "Mucous membrane"mucous membranes. It affects women more than men and occurs most often in middle-aged adults. Children are rarely affected. Skin lesions, when present consist of itchy, pinkish, flat top papules which affect flexor surfaces of the arms, trunk and legs, and heal with pigmentation. The face is rarely involved. Oral mucosal lesions typically present as bilateral white lesions in the buccal and lingual mucosa. The reticular type is the most common presentation and manifests as asymptomatic white lacy streaks on the mucosa known as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wickham%27s_striae" \o "Wickham's striae"Wickham's striae. The lacy streaks may also be seen on other parts of the mouth, including the gingiva, palate and lips. The less common but painful erosive LP presents with erythematous areas that are ulcerated and uncomfortable, the erosions may occur in multiple areas of the mouth, or in one area, such as the gingiva, where they resemble desquamative gingivitis. Wickham's striae may also be seen near these ulcerated areas. The erosive form may undergo malignant transformation. Lichen planus may also affect mucous membranes of genital tract, rectum, epiglottis, and GIT. The clinical presentation of oral LP lesions may also resemble HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichenoid_drug_reaction" \o "Lichenoid drug reaction"lichenoid eruptions which are identical both clinically and histologically. However, lichenoid lesions may be single in comparison to the usual bilateral appearance of oral LP lesions, with proximity to amalgam dental restoration. Many of the lichenoid lesions resolve after the restorations are replaced. Aetiology The cause of LP is not well-known. It is not HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contagious" \o "Contagious"contagious and does not involve any known HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogen" \o "Pathogen"pathogen. It is postulated to have a genetic predisposition that is initiated by a variety of factors, including emotional stress and hypersensitivity to drugs or foods. Occasionally, it may be related to factors such as materials used in dental work, hepatitis C infection, or graft versus host disease. Diagnosis Histopathological examination of a specimen taken from the white lesion shows a dense band-like of T-lymhocytic infiltrate subepithelium. Biopsy is also necessary to exclude dysplasia particularly in the erosive type. Blood test is essential to exclude anaemia and chronic liver disease in the erosive type. Treatment Currently there is no cure for LP. The patient should avoid smoking, hot liquids, spicy foods, and prosthetic appliances. Identification of any dietary component, dental product or medication should be undertaken to ensure against a hypersensitivity reaction. Reticular LP is asymptomatic and no treatment is needed. In the erosive type, topical corticosteroids and analgesic mouth washes are useful in controlling symptoms. Short-term course of oral steroids may be used in difficult cases. In view of the slight risk, oral carcinoma in erosive LP should be regularly reviewed. LP may go into a dormant state after treatment; however, it can flare up years after it is considered cured. Pemphigus vulagris Pemphigus vulgaris (PV) is a life-threatening autoimmune vesiculobullous disease that affects the skin and mucous membranes. Although PV may occur at any age, it is most common among people between the ages of 50-70 years, predominantly in women. Children and adolescents are rarely affected. The mouth is the only site of involvement in 50% of all cases of pemphigus, and is the initial site of presentation in almost 75% of cases. While there are several types of pemphigus (vulgaris, foliaceus, vegetans, and paraneoplastic), 80% of patients have PV. Patients with PV produce IgG autoantibodies to desmoglein 3 which forms the glue that attaches adjacent epithelial cells via attachment points called HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmosomes" \o "Desmosomes"desmosomes. When autoantibodies attack desmoglein, the cells become separated from each other and the epithelium becomes unglued, a phenomenon called acantholysis. This progressive acantholysis results in the classic suprabassilar bullae. The oral lesion is a fragile bullae arising on otherwise normal mucosa, almost always is ruptured by the time of diagnosis. The ruptured bullae continue to extend peripherally leaving irregular, ragged mucosal ulcers. The lesion starts most commonly on the buccal mucosa, often areas of trauma along the occlusal line, the palate and gingiva are other common sites of involvement. Occasional patients have erosive lesions restricted completely to the gingiva (desquamative gingivitis). Skin lesions are similar, except that the more heavily keratinised epidermis allows blisters to remain intact much longer. The overall mortality is less than 6%, either from electrolyte loss (loss of body fluid from a large number of blisters), wound infection or treatment complications. Note that HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haley-Haley_disease" \o "Haley-Haley disease"Haley-Haley disease, also called familial benign pemphigus, is a rare relatively benign disease that is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, not an autoimmune disease. It is characterised by recurrent acantholytic vesicular eruptions on the skin. Oral involvement has also been reported. Despite acantholysis, the immunological findings are negative, and this with the family history helps differentiate it from PV. It is therefore not considered part of the pemphigus group of diseases. Aetiology PV is an autoimmune disease with IgG autoantibodies to desmoglein 3 that are found within the epithelium called desmosomes. It may coexist with other autoimmune disorders like myasthenia gravis and thymoma, or with neoplasm such as lymphoma. It may be triggered by medications, although most cases are idiopathic. Diagnosis The diagnosis can be made from the appearance and distribution of oral lesions. Positive  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolsky_sign" \o "Nikolsky sign" Nikolskys sign (application of pressure to an apparently normal mucosa will result in formation of a new lesion). Smear of the early bullous lesion will show Tzank cells (floating acantholytic cells). The pathologist looks for an intraepithelial HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesicle_(dermatology)" \o "Vesicle (dermatology)"vesicle caused by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acantholysis" \o "Acantholysis"acantholysis; thus, the superficial portion of the epithelium sloughs off, leaving the bottom layer of cells on the floor of the blister. This bottom layer of cells is said to have a tombstone appearance. Definitive diagnosis requires the demonstration of anti-desmoglein 3 antibodies by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunofluorescence" \o "Immunofluorescence"direct immunofluorescence on a perilesional biopsy. These antibodies appear as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IgG" \o "IgG"IgG deposits along the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmosomes" \o "Desmosomes"desmosomes between epithelial cells, particularly of the prickle cell layer, a pattern reminiscent of chicken wire. Anti-desmoglein 3 antibodies can also be detected in a blood sample using the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ELISA" \o "ELISA"ELISA technique. Treatment High doses of systemic corticosterisids (prednisolone) is initially required, combined later with the so called steroid-sparing immunosuppressant azathioprine which is among those being used to reduce complications of high dose steroids. Once the outbreaks are under control, the dosage is often reduced to lessen side effects. If PV is restricted to the mouth, then lower doses of prednisolone can be used to control the disease. The dose may also be lowered further by combining topical with systemic corticosteroids. Recently,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rituximab" \o "Rituximab" Rituximab, an anti- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD20" \o "CD20" CD20 antibody, was found to improve otherwise untreatable severe cases of PV. Mucous membrane pemphigoid Mucous membrane pemphigoid (MMP) is a rare chronic autoimmune vesiculobullous disease characterised by blistering lesions that predominately affect the various mucous membranes of the body. The mucous membranes of the mouth and  HYPERLINK "http://www.webmd.com/eye-health/picture-of-the-eyes" eyes are most often affected. The mucous membranes of the nose, throat, genitalia, and anus may also be affected. It has been referred to as benign MMP. However, currently such designation is thought to be inappropriate because of the potential for serious complications in some cases. Scarring of the mucous membranes is common, hence the designation cicatricial pemphigoid. However, this term does not include affected individuals who do not develop scarring. Therefore, it has been determined that MMP is the best designation for this group of disorders. Most patients with MMP are elderly, with a mean age of 62-66 years. It appears to be twice as common in women as men. The HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoimmune" \o "Autoimmune"autoimmune reaction occurs at the level of the hemidesmosome in the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basement_membrane" \o "Basement membrane"basement membrane and when the condition is active, the basement membrane is dissolved by the antibodies produced, and areas of mucosa lift away at the base, causing hard blisters which scar if they burst. In other words, this is a desquamating/blistering disease in which the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epithelium" \o "Epithelium"epithelium is detached from the underlying connective tissue, that subsequently manifest as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullae" \o "Bullae"bullae or blisters which may be blood filled. Mouth involvement presents as recurrent painful erosions that most commonly involve the gingivae, followed by the palate and the buccal mucosa. The lesion of the gingivae is called desquamative gingivitis. Involvement of the oropharynx may present with hoarseness or dysphagia. When the cornea of the eye is affected, repeated scarring may result in blindness. Aetiology It is an autoimmune disease with IgG autoantibodies against antigens that are found at the base of the epithelium within the hemidesmosomes. It may be triggered by medications. Diagnosis It depends on taking a careful clinical history and performing a thorough clinical examination. The gingiva can be the only site of involvement, and this frequently results in delayed diagnosis as the patient is put through repeated sessions of periodontal therapy and/or prescribed various antimicrobials. Positive  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolsky_sign" \o "Nikolsky sign" Nikolskys sign (slight rubbing of an apparently normal mucosa results in formation of a new lesion). Biopsy is essential and should be taken from the edge of the ulcerative lesion for immunofluorescent analysis that shows linear deposition of IgG and C3 along the basement membrane zone. A low titre of circulating autoantibodies against bullous pemphigoid 1 (BP1) antigen is depicted, although 50% of cases have BP2 antigen. It should be differentiated from HYPERLINK "http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Pemphigus"pemphigus vulgaris, erosive oral lichen planus, and linear IgA disease, among other rare autoimmune diseases. Treatment Patients with mild localised disease may benefit from topical steroids, either oral rinse or gel-based for oral lesions or ointment-based for skin lesions. Patients with more extensive disease and progressive scarring require systemic therapy with prednisolone and immunosuppressants. High dose intravenous immunoglobulin has been used successfully in the treatment of MMP in patients who were refractory to other therapies. Ophthalmic referral is essential once the diagnosis is confirmed, because nearly 25% of patients with oral lesions will have ocular lesions. Linear IgA disease Linear IgA disease (LAD) or dermatosis is a rare chronic autoimmune vesiculobullous disease characterised by the presence of linear IgA deposits along the basement membrane zone. This disease can develop at any age, but it seems to be more frequent at the age of 40-50 years. Some authors differentiate between 2 clinical subtypes of LAD, the adults subtype, and the paediatric subtype which affects mainly children under the age of 5 years. Linear IgA disease most often affects the limbs, face or genital regions but may occur anywhere. The clinical presentation is similar to other blistering diseases, such as HYPERLINK "http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1062391-overview"bullous pemphigoid. Small vesicles are usually grouped together on plaques of erythema, and bullae rarely occur. Oral manifestations in LAD have been reported as minor clinical presentations. However, oral painful ulceration may predominate, and may be the only clinical manifestations for years before the onset of skin lesions. Occasionally, LAD can manifest in the mouth as a desquamative gingivitis. Linear IgA disease should be included in the differential diagnosis of bullous dermatoses with oral lesions. It has no association with gluten-sensitive enteropathy. Aetiology It is an autoimmune disease with IgA autoantibodies against antigens that are found at the base of the epithelium within the hemidesmosomes. It may be idiopathic, drug-induced, or following infection. Diagnosis Biopsy is essential and should be taken from the edge of the ulcerative lesion for immunofluorescent analysis that shows linear deposition of IgA along the basement membrane zone. Treatment Withdrawal of the offending drug. Most cases have been reported to respond to dapsone or sulfapyridine. A response may be seen in 48-72 hours. Severe cases of linear IgA dermatosis respond to a short course of oral corticosteroids. Bullous pemphigoid Bullous pemphigoid (BP) is a chronic autoimmune vesiculobullous skin disease that rarely involves mucous membranes. It usually occurs in people 70 years of age and older, very rarely seen in children. Bullous pemphigoid is the most common of the autoimmune bullous dermatoses, representing 70% of these diseases. Clinically the earliest HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesion" \o "Lesion"lesions may appear HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urticaria" \o "Urticaria"urticarial (like hives), eventually tense bullae erupt symmetrically, most commonly at the inner thighs and upper arms; but the trunk and extremities are frequently involved. Oral lesions are smaller, form more slowly and are less painful than those seen in pemphigus vulgaris. The oral lesions in BP are clinically and histologically indistinguishable from those of mucous membrane pemphigoid. The prognosis of survival of BP patients is poor, either due to severe clinical manifestations or due to the side effects of systemic immunosuppressive treatment. Lichen planus pemphigoides (LPP) is thought to be a rare variant of BP. It is characterised by bullous lesions arising on lichen planus papules and on clinically uninvolved skin. It is reported that LPP is induced by numerous medications. Aetiology It is an autoimmune disease with IgG autoantibodies against bullous pemphigoid antigens (BP1 and BP2) that are found at the base of the epithelium within the hemidesmosomes. Diagnosis Biopsy is essential and should be taken from the edge of the ulcerative lesion for immunofluorescent analysis that shows linear IgG deposition along the basement membrane zone. Nikolskys sign is absent. Treatment Topical treatment with corticosteroids is an established alternative to systemic steroids; however, prolonged application is accompanied by side effects such as skin atrophy. In difficult to manage or widespread cases of BP, oral corticosteroid (HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prednisone" \o "Prednisone"prednisolone) and a powerful steroid-sparing HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunosuppressant" \o "Immunosuppressant"immunosuppressant medication such as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methotrexate" \o "Methotrexate"methotrexate or HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azathioprine" \o "Azathioprine"azathioprine may be appropriate. Oral tacrolimus, an  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunosuppression" \o "Immunosuppression" immunosuppressive  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medication" \o "Medication" drug, has been reported to be effective in several inflammatory skin disorders including BP. Desquamative gingivitis The term desquamative gingivitis (DG) is used as a clinical description of the gingiva which may manifest as a result of various underlying conditions. Desquamative gingivitis is more common in middle-aged to elderly females. It is painful and affects the buccal/labial gingiva predominantly, frequently spares the marginal gingiva but can involve the whole thickness of the attached gingiva. Its clinical appearance is not significantly altered by traditional oral hygiene measures or conventional periodontal therapy alone. Desquamative gingivitis is characterised by an erythematous erosive or desquamative state of the free and attached gingiva. There is loss of stippling and the gingiva may desquamate easily with minimal trauma. It can be mistaken for plaque induced gingivitis and this can lead to delayed diagnosis and inappropriate treatment of serious dermatological disease. Plasma cell gingivitis (PCG) is a rare condition that presents as DG. It is generally believed to represent a hypersensitivity reaction to exogenous substances such as toothpastes, chewing gum, flavoured mints, mouth washes or cinnamon flavouring products. However, in other cases no agent can be identified. Chronic ulcerative stomatitis (CUS) is a rare disease characterised by unique immunostaining properties. It seems to almost exclusively affect white women in late middle age with an average age at onset of 60 years. It mimics erosive oral lichen planus both clinically and histologically, and DG can be its presenting feature as well. Aetiology The majority of cases are now known to be due to erosive oral lichen planus, pemphigus vulgaris, pemphigoid or linear IgA disease. Other causes include allergic reactions (PCG), and CUS. Diagnosis A definitive diagnosis depends on taking an incisional biopsy from a perilesional site (with intact epithelium), and sending a fresh specimen for immunostaining to exclude pemphigus vulgaris (chicken wire appearance of epithelium), pemphigoid (linear IgG deposit along the basal cell layer), linear IgA disease (linear IgA deposit along the basal cell layer), and CUS (a speckled pattern of IgG deposit in the basal one-third of the epithelium). In addition, a fixed specimen is required to exclude erosive oral lichen planus (band-like lymphocytic infiltrate subepithelium) and PCG (a dense plasmacytic infiltrate in the lamina propria). Circulating ANA are detectable in case of CUS, whereas anti-desmoglein 3 antibodies can be detected in a blood sample in case of pemphigus vulgaris. Identification of the possible inciting agent to exclude PCG by taking a careful clinical history (patch testing is usually negative). Removal of the offending agent results in resolution of symptoms. If a blistering condition is diagnosed, referral to a dermatologist is advised. Treatment Oral hygiene measures. Potent topical steroid gel may bring resolution in some cases. Custom trays (occlusive therapy) may be used to localise topical steroid medications on the gingival tissues. Corticosteroid gel should be used with systemic steroid (prednisolone) in case of pemphigus vulgaris. CUS does not respond to steroid therapy, but a long-lasting favourable therapy appears to be achieved with systemic hydroxychloroquine. PCG may respond to 2% fusidic acid gel. Dermatitis herpetiformis Dermatitis herpetiformis (DH) is an uncommon chronic autoimmune and subepidermal papulovesicular eruption, mainly involving the skin and is associated with gluten-sensitive enteropathy. A connection between DH and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gluten_sensitivity" \o "Gluten sensitivity"gluten intolerance (HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coeliac_disease" \o "Coeliac disease"coeliac disease) was recognised in 1967, although the exact causal mechanism is not known. The age of onset is usually about 15-40 years, but DH can also affect children and the elderly. Patients with DH are more likely than others to have HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyroid_disease" \o "Thyroid disease"thyroid problems and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intestinal" \o "Intestinal"intestinal HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphoma" \o "Lymphoma"lymphoma. Despite its name, DH is not related to or caused by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herpesvirus" \o "Herpesvirus"herpes virus. The name means that it is a skin inflammation having an appearance similar to HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herpes" \o "Herpes"herpes. Dermatitis herpetiformis is characterised by intensely HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itch" \o "Itch"itchy, chronic HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesicle_(dermatology)" \o "Vesicle (dermatology)"papulovesicular eruptions, usually distributed symmetrically on extensor surfaces, especially the elbows, knees, buttocks, back of neck, scalp, and back. The blisters vary in size from very small up to 1 cm across. The condition is extremely itchy, and the desire to scratch can be overwhelming. Intense itching or burning sensations are sometimes felt before the blisters appear in a particular area. Oral lesions occur in up to 70% of those with skin lesions and affect mainly the palate, buccal mucosa or gingivae as an erythematous, purpuric, vesicular or ulcerated. Untreated, the severity of DH can vary significantly over time, probably in response to the amount of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gluten" \o "Gluten"gluten ingested. Sometimes it is difficult to differentiate DH from other bullous lesions of the oral mucosa. Aetiology Gluten sensitivity may be involved with IgA autoantibodies against gliaden and especially endomysium may be responsible. Diagnosis Simple blood test for IgA antibodies (anti-gliaden and anti-endomysial) and anti-tissue transglutaminase antibodies. These antibodies are present in the majority of patients as has been found with coeliac disease. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopsy" \l "Skin_Biopsy" \o "Biopsy"Biopsy is essential and should be taken from the edge of the lesion for direct immunofluorescent analysis that shows granular IgA deposits along the tips of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dermal_papillae" \o "Dermal papillae" papillae of both involved skin and mucosa. This distinguishes it from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adult_linear_IgA_disease" \o "Adult linear IgA disease"linear IgA bullous dermatosis. Histologically, the typical of DH consists of microabscesses at the tips of connective tissue papillae. These tests should be done before the patient starts on a gluten-free diet, otherwise they might produce HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_negative" \o "False negative"false negatives. If the patient has already started a gluten-free diet, it might be necessary for him to come off it for some weeks before the tests can be done reliably. Treatment DH responds well to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medication" \o "Medication" medication and changes in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diet_(nutrition)" \o "Diet (nutrition)" diet. Dapsone is an effective treatment, and itching is significantly reduced within 2-3 days. It is an  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibacterial" \o "Antibacterial" antibacterial drug and its role in the treatment of DH, which is not caused by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" \o "Bacteria" bacteria, is poorly understood. Dapsone can cause adverse effects on the blood, and regular blood monitoring is required. Strict HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gluten-free_diet" \o "Gluten-free diet"gluten-free diet must also be followed, and this will usually be a lifelong requirement. This will reduce any associated intestinal damage, and the risk of other complications. After some time on a gluten-free diet, the dosage of dapsone can usually be reduced or even stopped, although this can take up to anything from 1-3 years. Epidermolysis bullosa Epidermolysis bullosa (EB) is a rare inherited bullous disorder characterised by the presence of extremely fragile HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin" \o "Skin"skin and recurrent HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blister" \o "Blister"blister formation, resulting from minor mechanical friction or trauma. It mostly affects children. In people born with EB, the 2 skin layers lack the anchors that hold them together, and any action that creates friction between the layers (like rubbing or pressure) will create blisters and painful sores. Sufferers of EB have compared the sores to third-degree burns. Niklosky sign is positive and hands, feet, knees, elbows, buttocks, and occipital area are common sites. The skin will blister after even mild trauma leading to scarring and severe mutilation. Blisters may also occur on internal organs such as the esophagus, stomach, and respiratory tract, without any apparent friction. Bullae and ulcers can arise in the mouth as a result of sucking, eating, toothbrushing, and dental treatment. Caries and periodontal disease are common as a result of inability to maintain good oral hygiene. This disorder results in extra-articular limitations of the movement of the jaws. Patients with EB usually need frequent hospitalisation. There are 3 major types of EB based on different sites of blister formation within the skin structure and these can be classified as EB simplex, dystrophic, and lethalis. Depending on the type of EB, the condition can vary from minor blistering of the skin to a lethal form involving other organs. The condition generally starts at birth or soon after. The simplex type usually commences in the first year of life. The oral mucosa can be affected, but not severely. Healing takes place without scar formation and general development of the patient is otherwise normal. The condition is usually permanent, although some patients improve in the second decade. The dystrophic type is characterised by scar formation that follows healing but physical and mental growth remain unaffected. Scarring can restrict mobility and impair daily activities. The oral mucosa and other mucous membranes including the larynx, pharynx, and esophagus may be involved. Carcinoma developing in scar tissue is not uncommon. Associated findings include dystrophic changes in the nails, hair and teeth. Severe anaemia and amyloidosis usually gives this type an unfavourable prognosis. In EB lethalis, there is a high incidence of abortion and stillbirths, but if the infant is born alive extensive bullae usually develop rapidly and there is little tendency to heal. The oral mucosa is nearly always affected and usually occurs in early infancy. Prognosis of EB depends on how severe the illness is. Epidermolysis bullosa should be distinguished from EB  HYPERLINK "http://dermnetnz.org/immune/epidermolysis-bullosa-acquisita.html" acquisita, which is an autoimmune blistering disease that is not inherited and often doesn't develop until adult life. Aetiology Epidermolysis bullosa is a rare genetic disorder. Diagnosis Evaluate infection using bacterial cultures from poorly healing wounds or wounds that appear infected. Evaluate anaemia using CBC with iron studies in patients with severe EB. Obtain 2 biopsy specimens, one for transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and the other using immunofluorescence microscopy for subtyping EB. If there are swallowing or feeding difficulties,  HYPERLINK "http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/test/egd-esophagogastroduodenoscopy/overview.html" upper endoscopy or an  HYPERLINK "http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/test/upper-gi-and-small-bowel-series/overview.html" upper GI series may be needed. Because most forms of EB are inherited, the results of genetic testing, usually done with a blood sample sent to a lab for analysis, can confirm the diagnosis. Treatment Good dental hygiene is very important, including regular dental visits. Working with a physical therapist can help keep the full range of motion in the joints and minimise contractures. Measures should be taken to avoid skin trauma and avoid hot environments. Prevent skin infections by applying antibiotic ointments to wound-like areas.  HYPERLINK "http://www.umm.edu/ency/article/002982.htm" Skin grafting for denuded or ulcerated areas of the skin may be necessary. When there are blisters in the mouth or esophagus, eating soft foods can help prevent making the sores worse. Antifungal therapy is used if there is  HYPERLINK "http://www.umm.edu/ency/article/000643.htm" candida infection. If there are swallowing difficulties, use of oral steroids for short periods of time may be prescribed. Long-term use of steroids is generally not recommended. Other surgical procedures for complications of EB might be recommended such as dilation of the esophagus if there is a stricture (narrowing), repair of hand deformities, and removal of any squamous cell carcinoma lesions that develop. EB acquisita may be treated with oral steroids and immunosuppressants. Current clinical research has included a bone marrow transplant, strongly suggesting that a cure may have been found. Angina bullosa haemorrhagica Angina bullosa haemorrhagica (ABH) is the term used to describe sudden appearance of one or more blood blisters within the mouth. The subepithelial oral blisters are not attributable to a systemic disorder or haemostatic defect. The disease occurs usually in the middle-aged or elderly patients and there is no familial history. Some patients with ABH describe a stinging pain or burning sensation immediately before the appearance of the blood blister. The blister lasts only few minutes and then spontaneously ruptures, leaving a shallow ulcer that heals without scarring, discomfort or pain. The blisters reach an average size of 1-3 cm in diameter. The soft palate is the most commonly affected site, followed by the buccal mucosa and tongue. The condition is not serious except in rare cases where a large bulla that does not rupture spontaneously may cause airway obstruction. The lesions may be confused with other more serious disorders such as mucous membrane pemphigoid, epidermolysis bullosa, linear IgA disease, and dermatitis herpetiformis. However, the isolated nature, rapid healing, and rare recurrence of ABH blisters generally are sufficient findings to rule out the previously mentioned conditions. The lesions may be indistinguishable from blood blisters related to thrombocytopenia. However, blood tests and the absence of areas of ecchymosis, epistaxis, or gingival bleeding are helpful signs to rule it out. Aetiology More than 50% of ABH cases are related to minor trauma of hot foods, restorative dentistry or periodontal therapy. Other potential causes are dental injections of anaesthetics and steroid inhalers. Diagnosis The diagnosis of ABH essentially is clinical. Coagulation tests and platelet count may be indicated to rule out a blood dyscrasia. Treatment No treatment is required because blood blisters spontaneously rupture and heal. Analgesic or chlorhexidine mouth wash may be used. Any large intact blood blister should be incised to prevent further enlargement that could cause airway obstruction. 2 Oral infections Primary herpes simplex Primary herpes simplex or herpetic gingivostomatitis is a combination of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gingivitis" \o "Gingivitis"gingivitis and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stomatitis" \o "Stomatitis"stomatitis caused by herpes simplex virus (HSV) type 1. Herpes viruses are contagious and the contact may occur directly or through contact with infected razors, towels, dishes, and other shared articles. It generally affects children under the age of 3 and young adults. Up to 80% of herpes simplex infections are asymptomatic. Symptomatic infections can be characterised by significant morbidity and recurrence. In immunocompromised patients, infections can cause life-threatening complications. The first symptoms usually appear within 510 days after contact with an infected person. There are prodromal symptoms (fever, malaise, irritability, headache, vomiting, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphadenopathy" \o "Lymphadenopathy"lymphadenopathy) 1-2 days prior to oral lesions. Then small, yellowish vesicles form, which rupture quickly, resulting in shallow, round, discrete ulcers with erythematous halo. It affects both the free and attached gingiva. A generalised marginal gingivitis may precede oral ulcers. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_infection" \o "Primary infection"Primary infection in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolescent" \o "Adolescent"adolescents frequently manifests as severe HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharyngitis" \o "Pharyngitis"pharyngitis, with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesion" \o "Lesion"lesions developing on the buccal mucosa and gingiva. In healthy individuals the lesions heal spontaneously within 2 weeks. Once infected, the virus remains in the body for life. The prevalence of HSV infection worldwide has increased over the last several decades, making it a major public health concern. Prompt recognition of herpes simplex infection and early initiation of therapy are of utmost importance in the management of the disease. Aetiology A transmissible infection with HSV, usually type I and less commonly type II. Diagnosis The primary herpes simplex is readily identified by clinical examination. The older immunodot HSV IgM typing test is an enzyme immunoassay (EIA) detecting HSV or glycoprotein G (gG) type specific IgM antibodies. Unlike HSV IgG typing, IgM does not provide optimal HSV typing results, but may offer information about a particular patient's antibody response. The new immunodot HSV typing test is an enzyme immunoassay (EIA) detecting HSV or glycoprotein G (gG) type specific IgG antibodies. The test detects the presence or absence of past infection, and specifically determines whether past infection is due to HSV type 1, type 2 or both. Treatment Soft diet and adequate fluid intake, analgesics and antipyretics (paracetamol), and chlorhexidine mouth wash. In severe cases it may be necessary to use topical anaesthetics. Topical steroids should be avoided because they tend to permit spread of the viral infection on mucous membranes. Systemic HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acyclovir" \o "Acyclovir"acyclovir is recommended to treat oral herpes only in immunocompromised patients. Patients should be cautioned to avoid touching the herpetic lesions and then touching the eyes, genitals or other areas because of the possibility of self-inoculation. Recurrent herpes simplex After the initial or primary infection, herpes simplex virus (HSV) becomes latent in the nerve tissue of the face. In some people, the virus reactivates and produces recurrent cold sores or fever blisters that are usually in the same area, but are not serious. It mostly affects the mucocutaneous junction, and is confined to a localised area of skin or mucous membranes that affects more the upper and lower lips. The recurrent infection is thus often called herpes labialis. Symptoms typically begin with tingling (itching) and reddening of the skin around the infected site. Within 24 hours fluid-filled HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blister" \o "Blister"blisters form, which ruptures within a further 48 hours to leave an erosive area of epithelium which subsequently crusts over and heals. The lesion usually disappears spontaneously in 1-2 weeks. Infection may be severe and dangerous if it occurs in or near the eye, or if it occurs in immunocompromised individuals. Rarely, reinfection occurs inside the mouth (intraoral herpes simplex stomatitis), usually affecting the hard palate and gingiva, possibly accompanied by herpes labialis, as a small crop of painful ulcers which heals within 1-2 weeks. Aetiology Reactivation of the latent HSV that resides in the sensory ganglion of the trigeminal nerve. Precipitating factors include fever, stress, sunlight, trauma, hormonal alterations, and immunosuppression. Diagnosis It is made by history and clinical examination. Treatment Application of sunscreen (SPF 15 or higher) to lips 1 hour before sun exposure and every hour thereafter. Constant or intermittent application of ice to the area for 90 minutes during the prodromal phase may result in abortion of the lesion. Acyclovir cream works best when applied early to the affected area at the first sign of pain or tingling. Zinc oxide cream may be palliative. Oral acyclovir, given prophylactically and therapeutically, may be considered when frequent recurrent herpetic episodes interfere with daily function and nutrition, and for recurrent intraoral herpes. Herpetic whitlow A herpetic whitlow is a painful infection that typically affects the fingers or thumbs. Occasionally infection occurs on the toes or on the nail cuticle. It can be caused by infection with herpes simplex virus (HSV) type 1 or 2. Herpes simplex virus-1 whitlow is most commonly contracted by dental or medical workers exposed to oral secretions. It is also often observed in HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thumb-sucking" \o "Thumb-sucking"thumb-sucking children with primary HSV-1 oral infection (HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoinoculation" \o "Autoinoculation"autoinoculation), and in adults aged 20-30 years following contact with HSV-2 infected genitals. Symptoms of herpetic whitlow include swelling, reddening, and tenderness of the skin of infected fingers. This may be accompanied by fever and swollen lymph nodes. Small, clear vesicles initially form individually, then merge and become cloudy. Associated pain often seems large, relative to the physical symptoms. The herpes whitlow lesion usually heals in 2-3 weeks. Aetiology Herpetic HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitlow" \o "Whitlow"whitlow can be caused by infection with HSV-1 or HSV-2. Diagnosis It is made by history and clinical examination. Treatment To prevent this infection, gloves should be used routinely when examining or treating patients. Although it is a self-limited illness, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiviral_drug" \o "Antiviral drug"antiviral treatments applied to the infected skin, particularly HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acyclovir" \o "Acyclovir"acyclovir cream, have been shown to be effective in decreasing the duration of symptoms. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incision_and_drainage" \o "Incision and drainage"Lancing or surgically HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debride" \o "Debride"debriding the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesion" \o "Lesion"lesion may make it worse by causing a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superinfection" \o "Superinfection"superinfection or HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encephalitis" \o "Encephalitis"encephalitis. Chickenpox Chickenpox, also known as varicella, is a primary infection caused by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varicella_zoster_virus" varicella zoster virus (VZV). It spreads from person to person by direct contact or by air from an infected person's coughing or sneezing. Touching the fluid HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blister" \o "Blister"blister can also spread the disease. It takes from 1-3 weeks after contact with an infected person for someone to develop chickenpox. It is most common between the ages of 2-8. A person with chickenpox is infectious from 1-5 days before the skin rash appears. The contagious period continues until all blisters crust over forming scabs which may take 5-10 days. It also presents clinically as oral ulceration mainly of the oropharynx. The condition resolves by itself within a couple of weeks. It is most common in the winter and spring and usually affects lots of children at the same time, around once every 3 years as an HYPERLINK "http://www.nhsdirect.nhs.uk/glossary/" \l "Epidemic" \o "Click for definition"epidemic. Children should not be sent back to school until all skin lesions have crusted over to avoid spreading the disease to others. Following primary infection there is usually lifelong protective immunity from further episodes of chickenpox. Aetiology Chickenpox is a highly  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectious_disease" \o "Infectious disease" contagious illness caused by primary  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infection" infection with VZV. Diagnosis The diagnosis of varicella is primarily clinical with typical early  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prodrome" \o "Prodrome" prodromal symptoms, followed by the characteristic skin  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rash" rash. Confirmation of the diagnosis can be sought through either examination of the fluid within the vesicles of the rash, or by testing blood for evidence of an acute immunologic response. Treatment It consists of easing the symptoms as there is no actual  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cure" cure of the condition. Topical antiseptic and analgesic mouth wash (eg benzydamine hydrochloride) is recommended to alleviate pain and prevent secondary infection of oral ulcers. Topical application of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calamine_lotion" \o "Calamine lotion" calamine lotion containing  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_oxide" zinc oxide to skin rash is one of the most commonly used interventions to ease itching. Painkillers such as paracetamol or ibuprofen are also recommended as they are effective in relieving itching and other symptoms such as fever or pains. Antihistamines may be used in cases when the symptoms cause the inability to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep" sleep, as they are efficient for easing the itching and they are acting as a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedative" sedative. Chickenpox in otherwise healthy adults tends to be more severe and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapy" \o "Therapy" treatment with oral  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acyclovir" \o "Acyclovir" acyclovir is generally advised, as long as it is initiated at the earliest sign or symptom. Herpes zoster Herpes zoster, also known as shingles or zona, is a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_disease" \o "Viral disease"viral disease caused by HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varicella_zoster_virus" \o "Varicella zoster virus"varicella zoster virus (VZV). Once an episode of chickenpox has resolved, the virus is not eliminated from the body but becomes HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_latency" \o "Viral latency"latent in dorsal root HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganglion" \o "Ganglion"ganglia without causing any HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symptoms" \o "Symptoms"symptoms as it is kept under control by the HYPERLINK "http://www.nhsdirect.nhs.uk/glossary/" \l "Immune system" \o "Click for definition"immune system. The disease results from the virus reactivating in a single sensory ganglion. The virus breaks out of nerve cell bodies and travels down nerve HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon" \o "Axon"axons to cause viral infection of the skin in the region of the nerve, causing a painful rash. Exactly how the virus remains latent in the body, and subsequently reactivates is not understood. Most zoster affects the thoracic region, but in 30% of the cases the trigeminal nerve, with its 3 branches: ophthalmic, maxillary and mandibular, is affected. Most common and not welcomed branch to be involved is the ophthalmic. The earliest symptoms are nonspecific and include HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headache" \o "Headache"headache, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fever" \o "Fever"fever, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaise" \o "Malaise"malaise, followed by sensations of burning pain, itching, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperesthesia" \o "Hyperesthesia"hyperesthesia (oversensitivity), or HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paresthesia" \o "Paresthesia"paresthesia (pins and needles). The pain may be extreme in the affected dermatome, with sensations that are often described as stinging, tingling, aching, numbing or throbbing, and can be interspersed with quick stabs of agonising pain. In most cases, after 1-2 days (but sometimes as long as 3 weeks) the initial phase is followed by the appearance of the characteristic skin rash normally resulting in a stripe or belt-like pattern that is limited to one side of the body and does not cross the midline. The painful vesicles eventually crust over within 7-10 days, and usually the crusts fall off and the skin heals. Until the rash has developed crusts, a person is extremely contagious. Intra oral lesions may appear if maxillary or mandibular branches are involved. Patients older than 60 years of age are particularly prone to residual nerve pain for months or years, a condition called HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postherpetic_neuralgia" \o "Postherpetic neuralgia"postherpetic neuralgia, which is often difficult to manage. Other serious effects include partial HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%27s_palsy" \o "Bell's palsy"facial paralysis (usually temporary), ear damage or HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encephalitis" \o "Encephalitis"encephalitis. There is a slightly increased risk of developing HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer" \o "Cancer"cancer after a herpes zoster infection. Repeated attacks of herpes zoster are rare, and it is extremely rare for patients to suffer more than 3 recurrences. Aetiology Reactivation of latent herpes varicella virus from an original varicella infection introduced through chickenpox. Herpes zoster is more likely to occur in people whose immune system is impaired due to aging, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunosuppressive_therapy" \o "Immunosuppressive therapy"immunosuppressive therapy, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_stress" \o "Psychological stress"psychological stress or other factors. Diagnosis VZV-specific HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IgM" \o "IgM"IgM HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibody" \o "Antibody"antibody in blood is a popular test. This only appears during chickenpox or herpes zoster and not while the virus is dormant. There may be a need to exclude malignancy and immune defect (including HIV). Treatment Topical application of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calamine_lotion" \o "Calamine lotion" calamine lotion containing  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_oxide" zinc oxide to skin rash or blisters is commonly used to ease itching. Topical HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lidocaine" \o "Lidocaine"lidocaine and nerve blocks may also reduce pain. Severe pain may require an opioid medication, such as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphine" \o "Morphine"morphine. Oral acyclovir, valacyclovir or famciclovir inhibits VZV replication and reduces the severity and duration of herpes zoster with minimal side effects, preferably initiated within 72 hours of the appearance of the rash, but it doesnt reliably prevent postherpetic neuralgia. In the absence of specific contraindications, consideration should be given to prescribing short-term, high-dose corticosteroid prophylaxis for postherpetic neuralgia, in conjunction with oral acyclovir. Treatment for HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophthalmic_zoster" \o "Ophthalmic zoster"herpes zoster ophthalmicus is similar to standard treatment for herpes zoster at other sites. Live HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine" \o "Vaccine"vaccine for VZV exists, marketed as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zostavax" \o "Zostavax"Zostavax. It prevents half the cases of herpes zoster and reduces the number of cases of postherpetic neuralgia by two-thirds. Herpes zoster oticus Herpes zoster oticus, also known as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramsay_Hunt_syndrome_type_II" \o "Ramsay Hunt syndrome type II"Ramsay Hunt syndrome type II (RHS II), involves the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ear" \o "Ear"ear and it is essentially HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shingles" \o "Shingles"shingles of the geniculate ganglion. Briefly, the herpes zoster virus, which causes HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicken_pox" \o "Chicken pox"chickenpox, lies dormant in various nerve cells in the body, where it is kept in check by the patient's immune system. Given the opportunity, for example during an illness that suppresses the immune system, the virus is reactivated and travels to the end of the nerve cell, where it causes the symptoms. Since the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestibulocochlear_nerve" \o "Vestibulocochlear nerve"vestibulocochlear nerve is in proximity to the geniculate ganglion, it may also be affected. Symptoms include HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_facial_nerve_paralysis" \o "Acute facial nerve paralysis"acute facial nerve paralysis, pain in the ear, taste loss in the front two-thirds of the tongue, dry mouth and eyes, and eruption of HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythematous" \o "Erythematous"erythematous vesicular HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rash" \o "Rash"rash in the ear canal, the tongue or HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_palate" \o "Hard palate"hard palate. Patients may also suffer from HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinnitus" \o "Tinnitus"tinnitus, hearing loss, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertigo_(medical)" \o "Vertigo (medical)"vertigo. Treatment The largest study on the treatment of RHS II has shown that complete recovery can be achieved in 75% of patients if treatment with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prednisone" \o "Prednisone"prednisolone and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acyclovir" \o "Acyclovir"acyclovir is started within the first 3 days of onset of symptoms. Chances of complete recovery decrease as treatment is delayed. Hand, foot and mouth disease Hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD) is a childhood illness which affects mostly children aged 10 years and under. It is moderately contagious and is spread through direct contact with the mucus, saliva or faeces of an infected person. It typically occurs in small epidemics in nursery schools or kindergartens, usually during the summer and autumn months. The usual incubation period is 3-7 days. Hand, foot and mouth disease is not to be confused with HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foot-and-mouth_disease" \o "Foot-and-mouth disease"foot and mouth disease, which is a disease affecting sheep, cattle, and swine, and which is unrelated to HFMD. Clinically the disease manifests as painful vesicles on soles of feet and palms of hand that are surrounded by inflammatory halos. Oral ulcers which usually affect the tongue or buccal mucosa are painful, shallow, surrounded with erythema and accompanied with mild fever, sore throat, loss of appetite, malaise and anorexia. In most cases, infection is HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptomatic" \o "Asymptomatic"asymptomatic or causes only mild symptoms. Aetiology It is often produced by an intestinal virus called Coxsackie A16. Diagnosis It is based on a combination of clinical history and characteristic physical findings. Laboratory confirmation is rarely necessary unless severe complications develop. Treatment Many doctors do not issue medicine for this illness unless the infection is severe. Therapy is directed towards symptomatic relief of fever and  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=480" sore throat. Antipyretics (eg paracetamol or ibuprofen) and topical anaesthetics can be used to lessen fever and pain. Herpangina Herpangina, also called mouth  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blister" \o "Blister" blisters, is the name of a painful mouth  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infection" \o "Infection" infection that is most common in children and is very contagious. Though herpangina can be asymptomatic, symptoms are usually high HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fever" \o "Fever"fever and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sore_throat" \o "Sore throat"sore throat. A small number of ulcers (usually 2-6) form in the back area of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouth" \o "Mouth"mouth, particularly the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft_palate" \o "Soft palate"soft palate or HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonsil" \o "Tonsil"tonsillar pillars. The lesions heal in 7-10 days. Aetiology Several common Coxsackie A viruses can cause herpangina, although it can also be caused by Coxsackie virus B, or HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echovirus" \o "Echovirus"echoviruses. Diagnosis A HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" \o "Medical diagnosis"diagnosis can be made from clinical signs and symptoms. Treatment Treatment is generally supporative as the disease is self-limiting and usually runs its course in less than a week. Management includes hydration, antipyretics (eg paracetamol or ibuprofen), and topical anaesthetics. Focal epithelial hyperplasia Focal epithelial hyperplasia, also known as Heck's disease, is one of the most contagious oral papillary lesions. The level of contagion is exemplified by the fact that in some isolated populations up to 40% of children have been affected. Today it is known to exist in numerous populations and ethnic groups. Where the infection is endemic among children, adults seem to have minimal evidence of residual oral lesions and so the lesions are presumed to eventually disappear on their own. Sites of greatest involvement include the labial, buccal and lingual mucosa, but gingival and tonsillar lesions have also been reported. Clinically, lesions are frequently papillary in nature, but are relatively smooth-surfaced and flat-topped. The lack of pronounced surface projections easily differentiates it from squamous papilloma, verruca vulgaris, and condyloma. Lesions are usually the colour of normal mucosa, small, discrete and well-demarcated, but they frequently cluster so closely together that the entire mucosa takes on a cobblestone or fissured appearance. Spontaneous regression has been reported after months or years, and the disease is rather rare in adults. No case has been reported to transform into carcinoma. It should be remembered that focal epithelial hyperplasia may be an oral manifestation of AIDS. Aetiology It is produced by one of the subtypes of the human papilloma virus (HPV-13), and possibly HPV-32. Diagnosis Conservative excisional biopsy may be required to establish the proper diagnosis. Treatment Additional treatment is unnecessary, except perhaps for aesthetic reasons relating to visible labial lesions. When desired, lesions can be removed by conservative surgery or laser destruction. Successful use of topical 5%  HYPERLINK "http://dermnetnz.org/treatments/imiquimod.html" imiquimod cream, an immune response modifier, has been reported. Follow up is recommended in all cases. Infectious mononucleosis Infectious mononucleosis, also known as mono, kissing disease, or glandular  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=361" fever is a very common illness. The designation mononucleosis refers to an increase in one type of WBC (lymphocytes) in the bloodstream relative to the other blood components as a result of the Epstein Barr virus (EBV) infection. The EBV that causes mono is found throughout the world with a peak incidence at ages 15-17. Generally, the illness is less severe in young children and may mimic the symptoms of other common childhood illnesses, which may explain why it is less commonly diagnosed or recognised in this younger age group. By the time most people reach adulthood, an antibody against EBV can be detected in their blood. The anginose type shows ulcers in the mouth with spongy gums which bleed easily and petechial haemorrhages at the junction of hard and soft palate. Cervical lymphadenopathy is present and oedema of face and eyelids may be present with fever, fatigue, and  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=480" sore throat. A feeling of  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=26114" tiredness may persist for months following the  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=2133" acute phase of the illness. Patients can continue to have virus particles present in their saliva for as long as 18 months after the initial infection. When symptoms persist for more than 6 months, the condition is frequently called chronic EBV infection. However, laboratory tests generally cannot confirm continued active EBV infection in people with chronic infection. Aetiology It is caused by the EBV. Mono is spread by person-to-person contact and saliva is the primary method of transmitting mono. Diagnosis More useful in a diagnostic sense are the signs and symptoms themselves. The presence of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Splenomegaly" \o "Splenomegaly" splenomegaly, posterior cervical adenopathy,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axillary" \o "Axillary" axillary adenopathy, and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inguinal" \o "Inguinal" inguinal adenopathy are the most useful to suspect a diagnosis of mono. Presence of 50% lymphocytes, with at least 10% atypical lymphocytes (large, irregular  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_nucleus" \o "Cell nucleus" nuclei) that resembled monocytes when they were first discovered, thus the name mononucleosis was coined. A positive heterophile antibody test (Paul-Bunnel or monospot test). Unfortunately, the heterophile antibodies may not become detectable until the second or third weeks of the illness. More sensitive tests have been developed such as the IgG and IgM tests. IgG, when positive, reflects a past infection, whereas IgM reflects a current infection. Therefore, they are useful for diagnosing mono in people with highly suggestive symptoms and a negative heterophile antibody test. Elevated hepatic  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transaminase" \o "Transaminase" transaminase level is highly suggestive of infectious mononucleosis, occurring in up to 50% of patients. Treatment It is generally a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-limiting_(biology)" \o "Self-limiting (biology)" self-limiting disease and only supportive treatment is used. Rest is recommended during the acute phase of the infection, but activity should be resumed once acute symptoms have resolved.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-steroidal_anti-inflammatory_drug" \o "Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug" NSAIDs like  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibuprofen" \o "Ibuprofen" ibuprofen may be used to reduce fever and pain. Gargling with salt water or using anaesthetic throat lozenges to soothe  HYPERLINK "http://www.webmd.com/cold-and-flu/tc/sore-throat-topic-overview" sore throat. There is little evidence to support the use of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aciclovir" \o "Aciclovir" acyclovir, although it may reduce initial viral shedding. However, the antiviral drug  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valacyclovir" \o "Valacyclovir" valacyclovir has recently been shown to lower or eliminate the presence of the EBV in subjects afflicted with acute mono, leading to a significant decrease in the severity of symptoms. Occasionally streptococcus throat occurs in conjunction with mono and is best treated with penicillin or  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=748" erythromycin. The antibiotics  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampicillin" \o "Ampicillin" ampicillin and later the related  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amoxicillin" \o "Amoxicillin" amoxicillin should be avoided if there is a possibility of mono because their use precipitates a non-allergic rash close to 99% of the time. It is recommended that patients with mono avoid participation in any contact sports or heavy lifting for at least 4 weeks after the onset of symptoms to prevent trauma to the  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=109152" enlarged spleen. Necrotising ulcerative gingivitis Necrotising ulcerative gingivitis (NUG) or Vincents stomatitis is a subclassification of necrotising periodontal disease. It presents as an  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute" \o "Acute" acute infection of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gingiva" \o "Gingiva" gingiva without involvement of other tissues of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodontium" \o "Periodontium" periodontium. If the infection has progressed deeper into the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodontium" \o "Periodontium" periodontal tissues, it is subclassified as necrotising ulcerative periodontitis (NUP). Men are affected more than women, and the condition is now found more commonly in the younger generation with peak incidence at 20-25 years. Clinical features of necrotising periodontal disease may include  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necrosis" \o "Necrosis" necrosis and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulceration" \o "Ulceration" ulceration of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdental_papilla" \o "Interdental papilla" interdental papillae (punched-out papillae), painful and bright red  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gingiva" \l "Marginal_gingiva" \o "Gingiva" marginal gingiva that bleed upon gentle manipulation, pseudomembranous formation, and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halitosis" \o "Halitosis" halitosis. Aetiology It is associated with anaerobes such as Prevotella intermedia and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusobacterium" \o "Fusobacterium" Fusobacterium as well as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirochetes" \o "Spirochetes" spirochetes. It may be due to interacting factors such as poor oral hygiene, poor nutrition, smoking, stress, lifestyle, and other infections. It sometimes complicates a preexisting periodontitis. Immunosuppressive and antimetabolite therapy may also be associated. Diagnosis It can be confirmed by a smear and gram stain, and the response to treatment. Treatment Metronidazole or penicillin-V for 5 days. Chlorhexidine mouth wash, vitamin C, and oral analgesics may also be prescribed. The patient should be asked to stop smoking until acute symptoms subside. When inflammation subsides, all supragingival and subgingival deposits should be removed and oral hygiene instructions should be given. A periodontal surgery (gingivoplasty) to restore the contour and to prevent chronic recurrent infections may be required. Any defects in general health such as nutritional deficiency, incipient diabetes mellitus, or anaemia should be corrected. Tuberculosis Tuberculosis or tubercle bacillus (TB) is a chronic infectious granulomatous disease that can affect any part of the body, including the mouth. Even though the diseases prevalence declined decades ago, the number of cases started to increase since 1985. The plausible reasons for this increase may be the lack of public health efforts to control TB after its elimination, the epidemic of HIV infection, an increase in poverty, and the development of multidrug-resistant species of the bacteria. Although oral manifestations of TB are rare, clinicians should be aware of their possible occurrence in their patients. Such awareness can help diagnose TB at an early stage, thereby preventing complications and potential contaminations. Tuberculous oral lesions may be either primary or secondary. Primary lesions are uncommon, seen in younger patients and present as single painless ulcer with regional lymph node enlargement. The secondary lesions are common, often associated with pulmonary disease, and usually present as single, persistent, irregular painful ulcer, which most frequently affects the dorsum tongue and is covered by inflammatory exudates. It affects patients of any age group but relatively more common in middle aged and elderly patients. Clinical examination reveals cough, haemoptysis, fever, weight loss, and malaise. The pathogenesis of oral TB usually is self-inoculation with infected sputum, resulting from the constant coughing up of bacteria that seed themselves in the oral tissue along their line of discharge through the mouth. The low incidence of mucosal involvement may be due to constant flow of saliva, mucosal resistance, and that TB tends to single out one organ or tissue for attack. Although rare, TB must be considered in the differential diagnosis of chronic ulcers in the oral region, and its association with HIV must not be overlooked. Aetiology It is usually acquired by inhaling droplets contaminated by a bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB). Diagnosis Cultures of the biopsy specimen and the sputum smear reveal acid fast bacilli. Histopathologic examination of the biopsy specimen is probably the most satisfactory. Chest x-ray to identify the primary lesion. Treatment Treating TB with antibiotics takes for at least 6-9 months (eg isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, or pyrazinamide). The exact drugs and length of treatment depend on age of patient, overall health, possible drug resistance, type of TB (latent or active), and its location in the body. Syphilis Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease that may progress through 3 distinct stages. Sometimes not all 3 may be evident. The primary phase is highly contagious and the tongue is second only to the lip as the site for the chancre which is painless, hard and punched out. The associated cervical glands are hard and non-tender. The chancre develops 3-4 weeks after infection and heals spontaneously after 1 week. Though the sore goes away, the disease does not. It progresses into the secondary phase which may develop 4-10 weeks after the chancre and may last up to 2 years. This phase has many symptoms, which is why syphilis is called the great pretender. It may look like a number of other illnesses. The mucous patches may be found on the sides and tip of the tongue as oval, raised shallow lesions that later coalesce to form snail track ulcers (named due to their silvery appearance). This phase of syphilis can go away without treatment, but the disease then enters the third phase. In the third phase symptoms may develop soon after the occurrence of secondary syphilis, or syphilis may lie hidden for up to 15 years if not treated in the early stages. Tertiary syphilis is less contagious than secondary, but for the individual carrying this disease it can be fatal, particularly if the heart or central nervous system is affected. This stage is characterised by the formation of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gumma_(pathology)" \o "Gumma (pathology)" gummas which are soft, tumor-like balls of inflammation known as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granuloma" \o "Granuloma" granulomas. The granulomas are chronic and represent an inability of the immune system to completely clear the organism. They are seen as deep punched out ulcers on the hard palate or dorsal surface of tongue. In addition, tertiary syphilis produces syphilitic glossitis which presents as a leukoplakia of the dorsal lingual mucosa with nonspecific papillary atrophy. This condition predisposes to carcinoma of the tongue, perhaps as a result of endarteritis obliterans producing relative mucosal ischaemia and an increased susceptibility to environmental carcinogens. Great care should be taken by the clinician during examination, especially during the secondary stage because of the risk of infection. Aetiology Syphilis is a sexually transmitted infection caused by the spirochete bacteria Treponema palladium. It can be transmitted to the faetus via the placenta in a pregnant woman after 16 weeks of pregnancy. Diagnosis It is confirmed by a history of painless enlarged regional lymph nodes that last 2 months, fever, skin rashes, and painless laryngitis. It should be differentiated from tuberculosis. Diagnosis of early cases involves looking for the bacterium in scrapings from the chancre using a special instrument called a dark-field microscope. Diagnosis of advanced cases is by taking a blood sample for fluorescent treponemal antibody absorption test (FTA-ABS) and treponema pallidum particle agglutination assay (TPPA). If the results are positive then the patient must be referred to a specialist (venereologist). Treatment Without treatment syphilis can cause irreversible damage to the brain, nerves, and body tissues. The drug of choice is parenteral penicillin-G for all stages of syphilis. Actinomycosis Actinomycosis is a rare chronic bacterial infection that commonly affects the face and neck and produces abscesses and open-draining sinuses. A favourable condition is required for the growth of the microorganism such as periodontal pockets, fracture sites, and mainly post extraction. A male to female ratio of approximately 3:1 has been observed and the incidence is higher in persons aged 30-60 years. It is rare in children. Symptoms occur when the bacteria enter the facial tissues after trauma, oral surgery, dental abscess or radiation therapy causing local tissue damage of oral mucosa, all of which predispose the person to develop actinomycosis. Clinical symptoms of actinomycosis may include nonspecific complaints such as weight loss, pain, and fever. Actinomycosis affects the mandible more and the soft tissues may be involved in 60% of cases. Once in the tissue, it forms a painful abscess, producing a hard, red to reddish-purple lump. Eventually, the abscess breaks through the skin surface to produce multiple draining sinuses. Actinomycosis abscesses grow larger as the disease progresses, often over a period of months. Aetiology It is usually caused by  HYPERLINK "http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002230.htm" anaerobicanaerobic bacteria called Actinomyces israelii, which is a common and non-pathogenic organism found in the nose and throat. Diagnosis Smear and culture of the tissue or fluid shows Actinomyces species. Examination of drained fluid under a microscope shows sulfur granules which are yellowish granules made of clumped organisms. A positive Kveim test confirms the diagnosis. Treatment Penicillin-G for 2-6 weeks followed by oral penicillin or amoxicillin for 6-12 months is the typical therapy. High penicillin concentrations are necessary to penetrate areas of fibrosis and suppuration and possibly the granules themselves. If the person is allergic to penicillin then doxycycline is used. Surgical drainage of the abscesses or radical excision of the sinus tracts may be necessary. Acute pseudomebraneous candidiasis Acute pseudomebraneous candidiasis, also known as moniliasis or thrush, is more common in people who smoke and can arise in patients after recent use of antibiotics, corticosteroids, immunosuppressive drugs, cytotoxic chemotherapy or irradiation. It is also common in those with xerostomia, immunodeficiencies such as leukaemia or AIDS, malnutrition, diabetes mellitus, and in neonates who have little immunity to candida species. The tongue, palate, and buccal mucosa are most frequently affected and angular cheilitis is often found. The soft, creamy white patches of thrush can be wiped off the mucosa, leaving erythema. The surrounding mucosa is not inflamed. Occasional distal spread occurs and tissues as lungs, liver and kidney may be involved. This may be due to underlying genetic defect, endocrine deficiency states, and malignancy. Aetiology Candida albicans is the most common cause of candidiasis. Diagnosis It is confirmed by a smear (gram or PAS stain) and culture swab (Saboureds medium). Treatment Avoid smoking, improve oral hygiene, and treat predisposing causes. Topical antifungal therapy such as nystatin suspension or lozenges. Systemic antifungal therapy such as fluconazole is recommended for resistant cases. Miconazole oral gel should be used for angular cheilitis if present. Erythematous candidiasis There are 2 types of erythematous candidiasis, acute and chronic. Acute erythematous candidiasis, also known as acute atrophic candidiasis or antibiotic sore mouth is common in patients taking broad spectrum antibiotics. These patients typically manifest with erythema of the affected area of oral mucosa with atrophy of dorsal lingual papillae. Red, flat persistent lesions are also seen on the palate and buccal mucosa. The major problem faced by these patients is excessive burning sensation in the affected area. Chronic erythematous candidiasis, also known as chronic atrophic candidiasis or denture stomatitis is commonly seen in patients wearing ill fitting dentures for prolonged duration, as well as in those wearing dentures through the night. These patients usually present with erythema limited to the area beneath an upper denture. Despite its name, this condition is rarely sore, though angular cheilitis or stomatitis may be associated. Patients are usually otherwise healthy. Median rhomboid glossitis (central papillary atrophy) is a red depapillated rhomboidal area in the centre of the tongue dorsum, now believed to be associated with erythematous candidiasis. Aetiology It is an infection caused by Candida albicans. Predisposing factors include poor oral and denture hygiene, xerostomia, long standing diabetes mellitus, carbohydrate-rich diets, iron or vitamin B12 deficiency, steroid therapy, HIV infection, and in people who smoke. Diagnosis It is confirmed by a smear (gram or PAS stain) collected by gentle scraping of the affected area with a wet wooden tongue depressor, and culture swab (Saboureds medium). Treatment Treat the predisposing causes. Topical antifungal therapy such as nystatin suspension or lozenges. Remove prosthesis before use of topical agents. Eradicate infection by soaking dentures overnight in 1% sodium hypochlorite (mannitol) solution or if metallic in a solution of 10% cetrimide (cetavlon), then apply a thin coating of miconazole oral gel on the acrylic portion of the appliance before reinserting into the mouth. This will prevent re-infection by the appliance. Oral miconazole gel should be used for angular cheilitis if present. Refractory cases of oral candidiasis may be caused by C. Glabrata, C. Tropicalis, or C. Krusei, all of which are azole-resistant (eg fluconazole). Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) was first recognised in 1981 in young men and its cause, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), was identified in the early 1980s. Today, 75% of new infections are transmitted heterosexually. After infection the HIV establishes itself in the lymphocytes where it undergoes a variable incubation period before full blown AIDS. This incubation period may be from 6 months to 2 years up to 18 years. Only one-third of patients will develop AIDS in 7 years while two-thirds will develop certain manifestations of pre-AIDS. People infected with HIV may have no symptoms for several years, but they can still transmit the infection to others during this symptom-free period. If the infection is not detected and treated, the immune system gradually weakens and AIDS develops. Acute HIV infection progresses over time (usually a few weeks to months) to  HYPERLINK "http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000682.htm" asymptomatic HIV infectionasymptomatic HIV infection and then to early symptomatic HIV infection that includes chills, fevers, sweats (particularly at night), swollen lymph nodes, weakness, and weight loss. Later, it progresses to AIDS even if they do not have opportunistic infections. Full blown AIDS is characterised by immunodeficiency causing opportunistic infections such as Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP), Kaposis sarcoma (KS), Burkett-type lymphoma, unresolved candidal infection, GIT infections, severe glomerulonephritis and renal damage. Oral problems are often the first significant clinical manifestations of infection with HIV. The likelihood of AIDS presenting to the general dental practitioner become more common as the prevalence of the syndrome increases. Therefore, it is important that the dentist be aware of the condition and the recognition of its early signs and symptoms. This will avoid the possibility of the dentist getting the infection or cross the infection to the patients and allows the referral of the patients to the appropriate centre. The commonest oral manifestations are florid candidiasis, KS, recurrent herpetic infections, and to a lesser extent hairy leukoplakia, necrotising ulcerative gingivitis, squamous cell carcinoma, and malignant melanomas. Almost all people infected with HIV, if not treated, will develop AIDS. There is a small group of patients who develop AIDS very slowly, or never at all. These patients are called nonprogressors, and many seem to have a genetic difference that prevents the virus from damaging their immune system. Although treatments for AIDS and HIV can slow the course of the disease, there is currently no known cure or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV_vaccine" \o "HIV vaccine" vaccine. Aetiology It is a disease of the human  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_system" \o "Immune system" immune system caused by a retrovirus known as HIV. HIV is  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)" \o "Transmission (medicine)" transmitted through direct contact of a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucous_membrane" \o "Mucous membrane" mucous membrane or the bloodstream with a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodily_fluid" \o "Bodily fluid" bodily fluid containing HIVsuch as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood" \o "Blood" blood,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semen" \o "Semen" semen,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaginal_fluid" \o "Vaginal fluid" vaginal fluid,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preseminal_fluid" \o "Preseminal fluid" preseminal fluid, and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast_milk" \o "Breast milk" breast milk. Diagnosis Smear and culture swab of candida from buccal mucosa or tongue. Viral culture swab from dorsal lingual mucosa. Biopsy of tongue in hairy leukoplakia shows characteristic features. CBC, LFT, hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), number of T4 and T4:T8 ratio (reduced). Serology for detection of serum antibodies directed against the virus. Barium swallow, bronchoscopy and smear of esophagus, biopsy of lung tissue and bone marrow, and chest x-ray. Treatment Right now there is no cure for AIDS. The highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), that suppresses the replication of the HIV virus in the body, reduces both  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortality_rate" \o "Mortality rate" mortality and morbidity. Opportunistic infections are treated when they happen. Due to the difficulty in treating HIV infection, prevention is a key aim in controlling the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIDS_pandemic" \o "AIDS pandemic" AIDS pandemic. 3 Systemic diseases with oral manifestations Scleroderma Scleroderma is a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_disease" \o "Chronic disease" chronic  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoimmune_disease" \o "Autoimmune disease" autoimmune disease characterised by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibrosis" \o "Fibrosis" fibrosis, vascular alterations, and autoantibodies. Activation of the immune system causes injury to tissues. This injury is similar to  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=43240" scar tissue formation. The disease is more frequent in females than males. There are autoimmune diseases that can be associated with scleroderma such as Sjogrens syndrome, systemic lupus erythmatosus, mysthenia gravis, and acquired haemolytic anaemia. There are 3 major forms of scleroderma; diffuse, limited (previously called CREST syndrome in reference to calcinosis,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raynaud%27s_phenomenon" \o "Raynaud's phenomenon" Raynaud's phenomenon, esophageal dysfunction,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sclerodactyly" \o "Sclerodactyly" sclerodactyly, and telangiectasias), and morphea/linear. Diffuse and limited sclerodermas are both a systemic disease, whereas the morphea/linear form is localised to the skin. Diffuse scleroderma is severe, has a rapid onset and progression, with widespread skin hardening and will generally cause much internal organ damage. It can be fatal, as a result of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart" \o "Heart" heart,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidney" \o "Kidney" kidney,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lung" \o "Lung" lung or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intestinal" \o "Intestinal" intestinal damage. However, the limited type is much milder and has a slow onset and progression; skin hardening is usually confined to the hands and face; internal organ involvement is less severe, and a much better prognosis is expected. In typical cases of limited scleroderma, Raynaud's phenomenon may precede scleroderma by several years. Most patients with systemic sclerosis have waxy, tight, smooth facial skin (Mona Lisa face) and skin tightening can cause the  HYPERLINK "http://www.sclero.org/medical/symptoms/dental/a-to-z.html" \l "microstomia" mouth to become smaller (microstomia) with difficulty in opening the mouth wide. It can cause numerous oral and dental problems when it affects the mouth and face. The oral mucosa will probably reveal atrophic epithelium and the tongue and soft palate are often partially immobilised giving rise to difficulty in eating, talking and swallowing. In the early stages, macroglossia is usual, but as fibrosis occurs the tongue becomes small, hard and immobilised (chicken tongue). The systemic disease is often accompanied by  HYPERLINK "http://www.sclero.org/medical/symptoms/sjogrens/a-to-z.html" Sjogren's syndrome and the resulting  HYPERLINK "http://www.sclero.org/medical/symptoms/dental/a-to-z.html" \l "xerostomia" dry mouth leads to increased  HYPERLINK "http://www.sclero.org/medical/symptoms/dental/a-to-z.html" \l "dentalcaries" cavities,  HYPERLINK "http://www.sclero.org/medical/symptoms/dental/a-to-z.html" \l "periodontal" gum disease, and candida infections. It can also loosen teeth by causing the ligament around the teeth to expand due to collagen deposition. When the ligament expands, the teeth are less supported by bone structure. Function is further inhibited by progressive involvement of the facial skin, muscles of mastication, and the TMJ. The localised type of the disease, known as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphea" \o "Morphea" morphea/linear, while disabling, tends not to be fatal and involves isolated patches of hardened skin, with no internal organ involvement. Individuals with morphea or limited scleroderma have a relatively positive outlook. Those with diffuse systemic scleroderma have a negative prognosis, and although more females are affected, the disease kills more men. Following diagnosis, two-thirds of patients live at least 11 years. The higher the patient's age at diagnosis, the more likely they are to die from the disease. Aetiology It is an autoimmune disease. It could be inherited, but the environment seems to also play a role. Diagnosis It is essentially a clinical one. Blood analysis is non-contributory in localised scleroderma. The  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-topoisomerase_antibodies" \o "Anti-topoisomerase antibodies" anti-topoisomerase antibody is most often seen in patients with the diffuse form of scleroderma, whereas  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-centromere_antibodies" \o "Anti-centromere antibodies" anti-centromere antibody is found almost exclusively in the limited form. Nearly all patients with scleroderma have ANA. Other tests are used to evaluate the presence or extent of any internal disease. These may include GIT tests,  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=336" chest x-ray, lung function testing and  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=315" CT scanning,  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=1944" ECG,  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=42331" echocardiogram (Echo), and sometimes heart catheterisation to evaluate the pressure in the arteries of the heart and lungs. Treatment There is no cure for scleroderma, and treatment aims at ameliorating the symptoms.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raynaud%27s_phenomenon" \o "Raynaud's phenomenon" Raynaud's phenomenon may be treated with agents to increase blood flow to the fingers. Fibrosis of the skin has been treated with drugs that soften the skin and reduce inflammation. Some patients may benefit from exposure to heat. Because scleroderma is an autoimmune disease, one of the major pillars of treatment involves the use of immunosuppressive agents such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methotrexate" \o "Methotrexate" methotrexate,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azathioprine" \o "Azathioprine" azathioprine,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclophosphamide" \o "Cyclophosphamide" cyclophosphamide, and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycophenolate" \o "Mycophenolate" mycophenolate. Amyloidosis Amyloidosis is the abnormal deposition of amyloid protein in various body tissues, leading to organ or tissue damage. Most often, amyloid protein comes from cells in the bone marrow. Deposition of amyloid in a localised area or a single tissue of the body is called localised amyloidosis, causing relatively few symptoms. Often with aging, amyloid can be locally produced and deposited to cause tissue injury. Amyloidosis that affects tissues throughout the body is referred to as systemic amyloidosis, and can cause serious changes in virtually any organ of the body. It has been classified into 3 major types that are very different from each other. These are distinguished by a 2 letter code that begins with an A (for amyloid). The second letter of the code stands for the protein that accumulates in the tissues in that particular type of amyloidosis. The types of systemic amyloidosis are currently categorised as primary (AL), secondary (AA), and hereditary (ATTR). Primary amyloidosis or AL is of unknown cause and occurs when a specialised cell in the bone marrow (plasma cell) spontaneously overproduces a particular protein portion of an antibody called the light chain. Primary amyloidosis can occur with a bone marrow  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=13931" cancer of plasma cells called multiple myeloma. It is not associated with any other diseases, but is a disease entity of its own. Secondary amyloidosis or AA is more common than AL and occurs secondarily as a result of another illness, such as chronic infections (eg tuberculosis, osteomyelitis) or inflammatory diseases (eg rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis). Hereditary amyloidosis or ATTR is a rare form of amyloidosis, inherited as an autosomal dominant. The amyloid deposits are composed of the protein transthyretin, or TTR, which is made in the liver. Therefore, the offspring of a person with the condition has a 50% chance of inheriting it. Symptoms of amyloidosis result from abnormal functioning of the particular organs involved. The heart, kidneys, liver, bowels, skin, nerves, joints, and lungs can be affected. As a result, symptoms are vague and can include  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/forum.asp?articlekey=26109" fatigue,  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/forum.asp?articlekey=34434" shortness of breath,  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=18262" weight loss and  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/forum.asp?articlekey=32101" loss of appetite, numbness, tingling, and weakness. Amyloidosis affecting the kidney leads to nephrotic syndrome which is characterised by severe loss of protein in the urine and swelling of the extremities. The most frequent cause of death in systemic amyloidosis is kidney failure. The most common oral manifestation of amyloidosis is macroglossia, which occurs in 20% of patients. The enlarged tongue demonstrates lateral ridging due to teeth indentation. Although pain is not usually present, enlargement, firmness, and loss of mobility are common. Submandibular swelling occurs subsequent to tongue enlargement and can lead to respiratory obstruction. Interference with taste has also been reported in some patients, and hyposalivation may result from amyloid deposition in the salivary glands. Aetiology It is caused by extracellular deposition of insoluble protein called amyloid. Diagnosis It is made by detecting the characteristic amyloid protein in a biopsy specimen of involved tissue (such as mouth, rectum, kidney, heart or liver). A needle aspiration biopsy of fat, just under the skin of the belly (fat pad aspiration), offers a simple and less invasive method to diagnose systemic amyloidosis. The detection of amyloid deposits in a patient warrants further evaluation for possible multiple myeloma which yields a poor prognosis for the patient. Treatment Currently, amyloidosis has no cure and treatment seeks to limit further production of the amyloid protein. Combination aggressive treatment in AL using melphalan chemotherapy medication, in conjunction with bone marrow stem cells transplantation, has been promising. More aggressive treatment options may be employed in AA to directly target the underlying disease responsible for amyloidosis. ATTR can now be cured with liver transplantation. Sarcoidosis Sarcoidosis is a disease in which noncaseating epithelioid granulomas form nodules that may affect any organ system. It usually occurs between the ages of 20-40 years. Women are slightly more likely to develop the disease than men. Normally the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history_of_disease" \o "Natural history of disease" onset is gradual and it may be  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptomatic" \o "Asymptomatic" asymptomatic or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic" \o "Chronic" chronic.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granuloma" \o "Granuloma" Granulomas most often appear in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lung" \o "Lung" lungs or the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymph_nodes" \o "Lymph nodes" lymph nodes, but virtually any organ can be affected. Common symptoms are vague, such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue_(physical)" \o "Fatigue (physical)" fatigue, fever, swollen lymph nodes,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weight_loss" \o "Weight loss" weight loss, aches and pains,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthritis" \o "Arthritis" arthritis,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerophthalmia" \o "Xerophthalmia" dry eyes, blurred vision, severe redness of the eyes and sensitivity to light. Almost everyone who has sarcoidosis eventually experiences lung problems, which may include persistent dry cough,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyspnea" \o "Dyspnea" shortness of breath ( HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=3145" dyspnea), wheezing, and chest pain. About 5-10% of patients develop serious disability, and lung scarring or infection may lead to respiratory failure and death. Up to 25% of the individuals who have sarcoidosis develop skin problems, which vary and range from  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rash" \o "Rash" rashes and nodules to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythema_nodosum" \o "Erythema nodosum" erythema nodosum or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lupus_pernio" \o "Lupus pernio" lupus pernio. Oral involvement in sarcoidosis is rare and usually manifests after systemic symptoms develop. The symptoms may include lip swelling and multiple nodular painless ulcerations of the gingiva, buccal/labial mucosa, and palate. Although less common, salivary gland involvement is a possibility, leading to tumor-like swellings. Sarcoidosis can be difficult to diagnose, partly because the disease produces few signs and symptoms in its early stages; and when symptoms do occur, they vary and can mimic those of other disorders. Aetiology The cause of the disease is still unknown. Diagnosis This is commonly a diagnosis of exclusion of other granulomatous diseases such as Wegener granulomatosis, Crohn disease, syphilis or tuberculosis. Blood test may show a high level of calcium, and liver and kidney function tests should be carried out to determine the extent of the disease. Chest x-ray, CT scan, and pulmonary function tests are needed. Microscopic examination of specimens of lung tissue obtained with a  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=2538" bronchoscope, or of other tissues can provide the ultimate diagnosis. Kveim reaction is a diagnostic test for sarcoidosis, involving intradermal injection of antigen derived from a lymph node known to be sarcoid. If a lump appears on the skin at the test site in 4-8 weeks, the reaction is said to be positive and that the patient has sarcoidosis. Treatment Between 30-70% of patients do not require therapy because the disease commonly improves or clears up spontaneously.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corticosteroid" \o "Corticosteroid" Corticosteroids ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prednisone" \o "Prednisone" prednisolone) have been the standard treatment for many years and their use is generally limited to severe, progressive or organ-threatening disease. Multiple organ and progressive pulmonary involvement indicate a poor prognosis. Cystic fibrosis Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an inherited common multisystemic disease which affects the entire body causing progressive disability and often early death. The name CF refers to the characteristic  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scar" \o "Scar" scarring ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibrosis" \o "Fibrosis" fibrosis) and cyst formation. Cystic fibrosis affects the cells that produce sweat, mucus, and digestive juices. Normally, these secretions are thin and slippery, but in CF a defective gene causes the secretions to become thick and sticky. Instead of acting as a lubricant, the secretions plug up tubes, ducts and passageways, especially in the lungs and pancreas. Cystic fibrosis is the most common fatal disorder among  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasian_race" \o "Caucasian race" caucasians of European descent and one in 25  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_carrier" \o "Genetic carrier" carry one gene for CF. In the past, most people with CF died in their teens. Improved screening and treatment allow many people with CF to live into their 50s or even longer. The symptoms and severity of CF vary widely. Some people have serious problems from birth. Others have a milder version of the disease that doesn't show up until they are teens or young adults. One of the first signs of CF is an excessive salt in the sweat. Most of the other signs and symptoms affect the respiratory or the digestive system.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortness_of_breath" \o "Shortness of breath" Difficulty in breathing is the most serious symptom and results from frequent  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumonia" \o "Pneumonia" lung infections, which is the cause of death in CF patients. Other symptoms include  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinusitis" \o "Sinusitis" sinus infections,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failure_to_thrive" \o "Failure to thrive" poor growth,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarrhea" \o "Diarrhea" diarrhea, and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infertility" \o "Infertility" infertility. Lip swelling, gingivitis, and dryness are the more frequent oral findings. Aetiology Children who inherit a faulty  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cystic_fibrosis_transmembrane_conductance_regulator" \o "Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator" cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene from each parent will have CF. Those who inherit a faulty gene from one parent and a normal CFTR gene from the other parent will be CF carriers. CF carriers usually have no symptoms and live normal lives; however, they can pass the faulty CFTR gene onto their children. Diagnosis Newborn screening for CF can be achieved by using genetic testing and blood test. DNA samples from blood or saliva can be checked for specific mutations on the gene responsible for CF, and blood tests help measure the health of liver and pancreas. In early childhood, sweat test that measures the amount of salt in sweat, is the most useful test for diagnosing CF. Chest x-ray, CT scan or MRI are recommended to examine the lungs and internal organs. In case of lung infection, sputum test is needed to identify the pathogen and choose the antibiotic. Treatment There is no cure for CF. Medications such as antibiotics, mucus thinning drugs, and bronchodilators are used to treat and prevent lung infections. Ultimately  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lung_transplantation" \o "Lung transplantation" lung transplantation is often necessary as CF worsens. Wegeners granulomatosis Wegener's granulomatosis (WG) is an uncommon necrotising vasculitis of small arteries and veins. It classically involves inflammation of the arteries that supply blood to the tissues of the lungs, the nasal passages (sinuses), and the kidneys. When both lungs and kidneys are affected, the condition is referred to as generalised WG. When only the lungs are involved, the condition is referred to as limited WG. It usually affects young or middle-aged adults. Symptoms of WG include  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=120806" fatigue, weight loss and  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=361" fever, shortness of breath, bloody sputum, joint pains, and  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=476" sinusitis. Nasal ulcerations, and even bloody nasal discharge, can occur. Other areas of the body that can also become inflamed include eyes, nerves (neuropathy), middle ear (otitis media), and skin, resulting in skin nodules or ulcers. Oral involvement in WG is common, and autopsy studies of patients with the disease show this site is affected in nearly all cases. Oral lesions include ulcerations and gingival enlargement. Initially, bright red to purple friable diffuse papules originate on the labial interdental papillae. The gingivae take on a characteristic swollen, reddened, and granular appearance. The characteristic gingival appearance is a pathognomonic finding termed strawberry gingivitis, although it is less common than other findings. Involvement may eventually include the lingual and palatal mucosa. Tooth and alveolar bone loss are common. Oral manifestations may correlate with disease progression, thereby providing prognostic value. Aetiology The cause of WG is unknown. Diagnosis Early diagnosis of the disease is essential. Blood tests include ESR, CRP, and urine tests to detect protein and RBC. A more specific blood test used to diagnose and monitor WG is the antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCAs), which is elevated when the disease is active. Biopsy findings of the gingival papillomatous lesion confirm the diagnosis.  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=336" X-ray tests of the chest and sinuses are recommended to detect abnormalities of WG. Open lung or kidney biopsies are also commonly used in making a diagnosis. Treatment Treatment is usually with oral corticosteroids and cyclophosphamide. Prompt treatment is important to prevent further damage to the lungs and kidneys. Graft versus host disease Graft versus host disease (GVHD) is a common  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complication_(medicine)" \o "Complication (medicine)" complication that occurs in the bone marrow involving a donor and a recipient. Since only identical twins have identical tissue types, a donor's bone marrow is normally a close, but not perfect match to the recipient's tissues. Histocompatibility antigen test Bone marrow transplantation is frequently used to treat  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer" \o "Cancer" cancer, mainly  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leukemia" \o "Leukemia" leukaemias. Clinically, GVHD is divided into  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_(medical)" \o "Acute (medical)" acute and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_(medicine)" \o "Chronic (medicine)" chronic forms. The acute form of the disease is normally observed within the first 3 months after transplant, and is a major challenge to transplants owing to associated morbidity and mortality. The chronic form of GVHD usually starts more than 3 months after transplant, and can last a lifetime. Rates of GVHD vary from between 30-40% among related donors and recipients to 60-80% between unrelated donors and recipients. The greater the mismatch between the donor and recipient, the greater the risk of GVHD. After a transplant, the recipient usually takes drugs that suppress the immune system; this helps reduce the chances or severity of GVHD. Symptoms in both acute and chronic GVHD range from mild to severe. The acute form is characterised by selective damage to the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver" \o "Liver" liver,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin" \o "Skin" skin and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucosa" \o "Mucosa" mucosa, and the GIT. Chronic GVHD also attacks the above organs, but over its long-term course it can also cause damage to the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connective_tissue" \o "Connective tissue" connective tissue and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exocrine_glands" \o "Exocrine glands" exocrine glands. In both acute and chronic GVHD, the patient is very vulnerable to infections. The oral manifestations of acute GVHD have been described as painful ulcerations together with cheilitis, striae, white plaque-like patches, xerostomia and erythema. Minor erythema of the oral mucosa suggests chronic GVHD, whereas a normal oral cavity denotes absence of the disease. Additional contributing causes of oral complications are thought to arise from the side effects of chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Aetiology Graft versus host disease is a complication that can occur after a  HYPERLINK "http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003009.htm" bone marrow transplant in which the newly transplanted material attacks the transplant recipient's body. Diagnosis It is by oral biopsy if white lesion (lichenoid reaction), minor salivary gland biopsy if xerostomia (Sjogrens syndrome), and  HYPERLINK "http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003840.htm" skin biopsySkin biopsy if scleroderma-like lesions. Chest x-ray and  HYPERLINK "http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003338.htm" GI endoscopyGastrointestinal endoscopy with or without a  HYPERLINK "http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003416.htm" biopsybiopsy.  HYPERLINK "http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003436.htm" Liver function testsLiver function tests (ALP, AST, and bilirubin levels will be increased), and  HYPERLINK "http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003895.htm" liver biopsyLiver biopsy if the patient only has liver symptoms. Treatment The goal is to suppress the immune response without damaging the new cells. High dose corticosteroids are the most effective treatment for acute GVHD. Treatment of chronic GVHD includes corticosteroids with or without cyclosporine. Antibodies to T-cells and other medicines are given to patients who do not respond to steroids. Rheumatoid arthritis Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a common, autoimmune systemic disease that causes chronic inflammation of the joints. The disease is 3 times more common in women than in men. It can begin at any age, but it most often starts between 40-60 years. While RA is a chronic illness, meaning it can last for years, patients may experience long periods without symptoms. However, RA is typically a progressive illness that has the potential to cause joint destruction and functional disability; and is often accompanied by Sjogrens syndrome. When the disease is active, symptoms can include fatigue, loss of energy, lack of appetite, low grade fever, muscle and joint aches, and stiffness. The joint inflammation of RA causes swelling, pain, stiffness, and redness. Moreover, studies have shown that the progressive damage to the joints does not necessarily correlate with the degree of pain, stiffness, or swelling present in the joints. The TMJ is affected in more than 17% of adults and children with RA, but it is usually among the last joints involved. Pain, swelling, and limited movement are the most common findings. In children, destruction of the condyle results in mandibular growth disturbance and facial deformity, followed by ankylosis. In early stages, x-rays of the TMJ are usually negative but later show bone destruction, which may result in an anterior open-bite deformity. In most patients with RA, the condition will necessitate few or no changes in routine dental care. However, considerations include the patients ability to maintain adequate oral hygiene, xerostomia and its related complications, the patients susceptibility to infections, impaired haemostasis, and untoward drug actions and interactions. Oral ulcerations and lichenoid reaction may appear as a consequence of the use of NSAIDs or other anti-rheumatics. Aetiology It is an autoimmune diseas. In some families, multiple members can be affected, suggesting a genetic basis for the disorder. Diagnosis Blood tests for CBC, CRP, and RF (found in 80% of patients). Anticitrulline antibody (anti-CCP) and ANA is present in most patients with RA. Imaging techniques to visualise the structural integrity of the jaw joint, such as x-ray, CT scan, MRI or arthroscopy. Arthrocentesis, the removal and analysis of fluid in the joint using a syringe, can be helpful to determine if an infection is present. Treatment Applying moist heat packs to the painful jaw joint, eating a soft diet, and using night guard is often helpful. NSAIDs may be given, and jaw function should be restricted. Injection of steroids directly into the painful joint may provide pain relief. This can only be done a limited number of times, as repeated use can harm the joint. Arthrocentesis can be helpful in relieving joint swelling and pain. Antibiotic prophylaxis may be needed before dental treatment if patient is taking oral corticosteroid due to immunosuppression. The enzyme geranylgeranyltransferase-I (GGTase-I) inhibitor has the potential to treat RA, as it protects against inflammation and joint destruction. Food allergy Food allergy is an exaggerated  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_system" \o "Immune system" immune response to a food protein, which is distinct from other adverse responses to food, such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_intolerance" \o "Food intolerance" food intolerances to milk and dairy products, wheat and other gluten-containing grains. Only 6-8% of children and 3% of adults have clinically proven true allergic reactions to food. A food allergy frequently starts in childhood, but it can begin at any age. Fortunately, many children will outgrow their allergy to milk, egg, wheat, peanuts, tree nuts, soy, shellfish, and fruits (particularly tomatoes and strawberries) by the time they are 5 years old if they avoid the offending foods when they are young, but adults usually do not lose theirs. The most common foods that cause allergic reactions in adults are fish, shellfish, peanuts, and tree nuts. Symptoms usually begin immediately, within 2 hours after eating. Although usually mild and not severe, these reactions can cause devastating illness, and in rare instances can be fatal. A food allergy can initially be experienced as an  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=15781" itching in the mouth and difficulty swallowing and breathing. Then, during digestion of the food in the stomach and intestines, symptoms such as  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=41943" nausea, vomiting,  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=1900" diarrhea, and  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=1908" abdominal pain can start. When they reach the skin, allergens can induce  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=511" hives or  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=64425" eczema, and when they reach the airways, they can cause  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=284" asthma. As the allergens travel through the blood vessels, they can cause light headedness, weakness, and  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=12953" anaphylaxis, which is a sudden drop in blood pressure. Allergies to foods may be manifested in the oral cavity as a perioral rash, itchy lips, tongue, and throat, and sometimes swollen lips. Less than 1% of patients with RAS may be attributed to food allergy or intolerance. An oral allergy syndrome (OAS) is a type of food allergy that is caused by cross-reactivity between proteins in fresh fruits and vegetables and pollens, and about 70% of people with allergy to pollen have OAS as well. These foods contain substances similar to certain pollens. The proteins in fresh fruits and vegetables are easily broken down with cooking or processing. Therefore, OAS typically does not occur with cooked or baked fruits and vegetables, or processed fruits. However, unlike other food allergies, touching fresh fruits and vegetables that cause allergies leads to tingling, itching, and swelling of the throat, mouth, lips, and tongue. However, these symptoms do not last very long and do not progress to anything more serious. It can occur anytime of the year but is most prevalent during the pollen season, and the syndrome will abate within 23 years if the patient moves to an area free of the triggering pollen. Aetiology Food allergy occurs when the body's immune system mistakenly identifies a protein in the food as harmful. This leads to the body making a type of allergy-producing substance called IgE antibodies to a particular food. Diagnosis The dietary diary provides more details than the oral history. Elimination diet by eliminating the suspected food from the diet. Skin prick test in which a dilute extract of the suspected food is placed on the skin of the forearm or back. Prick-prick testing with fresh foods (skin-testing needle is inserted into the fresh food, and then used to prick the persons skin) is more reliable than testing with commercial extracts which will commonly give a false negative since the proteins resulting are broken down during processing. Blood tests include radioallergosorbent test (RAST) and  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=9105" ELISA that measures the amount of food-specific IgE antibodies to inhalants and/or foods in the blood of patients. Treatment It consists of either  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunotherapy" \o "Immunotherapy" immunotherapy (desensitisation), or avoidance in which the allergic person avoids all forms of contact with the food to which he is allergic. Areas of research include a humanised monoclonal anti-IgE antibody (omalizumab) and specific oral tolerance induction (SOTI) (oral exposure to increasing doses of the specific food allergen), which have shown some promise for treatment of certain food allergies. Persons with a history of severe anaphylactic reaction may carry a self-injectable dose of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epinephrine" \o "Epinephrine" epinephrine (adrenaline) such as an EpiPen. Other treatments include  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antihistamines" \o "Antihistamines" antihistamines and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steroids" \o "Steroids" steroids. Adverse drug reactions Mucocutaneous eruptions are often central to untoward drug reactions. An ever-expanding list of medications is linked to pathologic reactions in the oral and perioral region. These adverse drug reactions have a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations that can mimic those of other disease states, including both local and systemic conditions. Fortunately, several patterns of disease have been identified, and these can assist the clinician in determining a possible cause-and-effect relationship with a particular medication or group of medications. The clinical patterns of adverse drug reactions of the oral cavity include xerostomia (antidepressants, antipsychotics, antihypertensives, antihistamines, anticholinergics), swelling (penicillins, aspirin, sulfa drugs, ACE inhibitors), nonspecific ulcerations and mucositis (NSAIDs, antineoplastics, barbiturates, dapsone, sulfonamides, tetracyclines, penicillamine, phenytoin, and the potassium channel activator nicorandil, which has recently been recognised as a new cause of persistent oral ulceration with a predilection for the tongue), lupus erythematosus (carbamazepine, penicillamine, streptomycin, minocycline), erythema multiforme major (NSAIDs, penicillins, sulfonamides, hydroxychloroquine, tetracyclines, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenytoin" \o "Phenytoin"phenytoin, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbiturates" \o "Barbiturates"barbiturates, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allopurinol" \o "Allopurinol"allopurinol), lichen planus (NSAIDs, amphotericin B, beta-blockers, carbamazepine, dapsone, ketoconazole, lorazepam, tetracycline, botox), pemphigus vulgaris (ampicillin, cephalexin, ibuprofen, voltaren, penicillamine, rifampin, captopril, phenobarbital), mucous membrane pemphigoid (penicillamine, ibuprofen, penicillins, sulfonamides), lichen planus pemphigoides (cinnarizine, captopril, ramipril, simvastatin, PUVA, antituberculous medication), pigmentation (ACTH, phenolphthalein, hydroxychloroquine, estrogen, ketoconazole, minocycline, tranquilisers, zidovudine), and gingival enlargement (calcium channel blockers, bleomycin, cyclosporine, phenytoin). Aetiology An estimated 2-4% of hospital admissions are related to adverse drug reactions. Diagnosis A detailed drug history can reveal the responsible medication. Treatment Withdrawal of the drug or dose reduction will resolve the lesion. Crohn disease Crohn disease, also known as regional enteritis, is an idiopathic chronic inflammatory disease of the intestines that may affect any part of the GIT from  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouth" \o "Mouth" mouth to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anus" \o "Anus" anus, causing a wide variety of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symptom" \o "Symptom" symptoms. Most Crohn disease cases involve the small bowel, particularly the terminal ileum. Studies throughout the world have shown a small excess risk of Crohn disease among women. The first peak occurs between the ages of 15-30 years, and the second peak occurs between the ages of 60-80. However, most cases begin before age 30 years. Symptoms of Crohn disease include intermittent attacks of diarrhea, constipation, abdominal pain, and fever. Patients may develop malabsorption and subsequent malnutrition. Fissures or fistulas may occur in persons with chronic disease. With oral involvement, the likelihood of extraintestinal manifestations is greater, and these may manifest systemically as skin rashes, arthritis, eye inflammation, tiredness, and lack of concentration. Oral involvement in Crohn disease occurs in 8-9% of patients and may precede intestinal involvement. Oral symptoms include diffuse labial, gingival, or mucosal swelling, cobblestoning of the buccal mucosa and gingiva, aphthous-like ulcers, mucosal tags, and angular cheilitis. Lip swelling is the most common manifestation of Crohn disease and is often a cosmetic complaint. The pattern of swelling, inflammation, ulcers, and fissures is similar to that of the lesions occurring in the intestinal tract. Oral granulomas may occur without the characteristic alimentary involvement and is called orofacial granulomatoses. However, the term orofacial granulomatoses encompasses a variety of other disorders, including sarcoidosis, Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome, and rarely tuberculosis. Whether patients with orofacial granulomatoses will subsequently develop intestinal manifestations of Crohn disease is uncertain, but histologic similarities between the oral lesions and the intestinal lesions are obvious. Oral findings as described above warrant a full systemic evaluation for intestinal Crohn disease, including referral for colonoscopy and biopsy with histopathologic correlation. Negative findings on GIT evaluations should be repeated in patients with oral symptoms. The severity of oral lesions may coincide with the severity of the systemic disease, and it may be used as a marker for intestinal impairment. Patients diagnosed younger have worse prognosis than those diagnosed later in life and a reduced life expectancy compared with the general population. Mortality appears to be the highest in the first 4-5 years after diagnosis, and over time, 10% of patients will be disabled by their disease. The most common disease that mimics the symptoms of Crohn disease is ulcerative colitis, as both are inflammatory bowel diseases that can affect the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colon_(anatomy)" \o "Colon (anatomy)" colon with similar symptoms. It is important to differentiate these diseases, since the course of the diseases and treatments may be different. Aetiology The exact cause of Crohn disease remains unknown. It is thought to be an  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoimmune_disease" \o "Autoimmune disease" autoimmune disease in which the body's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_system" \o "Immune system" immune system attacks the GIT causing  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflammation" \o "Inflammation" inflammation. Environmental, microbial, immunologic, dietary, vascular, smoking, oral contraceptive, NSAIDs, and psychosocial factors have been implicated in its pathogenesis. There has been evidence of a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" \o "Genetics" genetic link to Crohn disease, putting individuals with siblings afflicted with the disease at higher risk. Diagnosis CBC may reveal  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anemia" \o "Anemia" anaemia, which may be caused either by blood loss or by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanocobalamin" \o "Cyanocobalamin" vitamin B12 deficiency, in addition to CRP. Anti- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" \o "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" Sa+ccharomyces cerevisiae antibodies (ASCA) and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-neutrophil_cytoplasmic_antibody" \o "Anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody" anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA) are among the two most useful markers to differentiate Crohn disease (ASCA) from ulcerative colitis (ANCA). Biopsy of the affected oral mucosa may show noncaseating granulomas. The  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsule_endoscopy" \o "Capsule endoscopy" capsule endoscopy and a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barium_follow-through" \o "Barium follow-through" barium follow-through x-ray are useful when the disease involves only the small intestine.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonoscopy" \o "Colonoscopy" Colonoscopy is the best test for diagnosis as it allows direct visualisation of the colon and the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_ileum" \o "Terminal ileum" terminal ileum. Treatment Antibiotics are used to treat any infection. Prolonged use of corticosteroids has significant  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverse_effect_(medicine)" \o "Adverse effect (medicine)" side effects; as a result they are generally not used for long-term treatment. Alternatives include aminosalicylates alone, though only a minority is able to maintain the treatment, and many require immunosuppressive drugs. When symptoms are in remission, treatment enters maintenance with a goal of avoiding the recurrence of symptoms. Remissions tend to occur with the restriction of certain proteins, especially dairy produce. Most patients (80%) develop complications that require surgery, and the disease frequently recurs after surgery. Ulcerative colitis Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflammatory_bowel_disease" \o "Inflammatory bowel disease" inflammatory bowel disease of the large intestine or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colon_(anatomy)" \o "Colon (anatomy)" colon. Like Crohn disease, UC can be debilitating and sometimes can lead to life-threatening complications. It occurs in less than 0.1% of the population. Ucerative colitis can occur at any age, but the peak incidence is between the ages of 15-25 years with a second peak in incidence occurring in the 6th decade of life. The disease affects females more than males. It is more prevalent in northern countries of the world. Ulcerative colitis usually affects only the innermost lining of the colon and rectum, unlike Crohn disease, which occurs in patches anywhere in the digestive tract, and often spreads deep into the layers of affected tissues. The main symptom of active disease is usually constant  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarrhea" \o "Diarrhea" diarrhea mixed with blood, in addition to abdominal pain and fever. Ulcerative colitis may also cause problems outside the colon such as arthritis, inflammation of the eye, liver disease, and osteoporosis. Lesions in the colon consist of areas of haemorrhage and ulcerations along with abscesses. Similar lesions may manifest in the oral cavity as aphthous ulcers or superficial haemorrhagic ulcers that coincide with exacerbations of the colonic disease. Ulcerative colitis is an intermittent disease, with periods of exacerbated symptoms, and periods that are relatively symptom free. Although the symptoms of UC can sometimes diminish on their own, the disease usually requires treatment to go into  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remission_(medicine)" \o "Remission (medicine)" remission. There is a significantly increased risk of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorectal_cancer" \o "Colorectal cancer" colorectal cancer in patients with UC after 10 years of involvement. Aetiology It is of unknown cause, but there is a presumed  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" \o "Genetics" genetic component to susceptibility. Although it is treated as though it is an  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoimmunity" \o "Autoimmunity" autoimmune disease, there is no consensus that it is such. The disease may be triggered in a susceptible person by environmental factors, and dietary modification may reduce the discomfort of a person with the disease. Recent studies have reported the development of inflammatory bowel disease with isotretinoin use, which is a powerful medication sometimes used to treat acne that doesn't respond to other treatments. Additionally, NSAIDs can make existing UC worse and may make the initial diagnosis more difficult. Diagnosis Blood tests should include CBC to check for anaemia, and CRP with an elevated level indicating inflammatory process,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte" \o "Electrolyte" electrolyte studies and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renal_function" \o "Renal function" renal function tests as chronic  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarrhea" \o "Diarrhea" diarrhea may be associated with  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypokalemia" \o "Hypokalemia" hypokalemia,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypomagnesemia" \o "Hypomagnesemia" hypomagnesemia, and pre-renal failure.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver_function_tests" \o "Liver function tests" LFT are performed to screen for bile duct involvement. Endoscopy is the best test for diagnosis of UC, and a biopsy is taken from the lining of the colon to view with a microscope. Full colonoscopy is attempted only if diagnosis is unclear; otherwise, a flexible sigmoidoscopy is sufficient to support the diagnosis. Barium enema is usually only performed if a colonoscopy cannot be done, and CT scans may also be used to diagnose UC or its complications. Stool culture to rule out parasites and infectious causes. Treatment Chlorhexidine and analgesic mouth washes for oral ulcers. Anti-inflammatory drugs are often the first step in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. Sulfasalazine can be effective, but has a number of side effects. Therefore, mesalamine, balsalazide, and olsalazine medications tend to have fewer side effects than sulfasalazine. Corticosteroids are only used in moderate to severe cases that do not respond to other treatments and for short term use only. Immunosuppressants (eg azathioprine, mercaptopurine, cyclosporine, and infliximab) can also be used to suppress the disease. Medications such as antibiotics, antidiarrheal, pain relievers, and iron supplements may be prescribed. Surgery is indicated for patients with severe colitis or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxic_megacolon" \o "Toxic megacolon" toxic megacolon, but it usually means removing the entire colon and rectum. Coeliac disease Coeliac disease, also known as gluten enteropathy or gluten intolerance, is an  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoimmunity" \o "Autoimmunity" autoimmune disorder of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_intestine" \o "Small intestine" small intestine that occurs in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_predisposition" \o "Genetic predisposition" genetically predisposed people of all ages. Upon exposure to gliadin, the immunological reaction causes  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflammation" \o "Inflammation" inflammation that destroys the lining of the small intestine (called villous atrophy). This decreases the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malabsorption" \o "Malabsorption" absorption of nutrients, because the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intestinal_villus" \o "Intestinal villus" intestinal villi are responsible for absorptions, and can lead to vitamin and mineral deficiencies. Symptoms include chronic  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarrhea" \o "Diarrhea" diarrhea, abdominal pain, bloating, pale, loose and greasy stool ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steatorrhoea" \o "Steatorrhoea" steatorrhoea), and weight loss or failure to gain weight (in young children). But these may be absent, and symptoms in other  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" \o "Organ (anatomy)" organ systems, rather than the bowel itself, have been described. It is also possible to have coeliac disease without any symptoms whatsoever. Many adults with subtle disease only have fatigue or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaemia" \o "Anaemia" anaemia. The main oral manifestations in coeliac disease are oral ulcerations, mucosal erythema, and lingual depapillation. It is reported that some 25% of patients with coeliac disease may give a history of oral ulceration. However, the converse is not true, and in recent studies of the prevalence of coeliac disease in patients presenting with RAS, a figure of 2-4% was found on the basis of small intestinal biopsy. The oral ulcers of those patients with coeliac disease often respond extremely well to correction of underlying haematological deficiencies, particularly folate and iron. It seems that the oral ulceration is often due to the associated deficiencies rather than a direct response of the oral mucosa to the allergen. Some individuals with coeliac disease and GI symptoms are mistakenly diagnosed to have  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=396" irritable bowel syndrome. An estimated 10% of individuals with coeliac disease also have  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=64425" dermatitis herpetiformis. Aetiology It is an autoimmune disease caused by a reaction to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliadin" \o "Gliadin" gliadin ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gluten" \o "Gluten" gluten protein) found in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheat" \o "Wheat" wheat, rye, barley, and to a lesser extent in oats. Diagnosis CBC, iron studies,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folic_acid" \o "Folic acid" folic acid,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B12" \o "Vitamin B12" vitamin B12, and calcium level (low calcium level often due to decreased  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_D" \o "Vitamin D" vitamin D level).  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyroid_function_test" \o "Thyroid function test" Thyroid function test (TSH, T3, and T4) to identify  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothyroidism" \o "Hypothyroidism" hypothyroidism which is more common in people with coeliac disease. IgA anti-gliadin antibody (AGA), IgA anti-endomysial antibody (EmA), and anti-tissue transglutaminase antibody (ATA). A total serum IgA level is checked in parallel, as coeliac patients with IgA deficiency may be unable to produce the antibodies on which these tests depend. Endoscopy and small intestinal biopsy is considered the most accurate test for coeliac disease.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteopenia" \o "Osteopenia" Osteopenia and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteoporosis" \o "Osteoporosis" osteoporosis are often present in adults with coeliac disease, and bone densitometry or bone mineral density (BMD) scan may be performed to measure bone density and the need for medication. A trial of a gluten-free diet also can confirm a diagnosis. Treatment Coeliac disease has no cure. The only known effective treatment is a lifelong  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gluten-free_diet" \o "Gluten-free diet" gluten-free diet. Vitamin and mineral supplements are needed to help correct the deficiencies. 4 Tongue disorders Geographic tongue Geographic tongue, also known as benign migratory glossitis or erythema migrans, is an inflammatory condition of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongue" \o "Tongue" tongue affecting approximately 2% of the population. It can affect all ages, but it is more predominant in adults than in children. The classic manifestation of geographic tongue is an area of erythema, with atrophy of the filiform papillae surrounded by white hyperkeratotic border. The patient often reports spontaneous resolution of the lesion in one area, with the return of normal tongue architecture, only to have another lesion appear in a different location of the tongue. The small patches may disappear and reappear in a short period of time (hours or days), and change in shape or size. If lesions occur at other mucosal sites, including the floor of the mouth and buccal mucosa, the condition is termed erythema migrans. Geographic tongue is usually chronic, and most often patients are asymptomatic, however, it may cause a burning or stinging sensation, especially after contact with certain foods such as tomato, eggplant, walnuts, sharp cheeses, spicy foods, sour foods, chocolate, candy, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citrus" \o "Citrus"citrus. Chemicals, such as mouth washes and teeth whiteners, can also aggravate the condition. Coexistence of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fissured_tongue" \o "Fissured tongue" fissured tongue is often noticed, and it has also been reported with increased frequency in patients with HYPERLINK "http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/762805-overview"psoriasis. Aetiology The aetiology and pathogenesis are still poorly understood, though the disease tends to run in families. Causes vary, but may include vitamin B deficiencies, allergies, and hormonal changes. It is said to occur more often in women, especially during high hormonal times such as during ovulation or HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pregnancy" \o "Pregnancy"pregnancy, and while taking birth control. It may also be linked to stress or diets high in sugar or processed foods. Diagnosis It is based on symptoms and clinical examination of the tongue. Exclusion of diabetes mellitus, anaemia, and oral fungal infections are recommended. Treatment There is no known cure for geographic tongue. Avoid foods that exacerbate the condition. Phenolic essential oil mouth washes and peroxidase toothpaste may help some patients. Some individuals report relief from chewing mint leaves, sucking on a mint candy or gum during a flare up. Steroid gel applied topically may clear the patches. Oral HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B" \o "Vitamin B"vitamin B complex or sublingual vitamin B12 causes the condition to go away temporarily in some patients. Zinc supplements have resulted in a dramatic reduction in the incidence of the condition in those who have sensitivity to certain fruits such as strawberries or pineapple. Burning may also be reduced by taking antihistamines. Reassurance, as patients are occasionally concerned about the diagnosis of HYPERLINK "http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1075729-overview"oral cancer. Fissured tongue Fissured tongue, also known as scrotal tongue or placated tongue, is a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benign" \o "Benign" benign condition characterised by deep grooves or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fissure" \o "Fissure" fissures along the dorsal and lateral aspects of the tongue. Some reports have shown a slight male predilection for fissured tongue. Although fissured tongue may be diagnosed initially during childhood, it is diagnosed more frequently in adulthood. The prominence of the condition appears to increase with increasing age. The condition is initially noted on routine intraoral examination as an incidental finding. The depth of the fissures varies, but has been noted to be up to 6 mm in depth. When particularly prominent, the fissures may be interconnected, separating the tongue dorsum into what may appear to be several lobules. The lesions associated with fissured tongue are usually asymptomatic unless debris is entrapped within the fissure or when it occurs in association with geographic tongue which is a common finding. Fissured tongue is seen in Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome (a triad of lip or facial swelling, facial nerve paralysis, and fissured tongue), HYPERLINK "http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/943216-overview"Down syndrome, and in association with chronic dry mouth. Aetiology Although a definitive aetiology is unknown, a polygenic mode of inheritance is suspected because the condition is seen clustering in families who are affected. Diagnosis A biopsy is rarely performed on a fissured tongue because of its characteristic diagnostic clinical appearance. Treatment Fissured tongue is a benign condition that does not require any specific treatment. Patients should be encouraged to brush the top surface of their tongue to remove any debris that may cause irritation or infection when lodged between the grooves. Analgesic mouth washes without alcohol may help. Lingual thyroid Lingual thyroid or ectopic lingual thyroid is an uncommon abnormality of migration of the thyroid gland. It is often found in the region of the foramen caecum at the base of the tongue in patients whose gland fails to descend. The lingual thyroid is 4 times more common in females than in males. It presents as an asymptomatic nodular mass, usually less than 1 cm in size but sometimes reaching more than 4 cm in size. Larger lesions can interfere with swallowing and breathing, but most patients are unaware of the mass at the time of diagnosis, which is usually in the teenage or young adult years. Up to 70% of patients with lingual thyroid lack thyroid tissue in the neck or have hypothyroidism. Therefore, it is important to know that 3 of every 4 patients with infantile hypothyroidism (cretinism) have ectopic thyroid tissue. Rarely, parathyroid glands are associated with the ectopic thyroid tissue and their inadvertent removal has developed tetany in these patients. Other sites of ectopic thyroid deposition include the cervical lymph nodes, submandibular glands and the trachea. Rare examples of thyroid carcinoma arising in the mass have been reported, almost always in males. Aetiology In the first trimester of embryonic development, the thyroid gland originates in the back of the tongue at the junction of the oral tongue (anterior 2/3) and the tongue base (posterior 1/3) and migrates to the front of the neck. When migration fails and the gland remains in the base of the tongue, it is called lingual thyroid. Diagnosis Iodine radioisotope scan is useful in the diagnosis of suspected lingual thyroid. Biopsy should be considered with caution because of the potential for haemorrhage, infection or release of large amounts of hormone into the vascular system (thyroid storm). Treatment Most cases require no treatment. Surgical excision or radioiodine therapies are effective treatments only if iodine radioisotope scan has determined that there is adequate thyroid tissue in the neck. In those patients lacking thyroid tissue in the neck, the lingual thyroid can be excised and autotransplanted to the muscles of the neck. Angioedema Angioedema or Quincke's oedema is a relatively common allergic disorder that refers to oedema of the subcutaneous or submucosal tissues due to increased vascular permeability.  HYPERLINK "http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/762917-overview" Urticaria (hives) and angioedema are similar in pathogenesis, however, angioedema manifests deeper in mucosal tissue. In general, angioedema can be categorised as with urticaria or without urticaria. Angioedema associated with urticaria is a hypersensitivity to an offending agent. Ten percent of angioedema cases occur without urticaria and is considered to be kinin-mediated rather than a hypersensitivity reaction. Angioedema without urticaria can be classified as hereditary angioedema (HAE) and acquired angioedema (AAE), and both are associated with insufficient or dysfunctional C1 esterase inhibitor. Women tend to have more occurrences of angioedema than men. Persons who are predisposed to angioedema have an increase in frequency of attacks after adolescence, with the peak incidence occurring in the third decade of life. It characteristically presents with acute onset of self-limiting, well-demarcated, painless, non-pitting, smooth swelling of distensible tissues (eg lips, periorbital area, earlobes, tongue, and oropharynx) over the period of minutes to several hours and lasts for 24-48 hours. In severe cases,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stridor" \o "Stridor" stridor of the airway occurs with gasping or wheezy inspiratory breath sounds and decreasing  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen" \o "Oxygen" oxygen levels. Patients with HAE can also have recurrent episodes of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdominal_pain" \o "Abdominal pain" abdominal pain, nausea or vomiting. Aetiology HAE has an autosomal dominant pattern and it may be noticed after dental treatment or local trauma to the mouth. AAE is often associated with autoimmune conditions and B-cell  HYPERLINK "http://www.patient.co.uk/DisplayConcepts.asp?WordId=LYMPHOPROLIFERATIVE%20DISORDERS&MaxResults=50" lymphoproliferative disorders. Angioedema in general may be triggered by stress, drugs (eg ACE inhibitors, aspirin, NSAIDs), food allergy (broccoli, cheese), chemicals, and infections, but most cases are idiopathic. Diagnosis It is usually based on clinical findings and family history. ` CBC, U&E, renal or kidney  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renal_function" \o "Renal function" function, LFT, thyroid function (TSH, T4, T3), and serum immunoglobulins are typically performed. Complement profile can be useful, particularly where HAE is suspected. Depletion of complement factors 2 and 4 (C2&C4) may indicate deficiency of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C1-inhibitor" \o "C1-inhibitor" C1-esterase inhibitor. Skin testing and/or  HYPERLINK "http://www.patient.co.uk/DisplayConcepts.asp?WordId=RADIO%20ALLERGOSORBENT%20TESTS&MaxResults=50" radioallergosorbent test (RAST) and ELISA on blood to confirm sensitivity to possible allergens. Stool tests for ova, cysts, and parasites when there is chronic urticaria may be associated with the angioedema.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tryptase" \o "Tryptase" Mast cell tryptase level may be elevated if the attack is due to an acute allergic (anaphylactic) reaction. HAE and AAE do not respond in an acute attack to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antihistamines" \o "Antihistamines" antihistamines, corticosteroids or epinephrine, a characteristic that distinguishes it from the acute allergic reactions. Treatment Patients with mild limited symptoms can be reassured that symptoms are self-limiting and typically disappear within hours to days on steroids and antihistamines. C1-esterase inhibitor concentrate is used in acute HAE. Otherwise,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresh_frozen_plasma" \o "Fresh frozen plasma" fresh frozen plasma (FFP) can be used as an alternative. Treatment of any underlying lymphoproliferative disease can eliminate the cause of AAE, and antifibrinolytics such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tranexamic_acid" \o "Tranexamic acid" tranexamic acid may be effective. Antihistamines, adrenaline, and steroids are used in acute allergic angioedema. Severe cases may require desensitisation to the putative allergen as mortality can occur. It may be useful to carry an epinephrine or adrenaline auto-Injector (EpiPen) for use when there is airway involvement Surgical intervention may be necessary in case of severe laryngeal oedema, when intubation is difficult to perform and tracheotomy is needed. Oral hairy leukoplakia Oral hairy leukoplakia (OHL) is seen in severe defects of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunity_(medical)" \o "Immunity (medical)" immunity, particularly in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV" \o "HIV" HIV infection. It is not associated with any  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malignant" \o "Malignant" malignant potential but is a predictor of poor prognosis, and in HIV infection is an AIDS-defining condition. It appears as unilateral or bilateral white corrugated or hairy lesions typically seen on the lateral margins of the tongue. This infection may spread across the entire dorsal surface, onto the ventral surface of the tongue, and occasionally may be found on the buccal mucosa. It is asymptomatic, but occasionally may cause alteration in taste, discomfort or other symptoms. These patches cannot easily be scraped off and most cases are colonised by candidiasis. Aetiology The cause of this condition is an  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opportunistic_infection" \o "Opportunistic infection" opportunistic infection by the EBV. Once infected, the virus remains in the body for life. Diagnosis In most cases, the diagnosis is established on a clinical basis. Definitive diagnosis requires both an appropriate histopathological appearance and the demonstration of EBV DNA, RNA, or protein within the epithelial cells of the lesion. Biopsy and histologic examination are indicated only if the lesions are ulcerated or unusual in appearance, to distinguish it from cancer or other causes. Treatment OHL does not require specific treatment in every case. Indications for treatment include symptoms attributable to the lesion or a patient's desire to eliminate the lesion for cosmetic reasons. Topical therapy with tretinoin (Retin-A) 0.025-0.05% or podophyllin resin 25% solutions has been reported to resolve OHL; however, once the medication is stopped, the lesion returns. Systemic antiviral therapy usually achieves resolution of the lesion within 1-2 weeks of therapy. Oral therapy with acyclovir requires high doses (800 mg 5 times per day) to achieve therapeutic levels. Valacyclovir (1000 mg 3 times per day) and famciclovir (500 mg 3 times per day) are newer antiviral drugs with higher oral bioavailability than acyclovir, and can be dosed less often. Antiviral drugs inhibit productive EBV replication but do not eliminate the latent state of infection. OHL often recurs several weeks after the cessation of antiviral therapy. Ankyloglossia Ankyloglossia, commonly known as tongue tie, varies in degree of severity from mild cases to complete ankyloglossia whereby the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongue" \o "Tongue"tongue is tethered to the floor of the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouth" \o "Mouth"mouth. Although present from birth, patients present in adulthood as it is asymptomatic. The tip of the tongue normally grows until 4 years of age and initial restrictions of movement may improve as the child gets older. Ankyloglossia can affect HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feeding" \o "Feeding"feeding, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_communication" \o "Speech communication"speech, and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_hygiene" \o "Oral hygiene"oral hygieneHYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ankyloglossia" \l "cite_note-Travis-2" as well as have HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mechanical/social_effects&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Mechanical/social effects (page does not exist)"mechanical and social effects. It can also prevent the tongue from contacting the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anterior" \o "Anterior"anterior HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palate" \o "Palate"palate. This can result in an HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_bite" \o "Open bite"open bite deformity and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandibular_prognathism" \o "Mandibular prognathism"mandibular prognathism. Aetiology It is a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congenital" \o "Congenital"congenital HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oral_anomaly&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Oral anomaly (page does not exist)"anomaly in which the lingual frenulum, which is a membrane connecting the underside of the tongue to the floor of the mouth, is either too short or anteriorly placed, limiting the mobility of the tongue. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis" \o "Diagnosis"Diagnosis It may be difficult as it is not always apparent by looking at the underside of the tongue. For infants, passively elevating the tongue tip with a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongue_depressor" \o "Tongue depressor"tongue depressor may reveal the problem. For older children, making the tongue move to its maximum range will demonstrate a v-shaped notch at the tip. Treatment Frenectomy (frenulectomy or frenotomy) is the removal of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenulum" frenulum by laser and should not be performed before 4 years of age. An alternative to surgery is to take a wait-and-see approach as the frenulum often continues to recede during the process of a childs growth between 6 months and 6 years of age. Coated tongue Coated tongue or furred tongue is when the entire healthy tongue mucosa may appear coated in a whitish or yellowish layer without being associated with underlying pathology or candidal colonisation. Normal eating habits help to prevent the build-up of desquamated keratin on the dorsal surface of the tongue. The thickness of coating might increase due to many factors and stain with food stuffs, dyes, and smoking, a common cause of anxiety among patients. Aetiology Predisposing factors are poor oral hygiene, febrile illnesses, dehydration, and soft diet. Diagnosis It is based on clinical examination. It can be scraped off leaving normal lingual mucosa. Treatment Reassurance. Improvement of oral hygiene. Brushing the tongue with a soft toothbrush or by using a tongue scraper. Rinse with peroxidase or sodium bicarbonate mouth washes. Treat the underlying illnesses. Black hairy tongue Black hairy tongue, also known as hairy tongue, is a benign common oral condition that gives the tongue a dark, furry appearance. It typically results when papillae grow longer and do not shed like normal. The hairy areas are usually on the posterior of the tongue and never involve the undersurface. Debris, bacteria or other organisms can collect on the papillae and result in black, yellow, or brown discolouration. Hairy tongue has been reported with greater frequency in males. Patients with hairy tongue often may develop a secondary infection of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candida_albicans" \o "Candida albicans" Candida albicans. The condition is rarely symptomatic, although overgrowth of Candida albicans may result in glossopyrosis (burning tongue). Patients frequently complain of a tickling sensation in the soft palate and the oral pharynx during swallowing. In more severe cases, patients may actually complain of a gagging sensation. Retention of debris between the elongated papillae may result in halitosis, and some patients may complain of altered taste or metallic taste. Aetiology Precipitating factors for hairy tongue include poor oral hygiene, heavy smoking, regular use of mouth washes, the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics and medications that contain bismuth, and therapeutic radiation of the head and neck. Diagnosis Culture swab of the tongue's dorsal surface may be taken if a superimposed oral candidiasis or other specific infection is suspected. Cytologic smears stained with gram or PAS may reveal candidal organisms. Treatment Improvement of oral hygiene and eliminate factors that potentially contribute to the condition. Simply brushing the tongue with a soft children's toothbrush or using a commercially available tongue scraper is sufficient to remove elongated filiform papillae and retard the growth of additional ones. Topical antifungal therapy (nystatin suspension) can be used to treat oral candidiasis. If antibiotic use led to the condition then it may resolve naturally after the antibiotic course is completed. Burning mouth syndrome Burning mouth syndrome (BMS) is a chronic painful, frustrating condition, often described as a scalding or hot sensation in the tongue, lips, gums, inside of cheeks, palate, or throughout the mouth. The prevalence of BMS in the general population varies from 0.7-15%, with the tongue being the most common site. Although BMS can affect anyone, it occurs most commonly in middle-aged or older women. The term syndrome is generally employed when no medical or odontological cause can be identified. Moderate to severe burning in the mouth is the main symptom of BMS and can persist for months or years. For many people, the burning sensation begins in late morning, builds to a peak by evening, and often subsides at night. Some feel constant daily pain, while others feel the pain comes and goes throughout the day, with some entirely pain-free days. Other symptoms of BMS include tingling or numbness on the tip of the tongue or in the mouth, bitter or metallic changes in taste, and dry or sore mouth. In some cases, however, symptoms may suddenly go away or become less frequent. Complications that BMS may be associated with are mainly related to chronic pain and include irritability, anxiety, depression, difficulty sleeping, difficulty eating, and decreased socialising. Aetiology The cause of BMS in the absence of obvious mucosal disease can be classified as either primary or secondary: Primary BMS is of unknown cause and may be related to damaged nerves (neuropathy) of the taste and sensory nerves. Secondary BMS is caused by either local factors that may include dry mouth, oral candidiasis, poorly-fitting dentures or allergies to denture materials, oral parafunctional habits, and excessive mouth irritation due to overbrushing of tongue, overuse of mouthwashes, or having too many acidic drinks; or due to systemic factors such as nutritional deficiencies, acid reflux, endocrine disorders such as diabetes and hypothyroidism, hormonal changes, ACE inhibitors, cancer phobia or excessive health worries, and anxiety or depression. In some patients, BMS may have more than one cause. But for many, the exact cause of symptoms cannot be found. Diagnosis It is made on the medical history, a thorough oral examination, and a general medical examination to identify the source of BMS. Oral swab culture and smear to check for oral candidiasis Allergy testing for denture materials, certain foods, or other substances that may be causing the symptoms. CBC, serum ferritin, folate, vitamin B1, B2, B6, B12, and zinc levels, FBS level, thyroid function, gastric reflux tests, salivary flow rate measurements, immune functioning, and psychological assessment are aimed at eliminating possible underlying factors. Temporarily stopping medications if possible to see if the pain goes away. Treatment Primary BMS When no underlying cause can be found, treatment aims to control pain from nerve damage, and may include one or a combination of the following: A lozenge-type form of the anticonvulsant medication clonazepam (benzodiazepine) 0.25 mg at bedtime. Chlordiazepoxide (benzodiazepine) 5 mg at bedtime in certain cases. Tricyclic antidepressants (amitriptyline) 10 mg at bedtime may give some relief. Capsaicin, an oral rinse with 1 tsp of 1:2 dilutions of hot pepper and water is a pain reliever and desensitising agent, may be useful in some patients. The best response is obtained with the combination of the antioxidant alpha lipoic acid (ALA) (200 mg caps 3 times per day) and the anticonvulsant gabapentin (start with 100 mg caps at bedtime and increase to 100 mg 3 times per day) for at least 2 months. This can have long-term benefits in the majority of patients suffering from BMS. Secondary BMS Treat local and underlying causes if identified. Possible treatments may include: Avoid hot and spicy foods, citrus fruits and juices, mouth washes that contain alcohol, and avoid alcohol and tobacco products. Chew sugarless gum, suck on ice chips, brush teeth/dentures with sodium bicarbonate and water, and adjusting or replacing irritating dentures. Treat dry mouth or oral candidiasis, and relieve anxiety and depression. Switching medicine, where possible, if a drug is causing burning mouth. Recommending supplements for nutritional deficiencies. Treat existing disorders such as Sjogrens syndrome, diabetes, or thyroid problem. Granular cell tumor Granular cell tumor (GCT), also known as granular cell myoblastoma or Abrikossoff's tumor, is an uncommon lesion that can affect all parts of the body, but head and neck areas are affected 50% of the time. Of the head and neck cases, 70% of lesions are located intraoral, more common in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongue" \o "Tongue" tongue. The dorsal and lateral borders of the tongue are the sites of predilection, followed by the buccal mucosa. Granular cell tumor is also found in the internal organs, particularly in the upper aerodigestive tract. The tumor most frequently occurs between 30-60 years of age and is more common in women. The usual presentation is of asymptomatic, slow growing solitary nodule, with a normal or whitish colour and rarely larger than 2 cm. This type of tumor has been found to be both HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benign" \o "Benign"benign and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malignant" \o "Malignant"malignant, although malignancy is rare and comprises only 2% of all GCT. Benign GCT has a recurrence rate of 2-8% when resection margins are deemed clear of tumor infiltration. When the resection margins are positive for tumor infiltration, the recurrence rate is increased to 20%. Recurrence of GCT has been reported several years after removal. Aetiology The formation of GCT is a neoplastic process, and the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesions" \o "Lesions"lesion formed is of neural derivation. Diagnosis A definitive diagnosis requires biopsy. Treatment Conservative excisional biopsy is indicated because the lesion is rarely larger than 2 cm in diameter. The depth of biopsy approximates the diameter of the lesion, and the margins do not need to be extensive but a few millimeters are adequate. Macroglossia Macroglossia is an abnormal enlargement of the tongue. The 2 broadest categories under the heading of macroglossia are pseudomacroglossia and true enlargement. Pseudomacroglossia includes habitual posturing of the tongue, enlarged tonsils or adenoids displacing tongue, low palate and decreased oral cavity volume displacing tongue, deficiency in the maxillary or mandibular arches displacing tongue, retrognathism, and hypotonia of the tongue. True macroglossia may be either congenital (existing at birth) such as  HYPERLINK "http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1080571-overview" haemangioma,  HYPERLINK "http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1086806-overview" lymphangioma, Down syndrome, rare genetic syndromes, congenital  HYPERLINK "http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/122393-overview" hypothyroidism, primary  HYPERLINK "http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/335414-overview" amyloidosis, and idiopathic muscle hypertrophy; or acquired such as  HYPERLINK "http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/116366-overview" acromegaly,  HYPERLINK "http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/301914-overview" sarcoidosis, diabetes,  HYPERLINK "http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229461-overview" syphilis, trauma, and malignancy. Symptoms and physical findings associated with macroglossia may include noisy high-pitched breathing (stridor), snoring, or feeding difficulties. In severe cases, the tongue may protrude from the mouth causing cosmetic and functional difficulties including airway obstruction, which is usually worsened by lying supine,  HYPERLINK "http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/559061/speech-disorder" \o "speech impediment" speech impediment, and difficulty in eating, swallowing, or sleeping. Aetiology It may be pseudomacroglossia or true enlargement (congenital and acquired). Diagnosis Evaluation of the enlarged tongue is based on both clinical examination and functional assessments of the tongue. Treatment Medical therapy for macroglossia is only useful when the aetiology of the disease is clearly defined. When the aetiology is unclear or the histology reveals simple hypertrophy, the primary treatment is surgery. Neoplasms of the tongue often require surgical intervention. Lingual varicosities Lingual varicosities, also known as sublingual varices, are abnormally dilated and tortuous veins seen along the ventral surface of the tongue. They are rare in children but have been shown to increase with age. The incidence of sublingual varices in persons over the age of 60 years is approximately 68%. Varicosities in the younger age groups might indicate premature aging. It has not been associated with systemic hypertension or other cardiopulmonary diseases. However, people with varicosities of the legs are more likely to develop sublingual varices. Aetiology It is of unknown cause. A relationship between chronic vitamin-C deficiency and lingual varicosities has been suggested. Diagnosis Clinical examination of the ventral tongue shows dilated tortuous veins, seen as purple to red lesions that blanch on pressure. Treatment No treatment is required and the patient needs to be reassured that they are not abnormal. 5 Oral white and red lesions Fordyces granules Fordyce's granules or ectopic sebaceous glands are sebaceous glands without hair follicles. They are a normal anatomic variation that presents as small, painless, pale, raised, white or yellowish white spots 1-3mm in diameter. The most common sites of predilection are the buccal mucosa and vermilion border of the upper lip. It is occasionally seen on the retromolar pad area and the anterior tonsillar pillars. The granules tend to become prominent during puberty and increase in number with age. Some patients will have hundreds of granules while most have only 1 or 2. They are common in men and women of all ages and 80% of the population are affected. Aetiology They are ectopic sebaceous glands presumed to be a developmental anomaly. Diagnosis They are clinically diagnosed and no biopsy is needed. Treatment Eventually fordyces granules go away without any treatment. Treatment is only required for cosmetic removal of lip lesions. Tretinoin gel or cream is a very popular fordyces spots treatment. This product can be even more effective when used in combination with an alpha hydroxyacid agent. Trichloroacetic acid (TCA) chemical peel causes significant improvement in the appearance of the spots. Vaporising laser treatments such as CO2 laser or electro desiccation can reduce the appearance of the spots. Treatment through pulse dye laser gives relief but is usually expensive. Surgical diathermy and cryotherapy can also sometimes be used to remove the condition. Leukoedema Leukoedema is a normal anatomic variation characterised by a filmy, opalescent to whitish gray tinge of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buccal_mucosa" \o "Buccal mucosa" buccal mucosa. It is almost always bilateral and the surface tissue may exhibit a corrugated, folded configuration. Leukoedema may begin as early as 3-5 years of age, but is not usually noticeable until adolescence. It is more prevalent in people who have dark skin and can be more intense in smokers. Patients who exhibit leukoedema are usually unaware of its presence since it is asymptomatic. Aetiology Leukoedema is a common developmental alteration of the buccal mucosa which appears to be a simple variation of normal anatomy. Diagnosis When the cheeks are stretched outward the leukoedema typically disappears. This aids to differentiate it from other similar conditions which could be premalignant, such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leukoplakia" \o "Leukoplakia" leukoplakia.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histology" \o "Histology" Histologically, the white clinical appearance is caused by intracellular oedema and a thickened epithelium. Treatment No treatment is necessary since this is considered a variant of normal. It has no malignant potential and does not change significantly with age. Should the affected individual stop smoking, the lesion will likely become less pronounced. White sponge naevus White sponge naevus (WSN), also known as Cannon's disease, is an inherited condition in which several family members may manifest the disorder. White sponge naevus almost always presents during childhood and there is no gender predilection. It is a relatively rare, asymptomatic, bilateral lesion that presents in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouth" \o "Mouth" mouth, most frequently as a thick bilateral  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White" \o "White" white plaque with a spongy texture, usually on the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buccal_mucosa" \o "Buccal mucosa" buccal mucosa, but sometimes on the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labial" \o "Labial" labial mucosa,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_ridge" \o "Alveolar ridge" alveolar ridge, or floor of the mouth. The gingival margin and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsum" \o "Dorsum" dorsum of the tongue are almost never affected. Severely affected patients exhibit corrugated vertical folds which may cover most of the buccal mucosa. Lesions are usually well demarcated from the surrounding normal mucosa, as opposed to the poor demarcation of leukoedema. Although this condition is perfectly  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benign" \o "Benign" benign, it is often mistaken for  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leukoplakia" \o "Leukoplakia" leukoplakia. Aetiology It is a developmental anomaly inherited as an autosomal dominant trait. Diagnosis The distinctive clinical appearance and a positive family history lead to a definitive diagnosis. Incisional biopsy may be needed to differentiate it from leukoplakia. Treatment No treatment is required and reassurance is all that is needed. The rare form which extends onto the lip vermilion can be surgically removed for aesthetic reasons. Linea alba buccalis Linea alba buccalis is a common finding on the buccal mucosa that presents as asymptomatic, bilateral, linear white line beginning at the corners of the mouth and extending posteriorly at the level of the occlusal plane of teeth. Aetiology It is a frictional keratosis most likely due to sucking trauma from the occlusal surfaces of teeth. Diagnosis It is usually present bilaterally. It is restricted to dentulous areas. Treatment No treatment is required. Lip and cheek biting Mild chronic biting of lip or cheek is relatively common and usually occurs as an unconscious habit. It most often begins in late childhood or early teens and is twice as prevalent in females compared with males. It generally refers to a more superficial lesion produced by frequently repeated rubbing, sucking, or chewing movements that abrade the surface of a wide area without producing discrete ulceration. The lesion is characterised by diffuse irregular small furrows with ragged borders. It is asymptomatic but in severe cases, tenderness, swelling, and a burning sensation may be presenting symptoms. Aetiology It is considered to be a self-inflected injury caused by stress and anxiety. Researchers are investigating a possible genetic component. Diagnosis Such lesions feel rough to the examiners fingers and appear as poorly outlined, macerated and reddened areas, usually with whitish patches of partly detached surface epithelium. Treatment The patient should be encouraged to stop the habit. Locally applied therapy such as chlorhexidine or hexitidine mouth washes may help to eradicate the hyperkeratotic flakes and inflammation. In severe cases a splint or dental guard is recommended and referral for psychological evaluation may be appropriate. Leukoplakia Leukoplakia is a clinical term used to describe patches of keratosis and is the best-known potentially malignant oral disorder. It is defined by the WHO as a white patch or plaque that cannot be rubbed off and cannot be characterised clinically or pathologically as any other disease. It is visible as adherent white patches on the mucous membranes of the oral cavity, including the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongue" \o "Tongue" tongue, mandibular alveolar ridge, and buccal mucosa in about 50% of patients. The palate, maxillary alveolar ridge, and lower lip are somewhat less frequently involved, and the floor of the mouth and the retromolar regions are comparatively infrequently involved. The typical white patch of leukoplakia develops slowly, over weeks to months. Leukoplakic lesions are found in approximately 3% of the world's population. Like  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythroplakia" \o "Erythroplakia" erythroplakia, leukoplakia is usually found in adults between 40-70 years of age, with a 2:1 male predominance. The overall prevalence of malignant change in leukoplakia is 3-33% over 10years period. The clinical appearance of leukoplakia may vary from nonpalpable, faintly translucent white areas to thick, fissured, papillomatous, and indurated lesions. Homogenous leukoplakia is present clinically as uniformly white patch of a slightly raised mucosa affecting the buccal mucosa, mucobuccal fold, and oral floor. The most dangerous example is the sublingual keratosis which affects the oral floor and the ventral surface of tongue as bilateral, well defined white homogenous lesion with irregular borders. Proliferative verrucous leukoplakia appears as diffuse warty or papillary white appearance, most often arises on the mandibular ridge and vestibular region, over time it will spread laterally, becoming extensive. It has a predilection for elderly females. Many progress to verrucous carcinoma or speckled leukoplakia that appears as a white patch with multiple red foci. Candidal leukoplakia is a hyperkeratotic lesion which is superficially infected by fungus, most commonly candida albicans. It is well established that the presence of this organism increases the risk of malignant transformation. Smokeless tobacco leukoplakia arises due to tobacco chewing and presents as a white lesion of the mucobuccal fold. Lesions are rough and may have undulating or wrinkled surface, usually well-circumscribed with thickening of one of the epithelial layers. Progression to invasive carcinoma is rare. A major problem with leukoplakia is that the histological status of the lesion whether benign or malignant cannot be distinguished by clinical appearance alone as even carcinoma can present as a white lesion. Therefore, it is now recommended that this term is used only as a clinical description of a lesion and should never be used once histological information is available. Aetiology Leukoplakia is primarily caused by the use of tobacco, either smoked or chewed. Other possible etiological agents implicated are chronic irritants such as sharp edges of teeth, HPV,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candida_albicans" \o "Candida albicans" candida albicans, and possibly alcohol consumption.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloodroot" \o "Bloodroot" Bloodroot, otherwise known as sanguinaria, is also believed to be associated with leukoplakia. Diagnosis Serum levels of patients with leukoplakia may be low in vitamin A, B12, C, and folic acid. All leukoplakia should be treated as potentially malignant and should be biopsied to obtain a definitive diagnosis. Staining with toluidine blue may help highlight the most appropriate area for biopsy, cellular atypia, dysplasia, carcinoma in situ, or superficial invasive squamous cell carcinoma may be encountered. An oral brush biopsy (removing cells from the leukoplakic patches with a small, spinning brush that allows a pathologist to detect abnormal cells) may be helpful, but incisional biopsy is needed if carcinoma is strongly suspected. A screening device to detect early oral cancer called a VELscope is non-invasive and uses a bright blue light to visualise mucosa abnormalities that may require biopsy Treatment Obvious predisposing factors must be reduced or eliminated. Regression of leukoplakia has been observed in over 50% of patients who stopped smoking for a year. Taking  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta-carotene" \o "Beta-carotene" beta-carotene (vitamin A) orally seems to induce remission in patients with oral leukoplakia. Vigorous oral antifungal therapy is an important part of management of candidal leukoplakia. Lesions of oral leukoplakia should be surgically excised if  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-cancerous" \o "Pre-cancerous" precancerous changes or cancer is detected. Cryotherapy and laser ablation have been used, although these methods do not allow for tissue preservation or microscopic examination. Patients should then be followed up regularly at intervals of 3-6months as excised lesions sometimes recur. Erythroplakia Erythroplakia, also known as erythroplasia, is a rare, asymptomatic, isolated flat red  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesion" \o "Lesion" lesion in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouth" \o "Mouth" mouth that cannot be attributed to any other  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathology" \o "Pathology" pathology. It is mostly found in elderly men around the ages of 65-74 years. The most common areas in the mouth where erythroplakia is found are the floor of mouth, the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongue" \o "Tongue" tongue, and the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft_palate" \o "Soft palate" soft palate. It appears as a red plaque with well-demarcated borders, and the texture is characterised as soft and velvety. An adjacent area of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leukoplakia" \o "Leukoplakia" leukoplakia may be found along with the erythroplakia. Erythroplakia is one of the most important oral lesions because 75-90% exhibit severe epithelial dysplasia, carcinoma-in-situ, or invasive squamous cell carcinoma. The incidence of malignant change is 17times higher in erythroplakia than in leukoplakia. Aetiology It has an unknown cause. It is commonly associated with  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_smoking" \o "Tobacco smoking" smoking and alcohol consumption. Diagnosis Diagnosis It involves  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopsy" \o "Biopsy" biopsy of the lesion for histological examination. Treatment Complete excision of the lesion is sometimes advised depending on the histopathology found in the biopsy. Recurrence of erythroplakia is common and thus long-term follow up is needed. Nicotine stomatitis Nicotine stomatitis (NS), also known as smoker's palate, is an  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_pathology" \o "Oral pathology" oral pathological condition that appears in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_palate" \o "Hard palate" hard palate as a white  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesion" \o "Lesion" lesion. More commonly found in men over 45 years of age. It is an asymptomatic or mildly irritating condition that affects the oral mucosa of the hard palate posterior to the rugae and the adjacent soft palate. Nicotine stomatitis first becomes visible as a reddened area and slowly progresses to a white, thickened, and fissured appearance. The palate has numerous minor salivary glands which become swollen and the orifices become prominent, giving the tissue a speckled white and red appearance. Patients typically report that they are either unaware of the lesion or have had it for many years without changes. Although NS is caused by smoking tobacco products, it is generally not associated with dysplastic or malignant changes. The exception to this is in individuals who reverse smoke which is a severe form of palatal keratosis caused from smoking a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigarette" \o "Cigarette" cigarette with the lit end inside the mouth. Reverse smoking is common in some parts of the Caribbean and Southeast Asia. The concentrated heat and chemicals increase the potential for malignant change. Aetiology The lesion is observed in pipe and reverse cigarette smokers, and less often in cigarette and cigar smokers. The mechanism of action is heat and chemical irritation from a tobacco product that acts as a local irritant. Dentures often protect the palate from these irritants in patients who wear them. Diagnosis If unable to make the diagnosis by clinical appearance, or if the lesion does not resolve after cessation of smoking, perform a 5 mm  HYPERLINK "http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/700-overview" punch biopsy to confirm diagnosis. Biopsy is also indicated in patients with a symptomatic lesion, even if it appears consistent with a benign smokers palate, or if the patient reports that he or she is a reverse smoker. The  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teeth" \o "Teeth" teeth may be stained brown or black from tobacco smoke. Treatment The only definitive treatment for NS is smoking cessation. The lesion should completely resolve on its own after 12 weeks upon termination of smoking. Oral submucous fibrosis Oral submucous fibrosis (OSF) is a chronic debilitating disease of the oral cavity characterised by inflammation and progressive fibrosis of the submucosal tissues. In this condition, the patient usually complains of burning sensation in the mouth, particularly while taking hot and spicy foods. This is often followed by the formation of multiple ulcerations or inflammatory reactions in the oral mucosa. In the initial phase of the disease, palpation of the mucosa causes a wet leathery feeling. In the advanced stage the oral mucosa loses its resiliency and becomes blanched and stiff. Usually it is believed that the disease initiates from the posterior part of the oral cavity and it gradually spreads to the anterior locations. It results in marked rigidity and an eventual inability to open the mouth. The buccal mucosa is the most commonly involved site, but any part of the oral mucosa can be involved, even the pharynx. The incidence of the disease is higher in people from certain parts of the world including Southeast Asia and India. It is observed that females are more frequently affected with this disease than males. Oral submucous fibrosis has a high rate of morbidity because it causes a progressive inability to open the mouth, resulting in difficulty eating and consequent nutritional deficiencies. It also has a significant mortality rate because it can transform into malignancy, particularly squamous cell carcinoma. Aetiology It is particularly associated with areca nut chewing, the main component of betel quid, which is similar to tobacco chewing in westernised societies. Other factors include excessive consumption of red chillies, genetic and immunologic processes, and prolonged deficiency to iron and vitamins in the diet. Diagnosis If the disease is detected at a very early stage, cessation of the habit is sufficient to reverse the condition. However, most patients present with moderate to severe disease which is irreversible. Oral biopsy provides the most definitive diagnosis and is crucial because of the association of OSF with oral cancer. Treatment It depends on the degree of clinical involvement. It is symptomatic and predominantly aimed at improving mouth movements. Avoid chewing areca nut, tobacco, alcohol, and spicy foods consumption. Vitamin A, B-complex, C, and iron supplements may be recommended. The benefit of the powerful antioxidant lycopene (16 mg per day) has been documented with significant improvement. In patients with moderate OSF, weekly submucosal intralesional injections or topical application of steroids may help prevent further damage. The combination of steroids and hyaluronidase shows better long-term results than either agent used alone. In patients with advanced OSF, pentoxifylline (400 mg 3 times daily) improves blood flow through peripheral blood vessels and leads to significant improvement in the lesion. Intralesional injection of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autologous" \o "Autologous" autologous bone marrow stem cells is a safe and effective treatment modality. Surgical treatment is indicated in patients with severe trismus and/or biopsy results revealing dysplastic or neoplastic changes. 6 Oral cancers Squamous cell carcinoma Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is the most common oral or pharyngeal cancer (90-95%). It accounts for about 8% of all cancers in the US, and up to 40% in India. Worldwide, oral SCC is the sixth most common cancer; more than 300,000 new cases are diagnosed each year. Male to female incidence rates are greater than 3:1. This ratio has declined in the last 20 years, possibly reflecting the increased number of women using tobacco products during this period. Squamous cell carcinoma affects the middle aged and elderly, although an increasing incidence in young adults has been noted recently. Behaviour of oral SCC depends on its site of origin. Squamous cell carcinoma of the lower lip represents 98% of oral cancers and is usually due to sun exposure. It manifested initially as swelling with induration, soreness, and ulceration, most occur in the mucocutanous junction. Intraorally, about 40% of SCC begins on the floor of the mouth or on the lateral and ventral surfaces of the tongue, and 11% begin in the palate and tonsillar area. Although many cases of oral SCC present as nonhealing ulcers that have existed for more than 2 weeks, some of those affecting the floor of mouth develop from a preceding erythroplakia (80%) or leukoplakia (10%). Tonsillar carcinoma usually manifests as an asymmetric swelling and sore throat, with pain often radiating to the ipsilateral ear. A metastatic mass in the neck may be the first symptom. Early, curable lesions are rarely symptomatic; therefore, the patient commonly presents at a late stage when fixation to adjacent structures interfere with speech or mastication, in addition to burning sensation or pain. Sixty percent of oral carcinomas are advanced by the time they are detected, and about 15% of patients have secondary cancer in a nearby area such as the larynx, esophagus, or lungs. Thus, preventing fatal disease requires early detection by periodic oral screening, especially in high risk persons. Aetiology Tobacco use and alcohol consumption are the two major risk factors, accounting for over 95% of oral cancer. The combination of heavy smoking and alcohol abuse with a synergistic effect, reported to raise the risk 100 fold in women and 38 fold in men. Other aetiological factors include betel quid chewing, chronic candidal infection, iron deficiency, actinic damage, immune suppression, and low social class. SCC of the tongue may also result from repeated local trauma, overuse of mouth wash, syphilis, and Plummer-Vinson syndrome. A viral aetiology has been proposed, and HPV infection can be isolated in up to 72% of oropharyngeal cancers, particularly in patients younger than 45 years. About 25% of mouth and 35% of throat cancers are associated with HPV. Diagnosis Dental professionals should carefully examine the oral cavity and oropharynx during routine dental care. Toluidine blue is recommended for early detection as a guide for optimal biopsy. It clinically stains malignant lesions dark blue but does not stain normal mucosa. Non-invasive brush biopsy can also be performed to rule out the presence of dysplasia and cancer on areas of the mouth that exhibit an unexplained colour variation or lesion. A screening device to detect early oral cancer called a VELscope is non-invasive and uses a bright blue light to visualise mucosa abnormalities that may require biopsy. Definitive method is through biopsy of suspected areas (a long lasting ulcer persisting more than 2 weeks, unclassified red, white or speckled lesions, or a change in texture of the oral mucosa) and microscopic examination to exclude malignancy. CBC, LFT, serology for syphilis, and radiology for bone involvement should be performed to assess the overall medical condition of the patient. Chest x-ray and CT scan of head and neck are done if an advanced stage is suspected. A prudent course of action would be to refer patients with suspected lesions to an oral and maxillofacial surgeon or stomatologist for evaluation, biopsy, and treatment. Prognosis The overall 5-yr survival rate for oral cancer (all sites and stages combined) is more than 50%, and metastases reach the regional lymph nodes first and later the lungs. For lower lip lesions, 5-yr survival is 90%, and metastases are rare; carcinoma of the upper lip tends to be more aggressive and metastatic. If carcinoma is localised (no lymph node involvement), 5-yr survival for the tongue is more than 50%, and for the floor of the mouth is 65%. For localised carcinoma of the palate and tonsillar area, 5-yr survival is 68%, but only 17% after lymph node involvement. Oropharyngeal cancer associated with HPV infection may have a better prognosis. The key factor in improving survival rates continues to be earlier presentation and diagnosis. Treatment Several methods for treatment of the head and neck cancer are acceptable, including surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy,new molecularly targeted agents,and combinations of these. New treatments include immunotherapy and gene therapy. Factors that influence the choice of treatment are the site, grade, stage of primary tumor, patient age, and general medical condition. Treatment of lip cancer is by surgical excision with reconstruction to maximise postoperative function. When large areas of the lip exhibit premalignant change, the lip can be surgically shaved or a laser can remove all affected mucosa. Thereafter, appropriate sunscreen application is recommended. For tongue cancer, surgery is usually the initial treatment, particularly for early stage disease. Selective neck dissection is indicated if the risk of nodal disease exceeds 15-20%. Radiation therapy is often the treatment of choice in advanced cases because surgery is extensive, disfiguring, and associated with poor quality of life. Chemotherapy is not used routinely, but is recommended on an individual basis. Rarely, distant metastases are found in sites where chemotherapy may be of some palliative value such as lung, bone, heart, and pericardium. Treatment of tonsillar cancer usually consists of concomitant chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Another option includes radical resection of the tonsillar fossa, sometimes with partial mandibulectomy and neck dissection. Long-term follow up is advised because of the potential for recurrence or additional lesions. Verrucous carcinoma Verrucous carcinoma (VC), also known as Ackerman tumor, is a locally aggressive, clinically exophytic, slow-growing, low-grade well-differentiatedsquamous cell carcinoma (SCC) with minimal metastatic potential. It comprises less than 5% of all diagnosed oral cancers. The oral cavity is the most common site of occurrence of VC. It has a higher incidence in males and in immunocompromised patients, and generally occurs in patients aged 55-65 years. Early lesions appear as white, translucent patches, on an erythematous base. The more fully developed lesions are white, soft, cauliflower-like papillomas with a pebbly surface that may extend and coalesce over large areas of the oral mucosa. Its size varies from 1cm in the early stages to very extensive lesions. Oral VC most commonly occurs on the buccal mucosa. Other sites of involvement are the alveolar ridge, upper and lower gingiva, the floor of mouth, tongue, tonsils, and vermilion border of the lip. Verrucous carcinoma involving the hard palate and upper alveolus is considered more aggressive. Tumors most often grow around the lymph nodes rather than metastasising to them. If metastases do occur, they usually remain limited to the regional lymph nodes. Patients with oral VC may be at greater risk of a second oral SCC, for which the prognosis is worse. Aetiology The pathogenesis of VC is not yet fully elucidated. Leading theories include HYPERLINK "http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/219110-overview" HPV infection, tobacco use, betel quid chewing, alcohol consumption, and chronic inflammation. Diagnosis A deep biopsy is required despite the fact that the diagnosis is suspected strongly on clinical grounds. CT scan or MRI may be used to demonstrate the exact location and extent of the tumor for preoperative staging and surgical planning. Prognosis Overall, patients with VC have a good prognosis. Morbidity results from local soft tissue destruction, and occasionally from perineural, muscle, and even bone invasion. Mortality usually is due to local invasion rather than metastatic spread. Treatment Complete surgical excision should be performed at first presentation. Recurrent VC carries a relatively poor prognosis. 7 Benign oral soft tissue tumors Squamous cell papilloma Squamous cell papilloma is a generally  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benign_tumor" \o "Benign tumor" benign lesion that arises from the stratified  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squamous_epithelium" \o "Squamous epithelium" squamous epithelium of the oral cavity. It is generally diagnosed in people between the ages of 30-50 years, and is normally found on the dorsum tongue, buccal or labial mucosa, as well as the gingiva and palate. Clinically, the lesion appears as a single, firm, painless, usually pedunculated mass; with average size of 0.5-1cm. It has a white or normal colour, with numerous projections that form exophytic cauliflower-like lesion. Aetiology Squamous cell papilloma is caused by infection with HPV. Diagnosis It is clinically impossible to distinguish a papilloma from a papillary carcinoma. It should be differentiated from verruca vulgaris, in which multiple oral papillomas are present in association with skin warts. Treatment Some papillomas regress spontaneously. Treatment of papilloma involves surgical excision, including the base of the lesion, with confirmation by histologic diagnosis. Verruca vulgaris Verruca vulgaris or common wart is one of the most recognisable skin papillomas. Common warts can occur at any age, but they are more frequently seen in children. Warts often occur on the fingers and hands, and then the virus can be autoinoculated to other sites as lips and hard palate as multiple lesions. When the virus invades the skin it causes the cells to grow rapidly, forming the wart. The virus only invades individuals that have limited immunity against it. Children generally have less immunity to the wart virus than adults and therefore, they are more commonly infected. A few unfortunate adults never seem to develop significant immunity to the virus and they are continuously plagued with warts. Common warts typically disappear after a few months but can last for years and can recur. They are not related to cancer and they do not involve internal organs. When oral papillomas are associated with similar lesions in genitalia it is called condyloma acuminatum. Aetiology Common warts are caused by infection with HPV. Diagnosis It is based on clinical appearance and history of lesions. Treatment Topical treatments containing salicylic acid are the best supported, but multiple treatment sessions may be required. It can also be controlled by laser therapy, often with a pulse dye laser or carbon dioxide (CO2) laser. However, both laser treatments can be painful, expensive, and can cause scarring. One complicating factor in the treatment of warts is that they may regrow after they have been removed. Pyogenic granuloma Pyogenic granuloma (PG) is a lobular  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capillary_hemangioma" \o "Capillary hemangioma" capillary haemangioma which is the reason it is often quite prone to bleeding. The name for PG is misleading because it is neither infectious nor granulomatous. It presents as a solitary, raised circumscribed mass that may be pedunculated, and the appearance is usually a colour ranging from red/pink to purple. It can be smooth or lobulated. Younger lesions are more likely to be red because of the high number of blood vessels. Older lesions begin to change into a pink colour. Size ranges from a few millimeters to 1-2 cm. It can be painful, especially if located in an area of the mouth where it is constantly traumatised. Pyogenic granuloma can grow rapidly over a period of a few weeks and will often bleed profusely with little or no trauma. The lesion is most common in children and young adults, and there is a definite  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender" \o "Gender" gender difference with more  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female" \o "Female" females affected than males. It appears on the gingiva in 75% of cases, more often in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxilla" \o "Maxilla" maxillary than the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandible" \o "Mandible" mandibular jaw. Anterior areas are more often affected than posterior areas. It can also be found on the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lip" \o "Lip" lips,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongue" \o "Tongue" tongue, and buccal mucosa. Pyogenic granuloma often arises in pregnancy in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_trimester" \o "First trimester" first trimester with an increasing incidence up until the 7th month, usually confined to the gingiva and is termed pregnancy tumor. Aetiology The precise mechanism for the lesion is unknown Local irritation from rough restorations, prostheses, teeth, or calculus plays an important role. Diagnosis Excisional biopsy of the lesion and histologic evaluation are needed to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment It consists of conservative  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgery" \o "Surgery" surgery along with removal of the source of irritation. No treatment is needed for pregnancy tumor as it may heal spontaneously; however, removal of the lesion may be pursued if recurrent bleeding or aesthetic is a concern. Peripheral giant cell granuloma Peripheral giant cell granuloma (PGCG) is a site-specific variant of pyogenic granuloma (PG) embedded with osteoclast-like multinucleated giant cells and arising exclusively from the periodontal ligament enclosing the root of a tooth. This unique origin means that such a lesion can only be found within or upon the gingiva or alveolar ridge. It is more often found in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandible" \o "Mandible" mandible rather than the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxilla" \o "Maxilla" maxilla but can be found in either anterior or posterior areas. However, 70% of lesions are found in the anterior segments of the jaws, such as in the premolar, canine, and incisor regions. The usual age at diagnosis is 40-60 years old, but there is no marked age predilection. More than 60% of cases occur in females, and this female predilection is more pronounced in the older age groups.Individual lesions are nodular and pedunculated, frequently with an ulcerated surface. The colour of the lesion ranges from red, brown to bluish hue, but is usually bluer in comparison to PG. Generally larger than PG, the lesion may exceed 4 cm in size, but most lesions remain less than 2 cm in diameter. Any alveolar region may be affected, and radiographs may show either a saucerization of underlying bone, periodontitis of underlying tissues, or an isthmus of soft tissue connecting to an intraosseous central giant cell granuloma. Because of its similar microscopic appearance to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_giant_cell_granuloma" \o "Central giant cell granuloma" central giant cell granuloma, PGCG is considered by some researchers to be a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft_tissue" \o "Soft tissue" soft tissue equivalent. Aetiology It is of unknown cause. Local irritation due to dental plaque or calculus, periodontal disease, poor dental restorations, ill-fitting dental appliances, or dental extractions has been suggested to contribute to the development of the lesion. Recent reports have described the development of the PGCG in association with dental implants. This appears to represent an uncommon complication of implant placement, developing from a few months to several years after placement of the dental implant. Diagnosis Excisional biopsy of the lesion and histologic evaluation are needed to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment Complete surgical excision is typically curative, followed by curettage of any underlying bony defect. The adjacent  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teeth" \o "Teeth" teeth should be cleaned thoroughly (careful scaling and root planning) to remove any possible source of irritation. A recurrence rate of 10% or more has been reported, hence, re-excision may be necessary. Very large or recurring lesions may represent brown tumors of hyperparathyroidism and will require treatment of the underlying endocrine dysfunction prior to surgical removal. Lipoma Lipoma is a relatively common  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benign_tumor" \o "Benign tumor" benign tumor composed of adipose tissue that usually occurs under the skin but is rare in the mouth. Many lipomas are small, less than 1 cm, but can enlarge to sizes greater than 6 cm in diameter. Lipomas are commonly found in adults from 40-60 years old, but can also be found in children. Most commonly, intraoral lipomas involve the buccal mucosa, floor of the mouth, and tongue. Lingual lipomas are often more deeply seated than those located elsewhere in the oral cavity. Initial colouration of the lesion is pinkish, but as the lesion expands, a yellowish tinge may be observed. On palpation, lesions are soft and spongy and are generally freely movable. A diffuse form of lipoma also exists. Lipomas generally grow slowly and, because pain is not a feature in many cases, many years elapse before patients consult their dentist. However, occasional fast growing ones have been reported. Lipoma has no potential for developing into a cancer. Aetiology Most lesions are developmental anomalies. Diagnosis Definitive diagnosis can only be established by fine needle aspiration biopsy, incisional, or excisional biopsy. Treatment Conservative surgical removal and histopathological examination is the treatment of choice, recurrences are rarely reported. MRI gives a greater soft tissue definition than CT scan, and has greatly improved preoperative definition of lingual tumor boundaries. Epulis fissuratum Epulis fissuratum, also known as denture induced fibrous hyperplasia, is a condition that appears in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouth" \o "Mouth" mouth as an  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperplasia" \o "Hyperplasia" overgrowth of fibrous  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connective_tissue" \o "Connective tissue" connective tissue. It appears as a single or multiple fold of tissue around the alveolar vestibule, which is the area where the gums meet the inner  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheek" \o "Cheek" cheek. Usually, the edge of the denture rests in between 2 of the folds. Clinically, the excess tissue is firm and fibrous, and appears as a pinkish-red linear elevated mass that may become ulcerated and painful. Growth of the lesion is usually progressive after denture insertion. The size of the affected tissue varies widely, since almost the entire length of tissue around a denture can be affected. More commonly found in females. It can appear in either the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandible" \o "Mandible" mandible or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxilla" \o "Maxilla" maxilla but is more commonly found in the anterior portions of the mouth rather than in the posterior. Although epulis fissuratum is totally benign, clinically it is impossible to rule out malignancy. Aetiology It is the consequence of alveolar ridge resorption due to chronic low grade irritation from an ill fitting denture, so that the denture moves further into the vestibular mucosa, creating an inflammatory fibrous hyperplasia that proliferates over the flange. Diagnosis It is by surgical excision and histologic examination of the lesion. Treatment Surgically excise the epulis fissuratum, because even removal of the offending denture will not result in complete resolution. Laser therapy may be implemented. Either make a new denture or reline the old one in order to prevent recurrence of lesion. Oral fibroma Oral fibroma, also known as fibroepithelial polyp, is a very common benign neoplasm of the oral cavity and generally represents a reactive focal fibrous hyperplasia in response to trauma or local irritation. Fibromas may be seen at any age but are most common at the age of 30-50 years. They may occur at any oral site, but they are seen most often on the buccal mucosa along the plane of occlusion of the maxillary and mandibular teeth and on the tongue. Oral fibroma appears as asymptomatic, pinkish-white, round to ovoid, smooth surfaced, and firm sessile or pedunculated single mass. Its size may vary from 1 mm to 2 cm, but once established, the polyp doesn't appear to grow in size with time. The surface may be hyperkeratotic or ulcerated, owing to repeated trauma. Aetiology Oral fibromas are thought to be caused by minor trauma, usually following accidental biting. Diagnosis It is by excisional biopsy and histologic examination. Treatment It can be left but normally it is surgically removed. Neurofibroma Neurofibroma is a benign  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerve_sheath_tumor" \o "Nerve sheath tumor" nerve sheath tumor in the peripheral nervous system. It may occur as a single lesion or multiple lesions, usually of the skin. Neurofibroma is an uncommon single tumor of the oral cavity, and is seen most frequently on the lingual mucosa of children. It appears as a raised pedunculated pinkish mass that may become large in size. Neurofibromatosis or von Recklinghausen's disease usually has its onset in childhood. In addition to multiple skin lesions, the tongue, gingiva and labial mucosa may also be involved. Clinically, the lesions appear as raised masses that have a dull consistency and are usually accompanied by skin patches of deep brownish pigmentation called caf-au-lait spots. They can result in a range of symptoms from physical disfiguration and pain to cognitive disability. The lesions have a potential for malignant transformation and need to be followed closely for any change in their nature, in which case they should be biopsied. Aetiology Neurofibroma is probably a developmental anomaly. Neurofibromatosis is genetically inherited. Diagnosis Definitive diagnosis of oral neurofibroma can only be rendered after an excisional biopsy followed by histopathologic examination. Cytogenetic testing for neurofibromatosis can be performed. Treatment Solitary oral neurofibroma is usually treated by surgical excision, depending on the extent and site of the mass. Neurofibromatosis presents a difficult management problem. Surgical removal is attempted only for large symptomatic lesions as it may result in recurrence. Multiple recurrences have been associated with malignant transformation. Oral traumatic neuroma Oral traumatic neuroma, also known as pseudoneuroma, is a rare lesion that is characterised by the presence of pain, burning, or paresthesia, associated with a history of trauma or surgery. It appears clinically as a small, solitary, firm nodule, and pressure on the suspected area usually provokes pain.The most common oral locations are on the lips,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongue" \o "Tongue" tongue, and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_foramen" \o "Mental foramen" mental nerve area. They are relatively rare on the head and neck. Traumatic neuroma arises 1-12 months after nerve injury and varies in size with no malignant potential. Aetiology It results from a non-neoplastic proliferation of the severed or injured nerve as a result of trauma during a surgical procedure. Diagnosis It is by excisional removal and microscopic examination. Treatment Complete removal of the lesion is curative. Hereditary haemorrhagic telangectasia Hereditary haemorrhagic telangectasia (HHT), also known as Osler-Weber-Rendu disease or syndrome, is a rare  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_disorder" \o "Genetic disorder" genetic disorder that leads to  HYPERLINK "http://wrongdiagnosis.pubs.righthealth.com/topic/Telangiectasia?as=clink&ac=1437&afc=2168586466&p=&dqp.cache.mode=PMBypass" \o "Telangiectasia" \t "_blank" telangiectases (small vascular malformations) in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin" \o "Skin" skin and mucosal linings of the nose and GIT. It manifests clinically as small multiple red to violet telangiectatic lesions on the face, lips, nasal mucosa, as well as the tongue and buccal mucosa. Patients may also experience recurrent  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistaxis" \o "Epistaxis" nose bleeds (epistaxis), GI bleeding, and various problems due to the involvement of other organs. Lesions in the mouth bleed less often but may be considered cosmetically displeasing. Aetiology It is transmitted in an  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominance_(genetics)" \o "Dominance (genetics)" autosomal dominant fashion. Diagnosis The skin and oral cavity telangiectasias are visually identifiable on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_examination" \o "Physical examination" physical examination. Treatment There is no therapy that stops the development of lesions. Chronic bleeding often requires  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_supplements" \o "Iron supplements" iron supplements and sometimes  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_transfusion" \o "Blood transfusion" blood transfusions if the anaemia is severe. Haemangioma Haemangioma is the term that comes from the Greek word haema- meaning blood, angio meaning vessel and the suffix -oma meaning tumor. It describes any vascular tumor-like structure, whether it is present at or around birth or appears later in life. Haemangiomas are the most common childhood tumors occurring in approximately 10% of Caucasians, and are less prevalent in other races. Females are 3-5 times more likely to have haemangiomas than males. They are also more common in twin pregnancies. Approximately 80% are located on the face and neck, with the next most prevalent location being the liver. Recently, they were categorised into 2 families. A family of self-involuting tumors that appear during the first days or weeks of life and will eventually disappear at the latest by age 10 years. Another family of enlarged or abnormal vessels that present at birth and essentially become permanent, such as HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port-wine_stain" \o "Port-wine stain"port-wine stain (capillary malformation) that appear as diffuse flat bluish lesion, most commonly on the buccal mucosa, and/or masses of abnormal swollen veins (cavernous malformation) that have a raised, nobulated appearance, causing macroglossia, and may bleed freely on trauma. The importance of this distinction is that it makes it possible for early-in-life differentiation between lesions that will resolve versus those that are permanent. A number of syndromes include haemangiomas as a component. Aetiology The cause of haemangioma is currently unknown. Diagnosis It can be made from history and clinical examination. The vascular nature of the lesion can be demonstrated by applying gentle pressure which results in emptying and blanching. Haemangiomas may be deep to mucosa, and aspiration is recommended before excision of any fluctuant lesion, to rule out the presence of these lesions, and to prevent the risk of haemorrhage. An MRI is sometimes obtained to determine the extent of the lesion. Treatment Most haemangiomas disappear without treatment, leaving minimal or no visible marks. The mainstay in the treatment of proliferating haemangiomas in infants and children is systemic or intralesional HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corticosteroid" \o "Corticosteroid"corticosteroid therapy. Beta-blocker propranolol may produce impressive response, and it is superior to corticosteroids in terms of both effectiveness and safety. A pHYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulsed_dye_laser" \o "Pulsed dye laser"ulse dye laser can be useful for early flat superficial lesions if they appear in cosmetically significant areas, or for those lesions that leave residual surface blood vessels in case of incomplete resolution. Surgical removal is sometimes indicated, particularly if there has been delay in commencing treatment, and structural changes have become irreversible. Lymphangioma Lymphangioma is a rare malformation of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphatic_system" \o "Lymphatic system" lymphatic system, in which a blockage causes fluid to accumulate beneath the skin. These malformations can occur at any age, and may involve any part of the body, but 90% occur in children less than 2 years of age, and around 75% occur in the head and neck regions. Most lymphangiomas are benign lesions and appear as soft, spongy, slow growing, and somewhat fluctuant doughy masses. They are more likely to be deep to the superficial tissue and usually acquire the colour of the overlying mucosa, but may be somewhat erythematous. Lesions may spontaneously regress after puberty. Because of their size and submucosal location, they can cause deformity such as macroglossia of the tongue. The tongue in fact is the most common intraoral site of lymphangioma. Rarely, impingement upon critical organs may result in complications, such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_distress" \o "Respiratory distress" respiratory distress, when a lymphangioma compresses the airway. Aetiology These malformations are either congenital or acquired. Congenital lymphangiomas are often associated with  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomal_abnormalities" \o "Chromosomal abnormalities" chromosomal abnormalities such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turner_syndrome" \o "Turner syndrome" Turner syndrome or HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Down_syndrome" \o "Down syndrome"Down syndrome, although they can also exist in isolation. Acquired lymphangiomas may result from trauma, inflammation, or lymphatic obstruction. Diagnosis It is based mainly on history and clinical examination, in addition to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histopathology" \o "Histopathology" histopathologic inspection. In prenatal cases, when diagnosis is confirmed using an  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasound" \o "Ultrasound" ultrasound,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amniocentesis" \o "Amniocentesis" amniocentesis may be recommended to check for associated genetic disorders. MRI can help define the degree of involvement to prevent unnecessary extensive or incomplete surgical resection because of the association with a high recurrence rate. Treatment Lymphangiomas are usually treated for cosmetic reasons only. The preferred treatment for lymphangiomas is complete surgical excision. Other alternative treatments include  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspiration" \o "Aspiration" aspiration,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_ablation" \o "Laser ablation" laser and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiofrequency_ablation" \o "Radiofrequency ablation" radiofrequency ablation, and hypertonic saline  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sclerotherapy" \o "Sclerotherapy" sclerotherapy. 8 Salivary gland diseases Mumps Mumps is a viral infection that primarily affects the parotid glands. It was a common  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childhood_disease" \o "Childhood disease" childhood disease until the mumps vaccine was licensed in the 1960s. Since then, the number of cases has dropped dramatically. Up to 20% of persons infected with the mumps virus do not show symptoms. When signs and symptoms do develop, they usually appear about 2-3 weeks after exposure to the virus. The disease spreads easily from person to person through infected saliva. The virus can also survive on surfaces and then be spread after contact in a similar manner. A person infected with mumps is contagious from approximately 6 days before the onset of symptoms until about 9 days after symptoms start.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prodromal_symptoms" \o "Prodromal symptoms" Prodromal symptoms of mumps include fever, headache, weakness, and fatigue. Painful swelling of the parotid glands is the most typical presentation, and may occur on one side of the face, but in 90% of cases the swelling affects both sides. In addition to pain with chewing or swallowing, dry mouth, and occasionally loss of voice may be present. Males past puberty who develop mumps have a 30% risk of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchitis" \o "Orchitis" orchitis which is a painful testicular swelling that may lead to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infertility" \o "Infertility" infertility. Aetiology It is a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_disease" \o "Viral disease" viral disease caused by the paramyxovirus. Diagnosis Physical examination confirms the presence of the swollen and tender glands, and no testing is usually required. If there is uncertainty about the diagnosis, a viral culture of saliva or a serologic antibody testing may be needed. As with any inflammation of the salivary glands, serum amylase is often elevated. Newer diagnostic confirmation, using  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nested_polymerase_chain_reaction" \o "Nested polymerase chain reaction" polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has also been developed. Treatment The disease is generally  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-limiting_(biology)" \o "Self-limiting (biology)" self-limiting, and within 2 weeks it runs its course and recedes with no specific treatment. Paracetamol or ibuprofen is commonly used to reduce fever and relieve discomfort.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspirin" \o "Aspirin" Aspirin is not recommended due to a hypothetical link with  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reye%27s_syndrome" \o "Reye's syndrome" Reye's syndrome. Warm salt water  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gargle" \o "Gargle" gargles, soft foods, and extra fluids may also help relieve symptoms. If the patient cannot swallow, intravenous fluid replacement may be used. Patients are advised to avoid fruit juice or any acidic foods since these stimulate the salivary glands which can be painful. Pain may be eased by the application of intermittent ice packs or heating pads to the swollen glands or testicular area. For males with orchitis, stronger pain medication may be used as well as corticosteroids to reduce inflammation. The most common preventative measure against mumps is immunisation with  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumps_vaccine" \o "Mumps vaccine" mumps vaccine. Sialolithiasis Sialolithiasis is the most common disease of the salivary glands, and refers to the formation of stones or sialoliths in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salivary_glands" \o "Salivary glands" salivary glands. Males are affected twice as much as females, and children are rarely affected. More than 80% occur in the submandibular gland, followed by the  HYPERLINK "http://www.medcyclopaedia.com/library/topics/volume_vi_2/p/parotid_gland.aspx" parotid gland, but is rare in the  HYPERLINK "http://www.medcyclopaedia.com/library/topics/volume_vi_2/s/sublingual_gland.aspx" sublingual gland or minor salivary glands. Multiple calculi in the submandibular gland are rare, as is simultaneous lithiasis in more than one salivary gland. Although large sialoliths have been reported in the body of salivary glands, they have been rarely reported in the salivary ducts. Submandibular sialolithiasis is most often situated near the orifice of Wharton's duct or at the bend of the duct passing behind the mylohyoid muscle. Parotid stones are usually seen in the distal part of  HYPERLINK "http://www.medcyclopaedia.com/library/topics/volume_vi_2/s/stensens_duct.aspx" Stensens duct. When minor salivary glands are involved, they are usually in the buccal mucosa or upper lip, forming a firm nodule that may mimic tumor. Sialolithiasis may be asymptomatic and are discovered by chance. In other cases, a sialolith blocks the duct of the salivary gland, either partially or completely causing pain and swelling of the gland by obstructing the surge of salivary secretion, especially at meal times. Persistent obstruction of the duct may causes stasis of saliva, leading to bacterial ascent into the parenchyma of the gland, and therefore infection called  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sialoadenitis" \o "Sialoadenitis" sialadenitis. Long-term obstruction in the absence of infection can lead to atrophy of the gland with resultant lack of secretory function and ultimately fibrosis. Aetiology Although the exact cause of these stones is unknown, some may be related to dehydration, Sjogrens syndrome, or medications that decrease saliva production including certain antihistamines, antihypertensives, and antipsychotics. Diagnosis Salivary stones can often be palpated, especially in the submandibular gland. Occlusal radiographs are useful in showing radiopaque stones.  HYPERLINK "http://www.medcyclopaedia.com/Home/library/glossaries/ultrasound.aspx" Ultrasound is an appropriate noninvasive technique for detecting non-calcified stones. Sialography allows detailed visualisation of the ductal morphology and identification of ductal strictures, permitting the diagnosis of  HYPERLINK "http://www.medcyclopaedia.com/Home/library/glossaries/opaque.aspx" opaque and nonopaque stones. However, it is contraindicated in acute infection or in significant patient contrast allergy. Recently, sialo-MRI enables diagnosis of salivary gland obstructive pathologies. It is a non-invasive diagnostic method without ionising radiation exposure, and with a higher definition of the glandular parenchyma and ductal system, compared to the other methods available. Treatment For small stones, sialogogues are used to promote saliva production and flush the stone out of the duct by having the patient sucking on sour candy such as lemon. If the stone is close to the duct opening of the submandibular gland, it can be messaged and manipulated through the duct orifice by a specialist. Extra-corporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL), which utilises ultrasound to break up the stones, is an effective, non-invasive treatment approach, to be performed in all patients with sialolithiasis. It is particularly important for treating parotid gland stones, even when dealing with recurrent ones, due to the surgical risk in this area. ESWL should also be used as a first approach modality in the submandibular gland stones, except for those localised in the proximal part of the duct, where surgery is preferable. If the gland has been damaged by recurrent infection and fibrosis, or a large stone have formed within the gland, it may require surgical removal. Sialadenitis Sialadenitis or sialoadenitis refers to acute or chronic infection, most commonly of the parotid and submandibular salivary glands. It is a painful infection that is usually caused by bacteria, especially staphylococcus aureus. Others include streptococci, coliforms, and various anaerobic bacteria. Although it typically occurs in patients in their 50s and 60s, sialadenitis also can occur in infants during the first few weeks of life. Symptoms of sialadenitis can vary depending on the severity of an infection. Most people experience some degree of pain when opening their mouths, and noticeable unilateral facial swelling with erythema and oedema of the overlying skin. Some may unusually have dry mouth or a persistent bad taste. In addition, fever, chills, and malaise are common in acute infections. An infected gland that is left untreated may develop a  HYPERLINK "http://www.wisegeek.com/what-causes-pus.htm" pus-filled abscess that can drain into the mouth and throat. Aetiology Sialadenitis usually occurs after hyposecretion or duct obstruction, but may develop without an obvious cause. It affects chronically ill patients with xerostomia, patients with Sjogrens syndrome, and in those who have had radiation therapy to the oral cavity. Teenagers and young adults with anorexia are also prone to this disorder. Adverse drug reactions (antihistamines, diuretics, psychiatric medications, beta-blockers, and barbiturates), congenital deformities, autoimmune disorders, and certain occupations (trumpet playing and glass blowing) can also cause salivary gland problems. Diagnosis Clinical examination may reveal a tender painful lump in the cheek or under the chin, and a foul-tasting due to discharge of pus from the duct into the mouth. Culture of saliva for the presence of bacteria. CT scan or MRI, and ultrasound can confirm sialadenitis or abscess that is not obvious clinically. Treatment Initial treatment is with oral antibiotics (flucloxacillin/dicloxacillin or clindamycin if penicillin-sensitive), modified according to culture results. Hydration, sialagogues (eg lemon juice or hard candy) that trigger saliva flow, warm compresses, gland massage, and good oral hygiene. Abscesses require drainage by inserting a needle into the gland and aspirating the pus. Occasionally, a superficial parotidectomy or submandibular gland excision is indicated for patients with chronic or relapsing sialadenitis. Without proper treatment, sialadenitis can develop into a severe infection, especially in people who are debilitated or elderly. Sialosis Sialosis rather than sialadenosis have been recommended by the WHO as the correct diagnostic term for a unique form of nonspecific salivary gland enlargement without evidence of infection, inflammation, or tumor. It is characterised by persistent, soft and painless bilateral swelling of the parotid gland with occasional involvement of the submandibular salivary gland. There is no sex predilection, and the highest incidence occurs after the age of 30 years. Sialosis is known to occur in a variety of conditions, including alcoholism and alcoholic liver disease, but a number of nutritional deficiencies, endocrine disease especially diabetes mellitus, kidney failure, anorexia or bulimia nervosa, obesity, pregnancy, medications, and exposure to chemicals have also been reported to result in sialosis. It is important for the dental practitioner to recognise sialosis, because it often indicates the existence of an unsuspected systemic disease. Aetiology Although the pathogenesis of sialosis has not been established, a neuropathic process that affects the autonomic innervations of the salivary glands has been suggested. Diagnosis Blood tests for CBC, U&E, FBS, LFT, alpha-1 antitrypsin, serum ACE, RF, and autoantibody screen. Sialography, fine needle aspiration cytology, and CT scan should be also performed. Open biopsy may be necessary. Treatment Correction of the underlying condition can help improve the enlarged salivary gland. Superficial parotidectomy should only be undertaken when cosmetic deformity is unacceptable. Taste disorders Taste disorders include dysgeusia (abnormal taste),  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypogeusia" \o "Hypogeusia" hypogeusia (lack of taste), and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ageusia" \o "Ageusia" ageusia (loss of taste). Dysgeusia is a condition in which a foul, salty, rancid, or metallic taste sensation will persist in the mouth. The senses of taste and  HYPERLINK "javascript:openglossarywindow('123');" smell are very closely related. Some patients who think they have lost their sense of taste are surprised to learn that they have a smell disorder instead. In addition, gustatory dysfunction is rare when compared to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olfactory" \o "Olfactory" olfactory disorders. Aetiology Poor oral hygiene, xerostomia, and dental problems. Medications such as antibiotics, antihistamines, beta-blockers, ACE inhibitors, and chemotherapy. Exposure to certain chemicals such as insecticides. Salivary gland infection, sinusitis, and middle ear infections. Heartburn or gastric reflux. Radiation therapy for cancers of the head and neck. Some surgeries to the ear, nose, throat, and wisdom tooth removal. Zinc deficiency is a common cause of taste and smell disorder. Pine mouth syndrome, is metallogeusia following ingestion of Chinese pine nuts, resulting in a bitter metallic taste lasting between few days to a few weeks. It is self-limiting and resolves without treatment. Diagnosis Dental examination and assessment of oral hygiene. Medical history to rule out a neurologic deficiency, an olfactory deficit, and systemic influences such as malnutrition, metabolic disturbances, drugs, radiotherapy, chemical and physical trauma. Physical examination of the ears, nose, and throat by otolaryngologist. Blood tests for trace elements should be conducted to identify any deficiencies. A taste test is needed which may involve a simple sip, spit, and rinse test; or chemicals may be applied directly to specific areas of the tongue. Treatment Due to the variety of causes of taste disorder, there are many possible treatments that are effective in alleviating or terminating the symptoms. These may include artificial saliva, pilocarpine hydrochloride, zinc supplementation, or alterations in drug therapy. Alpha lipoic acid (200 mg caps 3 times per day for at least 2 months) may significantly improve idiopathic dysgeusia which may be a form of a neuropathy. Salivary gland tumors Most salivary gland tumors are benign, and 80% occur in the parotid glands, 10-15% occurs in the submandibular glands, and the remainders occur in the sublingual and minor salivary glands. The most common benign tumor is a pleomorphic adenoma (mixed tumor) that usually appears as a slow-growing, movable, painless lump beneath normal skin. Occasionally, when cystic, they are soft, but most often they are firm. More than 95% of all benign salivary gland tumors occur in adults, and usually present when older than 40 years. Malignant transformation is possible, resulting in carcinoma ex mixed tumor, but this usually occurs only after the benign tumor has been present for 15-20 years. If malignant transformation occurs, the cure rates are very low, despite adequate surgery and adjuvant therapy. Other benign tumors include monomorphic adenoma, oncocytoma, and papillary cystadenoma lymphomatosum (previously known as cylindroma). These tumors rarely recur and rarely become malignant. The salivary gland cancers are rare and typically present after age 60 years. Almost half of all submandibular gland neoplasms and most sublingual and minor salivary gland tumors are malignant. They are characterised by a sudden growth spurt and present as firm, nodular, and can be fixed to adjacent tissue, often with a poorly defined periphery. Eventually, the overlying skin or mucosa may become ulcerated or the adjacent tissues may become invaded, causing localised or regional pain, numbness, paraesthesia, causalgia, or a loss of motor function. Mucoepidermoid carcinoma is the most common salivary gland cancer, and often manifests in a minor salivary gland of the palate, or it can occur deep within the bone, such as in the wall of a dentigerous cyst. It may metastasise to the regional lymphatics, which must be addressed with surgical dissection or postoperative radiation therapy. Adenoid cystic carcinoma, a common minor salivary gland tumor, is a slowly growing malignant transformation of a much more common benign cylindroma. It has a propensity for perineural invasion and spread, with disease potentially extending many centimeters from the main tumor mass. Lymphatic spread is not a common feature of this tumor, so elective nodal treatment is less common. Acinic cell carcinoma, a common parotid tumor, has a favourable course after wide excision, as well as an incidence of multifocality. Salivary gland neoplasms are rare in children, and most tumors are benign, with haemangiomas being the most common, followed by pleomorphic adenomas. Aetiology Although the aetiology of salivary gland tumors is unknown, the involvement of environmental or genetic factors has been suggested. The only known risk factors for salivary gland cancers are Sjogren's syndrome, EBV, and exposure to radiation, although smoking also may play some role. Diagnosis The lump is evaluated by fine-needle aspiration biopsy to confirm the cell type. CT scan and MRI are recommended to locate the tumor and describe its extent. A search for spread to regional nodes or distant metastases in the lung, liver, bone, or brain may be indicated before treatment is selected. Treatment For benign tumors, treatment is with surgery; however, recurrence rate is high when excision is incomplete. For malignant tumors, treatment is with wide surgical excision and postoperative radiation. Currently, there is no effective chemotherapy for salivary cancer. All surgeries are designed to spare the facial nerve, which is sacrificed only in cases of direct tumor involvement of the nerve. Sjogren's syndrome Sjogren's syndrome (SS), also known as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Mikulicz-Radecki" \o "Jan Mikulicz-Radecki" Mikulicz disease, is a systemic chronic autoimmune exocrinopathy that affects the salivary and lacrimal glands, typically presenting as the sicca complex of dry eyes (xerophthalmia) and dry mouth (xerostomia). Although Sjogrens occurs at any age, most people are older than 40 years at the time of diagnosis. About 90% of patients are females. Sjogren's syndrome that is not associated with another connective tissue disease is referred to as primary Sjogren's and occurs in approximately 50% of cases, while SS that may develop years after the onset of an associated connective tissue disease, such as  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=466" rheumatoid arthritis,  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=491" systemic lupus erythematosus, or  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=471" scleroderma, is referred to as secondary Sjogren's. Secondary SS is more likely than primary to lead to complications. Symptoms of SS include eye irritation, gritty sensation, infection, and serious abrasion of the cornea of the eye. Oral dryness leads to swallowing difficulties, tooth decay,  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=376" gum disease,  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=99669" mouth sores, stones or infection of the salivary glands, and dry lips. Sjogren's syndrome may also cause  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin" \o "Skin" skin,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nose" \o "Nose" nose, and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaginal_dryness" \o "Vaginal dryness" vaginal dryness. Extraglandular problems include  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=7776" arthritis,  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=463" Raynaud's phenomenon, lung inflammation, vasculitis, persistent dry cough, fatigue, lymph node enlargement, and kidney, nerve, and muscle disease. Common disease that is occasionally associated with SS is  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=47280" Hashimoto's thyroiditis and  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=375" gastroesophageal reflux disease. About 5% of patients with SS develop lymphoma, only after many years with the illness. Aetiology While the exact cause is unknown, there is growing scientific support for genetic factors. Several different genes appear to be involved, but scientists are not certain exactly which ones are linked to the disease. Diagnosis Blood tests include ANA and RF which are present in about 70% of patients. Typical antibodies are SSA/Ro (60%) and SSB/La (40%). ESR and Ig are usually elevated. Salivary flow testing (sialometry) measures the amount of saliva produced over a certain period of time. Sialography demonstrates abnormalities of the ductal system and the architecture, and in advanced Sjogrens it should show punctate sialectasis (snow storm appearance). Salivary scintigraphy is a nuclear medicine test that measures salivary gland function. Ultrasound examination of the salivary glands is the simplest confirmatory test. Minor salivary gland biopsy is performed under local anaesthesia by making a tiny incision on the inner part of the lower lip, opposite the premolars, to remove 4-5 minor salivary glands that should show  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Focal_lymphocytic_sialadenitis&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Focal lymphocytic sialadenitis (page does not exist)" focal lymphocytic sialadenitis.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schirmer%27s_test" \o "Schirmer's test" Schirmer tear test in which a strip of filter paper is held inside the lower eyelid for 5 minutes and its wetness is then measured with a ruler. Less than 5 mm of liquid is usually indicative of SS. Rose-Bengal test uses eye drops containing dyes to examine the surface of the eye for dry spots. Treatment There is no known cure for SS, and treatment focuses on relieving symptoms and preventing complications. Infections of the mouth and teeth should be addressed as early as possible in order to avoid more severe complications. Artificial saliva preparations and  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=12004" over-the-counter products, including biotene mouth wash, biotene oral balance gel and toothpaste, and xylitol-based chewing gum (sugar free) can ease oral dryness. The glands can also be stimulated to produce saliva by sucking on sugarless lemon drops or glycerin swabs. Medications that are saliva stimulants include pilocarpine hydrochloride or  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=45968" cevimeline, but these should be avoided by patients with certain heart disease, liver disease,  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=284" asthma, or  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=373" glaucoma. However, SalivaSure lozenge is a natural and saver alternative. Eye dryness can be helped by artificial tears, using eye-lubricant ointments at night, minimising the use of hair dryers, and dietary addition of  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=46033" flax seed oil. In severe cases, the use of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goggle" \o "Goggle" goggles increase local  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humidity" \o "Humidity" humidity, or punctal plugs can be inserted into the lower or upper tear drainage canals of the eyes by the opthalmologist with immediate improvement. Cyclosporine ophthalmic emulsion, and/or hydroxypropyl cellulose ophthalmic insert can be used to treat chronic dry eyes. Salt water (saline) nasal sprays can help dryness in the passages of the nose.  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=805" Hydroxychloroquine prevents inflammation in SS and can be helpful. Serious complications may require corticosteroids and immunosuppression medications. Juvenile recurrent parotitis Juvenile recurrent parotitis (JRP) or acute recurrent parotitis, is the second most common salivary gland disease in children, next to mumps; and in young children it is difficult to differentiate between the two. Generally, episodes begin by age 5 years, and virtually all patients become asymptomatic by age of 10-15 years. The duration of attacks averages 3-7 days, but may last 2-3 weeks in some individuals. Males are affected more than females. Clinical symptoms of JRP include recurrent nonobstructive, nonsuppurative parotid inflammation. The disease is usually unilateral, but bilateral exacerbation can occur, with symptoms usually more prominent on one side. During the attacks, the parotid gland is enlarged, moderately red, and tender. Massaging the gland from back to front produces clear saliva with lots of snowflakes or little white curds from the Stensens duct. The spectrum varies from mild and infrequent attacks to episodes so frequent that they prevent regular school attendance. The child, although not very sick during the attack, is regularly sent home with the diagnosis of mumps until school officials are informed of the nature of the disease. Juvenile recurrent parotitis is self-limiting, and after puberty, the symptoms usually subside and the disease may resolve completely. Aetiology The cause of the disease is unknown. A variety of contributing factors have been proposed; they include ductal congenital malformations, genetic factors, viral or bacterial infection, allergy, and local manifestation of an autoimmune disease; but none of them has been proved to date. Diagnosis It is made mainly through history and by parental report of unilateral or bilateral parotid gland recurrent infections. Bacterial culture of saliva generally produces streptococcus viridans or another low-virulence bacterium that is considered normal oral flora. Even between attacks, bacteria are present in the saliva. Ultrasonography and sialography reveal punctate sialectasis as in SS. Even when symptoms are unilateral, sialectasis is demonstrated in the opposite gland in most instances. Sialographic changes may precede infections, and persist even after all other symptoms have ceased. Resolution of symptoms after puberty may be due to regeneration of glandular elements and return to normal function. Treatment The goal of treatment is to stop the recurrent swellings and infections of the glands before puberty, and to prevent irreversible damage to the gland parenchyma. A regimen of applying local heat to the gland, massaging the gland from back to front, encouragement of fluid intake, and use of chewing gum and sialogogues can be helpful. Low dose antibiotic cover or prophylactic administration early in an attack is recommended. Recently, bilateral sialoendoscopy of the parotid glands is performed under general anaesthesia. The glands are examined and lavaged thoroughly with normal saline. The sialoendoscope is also used to dilate the duct with saline pressure, and when necessary, a dilation balloon is used. After the lavage and dilation, hydrocortisone (100 mg) is injected via the endoscope into the gland. After the procedure, patients are given intravenous augmentin (25 mg/kg). Other invasive treatment methods such as duct ligation, parotidectomy, and tympanic neurectomy are contraindicated. Mucocele Mucocele is a clinical term for a common pseudocyst involving minor salivary glands. When examined under a microscope, oral mucocele can be categorised as either mucus retention cyst (5%) due to blockage of the duct and back up of saliva in the gland, or mucus extravasation cyst (95%) which is a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swelling_(medical)" \o "Swelling (medical)" swelling of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connective_tissue" \o "Connective tissue" connective tissue, consisting of collected  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucin" \o "Mucin" mucin due to a ruptured salivary gland  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duct_(anatomy)" \o "Duct (anatomy)" duct, usually caused by local trauma. Most mucoceles occur in young individuals, with 70% being younger than 20 years. The most common location of the extravasation mucocele is the lower lip, followed by the anterior ventral  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongue" \o "Tongue" tongue, while retention mucocele can be found at any other sites. Mucus retention cyst, when seen on the lip is slightly blue in colour, because of the thin layer of epithelium covering the bluish capillaries. Mucus extravasation cyst, which occurs more frequently, takes on the same colour as the rest of the lip, since it is covered with a thicker layer of granulation tissue. The lesion is usually persistent, but some patients complain of having recurrent swelling which periodically discharges. A variant of a mucocele is found on the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palate" \o "Palate" palate,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Retromolar_pad&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Retromolar pad (page does not exist)" retromolar pad, and posterior buccal mucosa, known as a superficial mucocele; this type presents as single or multiple  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesicle_(biology)" \o "Vesicle (biology)" vesicles and bursts into an ulcer. Despite healing after a few days, superficial mucoceles recur often in the same location. Aetiology It has been suggested that trauma or obstruction of minor salivary gland ducts is likely to be involved. Diagnosis It is made by history, clinical manifestation, and histological examination of an excised lesion. Treatment Some mucoceles resolve spontaneously after a short time. Chronic mucoceles are treated by surgical excisional removal. Recurrence may occur, and thus the adjacent minor salivary glands should be excised as a preventive measure. Other treatment options include micro-marsupialisation, cryosurgery, steroid injections, and laser ablation. Ranula Ranula is a type of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucocele" \o "Mucocele" mucocele found on the floor of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouth" \o "Mouth" mouth. Oral ranula presents as a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swelling_(medical)" \o "Swelling (medical)" swelling of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connective_tissue" \o "Connective tissue" connective tissue consisting of collected  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucin" \o "Mucin" mucin from a ruptured  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salivary_gland" \o "Salivary gland" salivary gland  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duct_(anatomy)" \o "Duct (anatomy)" duct. It usually occurs in children and young adults, with the peak frequency in the second decade. An oral ranula is a relatively large, fluctuant, unilateral blue to translucent mass in the floor of the mouth that remotely resembles the underbelly of a frog (Rana species). The lesion may cross the midline when especially large, and make the offending salivary gland difficult to localise. Most commonly, ranula arises from the sublingual gland and, infrequently, from the submandibular gland. Though normally above the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mylohyoid_muscle" \o "Mylohyoid muscle" mylohyoid muscle, if a ranula is found deeper in the floor of the mouth, it can appear to have a normal colour. A ranula below the mylohyoid muscle is referred to as a plunging or cervical ranula, and produces swelling of the neck with or without swelling in the floor of the mouth. As with mucocele, ranula may be subject to recurrent swelling with occasional rupturing of its contents. Individuals with an oral ranula may complain of swelling of the floor of the mouth that is usually painless. The mass may interfere with speech, mastication, respiration, and swallowing because of the upward and medial displacement of the tongue. When oral ranula is large, the tongue may place pressure on the lesion, which may interfere with submandibular salivary flow. As a result, obstructive salivary gland signs and symptoms may develop, such as pain or discomfort when eating, a feeling of fullness at that site, and increased swelling of the submandibular gland. Aetiology It commonly arises from local trauma to the sublingual gland duct, leading to mucus extravasation and formation of a pseudocyst. This is because sublingual gland secretes continuously in the interdigestive period, whereas the parotid and submandibular salivary glands only secrete in response to stimuli such as eating. Diagnosis CT scan or MRI of the head and neck to define the extent of oral or cervical ranula and to eliminate other disease processes is prudent prior to surgical intervention. Ultrasonography has also been used to evaluate the lesion. Fine needle aspiration of the content of ranula may be helpful in the diagnosis prior to excision and subsequent surgery. Treatment It could involve either  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsupialization" \o "Marsupialization" marsupialisation or more often surgical  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excision" \o "Excision" excision of both the gland and lesion. Ranulas are likely to recur if the sublingual gland or other gland causing them is not also removed with the lesion. Necrotising sialometaplasia Necrotising sialometaplasia (NS) is an uncommon benign and locally destructive, inflammatory condition that affects salivary glands. It is more frequent in males with average age of 46 years. Necrotising sialometaplasia is predominantly found on the posterior hard palate, but other intraoral sites and major salivary glands can be affected. The typical clinical presentation of NS is that of a crater-like ulcer that simulates a malignant process and is often painless. These ulcerated lesions are 1-3 cm and are usually unilateral, with one-third occurring in a bilateral or midpalatal location. The condition is self limiting and should resolve within 6-10 weeks. Aetiology Local anaesthetic infiltration, heavy smoking, alcoholic abuse, intubation, traumatic injury, upper respiratory infection, and allergies have been pointed out as aetiological agents. These factors may affect the vascular system causing ischaemia in the salivary glands that may result in necrosis. Diagnosis The clinical and histopathologic features of NS often simulate those of squamous cell carcinoma or mucoepidermoid carcinoma. Adequate incisional biopsy is necessary to establish the diagnosis. Familiarity with NS and correct diagnosis are paramount in avoiding misdiagnosis and inappropriate treatment. Treatment Necrotising sialometaplasia resolves spontaneously, and no treatment is necessary apart from chlorhexidine digluconate mouth washes to prevent secondary infections. Xerostomia Xerostomia is a medical term for dry mouth caused by reduced or absent flow of saliva. It is not a disease but rather a symptom of various conditions. Everyone has a dry mouth once in a while when nervous, upset, or under  HYPERLINK "http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=488" stress. However, xerostomia is different in that the mouth is dry most of the time. It is more commonly found among the elderly, and some patients may think dry mouth is a normal part of aging but it is not. The main reason is that elderly people take more medications compared to the rest of the population, and some of these medications cause xerostomia. This condition can result in discomfort and patients may complain of constant sore throat, hoarseness, intolerance of dentures, halitosis, increased need to drink water especially at night, speech and swallowing difficulties, and impair oral hygiene by causing a decrease in oral pH and an increase in bacterial growth. Longstanding xerostomia can result in increased dental caries, periodontal disease, oral infections such as thrush, painful tongue (glossodynia), difficulty with tasting (dysgeusia), salivary gland infections and swellings, and cheilitis (inflammation and fissuring of the lips). Aetiology It is a common side effect of various medications such as antihistamines, antihypertensives,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antidepressants" \o "Antidepressants" antidepressants, anticholinergics, antiepileptics, muscle relaxants,  HYPERLINK "http://www.patient.co.uk/DisplayConcepts.asp?WordId=BETA%20BLOCKERS%20ALL%20INDICATIONS%20&MaxResults=50" betablockers, diuretics, and some  HYPERLINK "http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/info/parkinsons-disease/" \o "What is Parkinson's Disease?" Parkinsons disease medications. It may be a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_(medical)" \o "Sign (medical)" sign of an underlying  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease" \o "Disease" disease, such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sj%C3%B6gren%27s_syndrome" \o "Sjgren's syndrome" Sjogrens syndrome, poorly controlled  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetes" \o "Diabetes" diabetes mellitus,  HYPERLINK "http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=491" systemic lupus erythematosus,  HYPERLINK "http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=466" rheumatoid arthritis, hypothyroidism,  HYPERLINK "http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=471" scleroderma,  HYPERLINK "http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=6077" sarcoidosis, and  HYPERLINK "http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=269" amyloidosis. Radiation therapy to the head and neck can damage the salivary glands. Chemotherapy drugs cause severe dryness and stomatitis while they are being taken, but problems usually end after therapy is stopped.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_trauma" \o "Physical trauma" Physical trauma to the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salivary_gland" \o "Salivary gland" salivary glands,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dehydration" \o "Dehydration" dehydration, and mouth breathing may cause xerostomia. Diagnosis When the mouth is examined, a tongue depressor may stick to the buccal mucosa and there may be little or no pooled saliva in the floor of the mouth. Sialometry is a simple procedure that measures the unstimulated whole salivary flow rate. Less than 0.1 ml/minute of salivary secretion is considered abnormal. Sialography may be useful in identifying salivary gland stones and masses. Biopsy of minor salivary glands from lower labial mucosa, opposite the premolars, is useful to confirm the diagnosis of certain diseases such as Sjogren's syndrome, sarcoidosis, or amyloidosis. Blood tests and imaging scans of the salivary glands may also be needed. Treatment When possible, the cause of xerostomia should be addressed and treated. Meticulous oral hygiene measures are essential. Patients should brush and floss regularly and use fluoride mouth washes (alcohol free) or gels daily. An increased frequency of preventive dental visits with plaque removal is advised. Patients should avoid sugary or acidic foods and beverages, and any irritating foods that are dry, spicy, astringent, or excessively hot or cold. They should also avoid mouth washes which contain alcohol, alcohol and caffeine consumption, and chewing or smoking tobacco. Chewing  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xylitol" \o "Xylitol" xylitol-based  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chewing_gum" \o "Chewing gum" gum (sugar free), and using saliva substitute or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotene" \o "Biotene" biotene mouth wash, biotene oral balance gel and toothpaste, have been proven to be helpful. Petroleum jelly (Vaseline) can be applied to the lips and under dentures to relieve drying, cracking, soreness, and mucosal trauma. The patient should not wear dentures during sleep, and the dentures must be kept clean by overnight soaking. Sialogogues such as pilocarpine hydrochloride or cevimeline may be prescribed to stimulate the production of saliva in difficult cases. However, SalivaSure lozenge is a natural and saver alternative; it increases saliva production through the physiological stimulation of taste buds, and provides instant relief for dry mouth upon contact. If xerostomia is thought to be caused by a medication, the patients doctor may either alter the dosage or prescribe another drug which is less likely to cause dry mouth. A cold-air humidifier may aid mouth breathers who typically have their worst symptoms at night. Sialorrhea Sialorrhea, also known as ptyalism, is caused by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypersalivation" \o "Hypersalivation" excessive saliva production in the absence of any other local or systemic symptoms (primary sialorrhea), or due to  lack of swallowing caused by muscle or nerve damage and the resultant drooling (secondary sialorrhea). Normally, the salivary glands produce about 1-2 liters of saliva every day, but because swallowing occurs on a continuous basis and unconsciously, most people do not generally notice the saliva. Aetiology Recognised causes are new dentures or dental restorations, local irritations, stomatitis, early months of pregnancy, teething, enlarged adenoids, sinusitis, oral or salivary gland tumors, and zinc deficiency. It is a common symptom of many neurological diseases such as cerebral palsy, Parkinson's disease, Bells palsy, or stroke. It can also be seen in patients with Down syndrome, multiple sclerosis, and  HYPERLINK "http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/myasthenia-gravis/DS00375" \t "_self" myasthenia gravis. Sialorrhea may represent a clinical feature of early Sjogrens syndrome. Rarer causes include arsenic poisoning, esophageal atresia, mercury poisoning,  HYPERLINK "http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/rabies/DS00484" \t "_self" rabies, and  HYPERLINK "http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/syphilis/DS00374" \t "_self" syphilis. Medications that are leading to this condition as a side effect include clozapine, isoproterenol, pilocarpine, anticonvulsants, nitrazepam, risperidone, bethanechol, lithium, and cholinergic drugs. Diagnosis No scientifically accepted diagnostic test is available for patients with hypersalivation. History and clinical examination may reveal the drug intake or underlying conditions and diseases that cause sialorrhea. Culture for saliva is needed if oral infection is suspected. Treatment Sialorrhea can be difficult to treat, and the choice of treatment often depends on the severity and cause of the problem. Botulinum toxin A (Botox) injection of the parotid and submandibular glands guided by ultrasound is a safe and effective treatment of sialorrhea in patients with neurological disorders. Bilateral submandibular duct transposition is a common surgical procedure for drooling, and should be considered only after evaluation of non-invasive treatment options. In severe cases, anticholinergics or atropine sulfate tablets are indicated to reduce salivation, though the dosage must be controlled to prevent systemic side effects. If hypersalivation is due to drugs, then it is best to temporarily stop the intake of these drugs, decrease their dosage, or switch to other drugs that do not have this side effect. Excessive salivation during pregnancy is mostly a transitional problem that is often cured naturally after the first trimester. Table 1. Topical oral preparations used in oral medicine Generic name/brand name Corticosteroids* DoseUsesIndicationsTriamicnolone acetonide 0.1% Adcortyl in Orabase (kenalog) Fluocinonide 0.05% ** (Lidex, Vanos) Fluocinolone acetonide 0.1%** (Synalar, Capex)oral gel oral gel oral gelApply to dry lesion with wet finger or cotton wool bud 1x4/day after meals and at bed time until resolution More potent than triamcinolone, 1x4/day after meals and at bed time until resolution-For ulcers on lower lip or RAS of anterior mouth, not suitable for ulcers of the oropharynx -Desquamative gingivitis -As for triamcinolone Hydrocortisone sodium succinate (Corlan)2.5 mg pellets1x4/day during ulcer attack, then 1x2/day between attacks. Usually taken for at least 2/12 (suck slowly after meals)- RAS of posterior mouth -Mild erosive OLPBetamethasone valerate 0.1% (Bextasol, Valisone)100g/puff spray2 puffs (200g) sprayed onto sore mucosa 1x3/day after meals (max 8 puffs/day)-RAS of anterior mouth -Oropharyngeal ulcers -Localised erosive OLPBeclomethasone dipropionate (Becotide, Beclovent, Vanceril)50g/puff spray2 puffs (100g) sprayed onto sore mucosa 1x3/day after meals (max 8 puffs/day)-As for betamethasone spray (may be less effective)Betamethasone sodium phosphate** (Betnesol) Clobetasol propionate 0.05%** (Cormax, Temovate)0.5 mg tab solutionUsed as oral rinse 1x4/day and up to 6 times daily (Betnesol 1 tab dissolved in 10 ml of warm water), swish for 3 minutes each time, and spit out-Severe RAS of posterior mouth -Severe oral ulcerations, including erosive OLP (long-term use may cause adrenal suppression )Dexamethasone elixir** (Decardon, DexPak)0.5 mg/5ml used as oral rinse1x5/day for 3 min and spit out after meals and at bed time until resolution, then reduce by one dose every other day until 1x2/day as a maintenance dose , or stop-Extensive or severe oral ulcerations -For long-term use, it can be mixed with equal parts of Tantum verde mw and Nystatin suspension Triamcinolone hexacetonide injection (Kenacort 10 / 40mg, Aristospan 5/20mg)20 mg/ml vial1 ml intralesional mixed with 1/3 vial local anaesthesia, before injection anaesthetise area with gel, repeat every week until resolution-Useful in chronic localised ulcerative oral lesion (should exclude CA before) -For inflammatory swollen lipsOther alternatives to steroidsdose UsesIndicationsHyaluronic acid sachets 0.2% (Syno-Vital) Gingegel, Aftamedoral solution gel, spray 1x3/day after meals, it is a safer alternative to topical steroids 1x3/day after meals-Oral ulcers of Behcets disease -Oral mucositis in CA patients - Severe RASTetracycline plus nicotinamide (vitamin B3) Or Doxycycline ( HYPERLINK "http://www.drugs.com/cdi/doryx-delayed-release-capsules.html" Doryx,  HYPERLINK "http://www.drugs.com/cdi/adoxa.html" Adoxa, Monodox)500 mg caps 500 mg tab oral rinse 100 mg caps oral rinse1x4/day after meals for 1/52, (break open caps and tab, and dissolve contents in 10 ml of warm water, rinse for 3 min and spit out As above-Herpetiform RAS -Oral ulcers of Behcets disease - Gingival OLP (avoid tetracyclines in children younger than 12 years) Carbenoxolone sodium sachets 1% (Bioplex)2g bioral granulesDissolve 2g in 30-50 ml water, and rinse for 3 min 1x4/day then spit out-RAS unresponsive to topical steroids or tetracyclineChlorhexidine gluconate (PerioKin) (PerioKin)  oral gel oral spray1x3/day after meals (apply on gums with a soft brush or a cotton bud). Dont eat or drink half an hour after its use. Do not rinse.-Dental plaque -Peri-implant -Oral antisepticeg 4/12 (i.e. 4 months), 5/52 (i.e. 5 weeks), 2/7 (i.e. 2 days) *Check for systemic effects in case of long-term use (longer than 2 weeks) of topical steroid oral spray, rinse or elixir every 3/12 (CBC, U&E, LFT, serum cortisol level, urinalysis, BP and weight) **Topical corticosteroids with high-potency Table 2. Topical skin preparations used in oral medicine Generic name/brand nameDoseUsesIndicationsFusidic acid 2% (Fucidin) 5 g gel1x3/day to lips for 1/52-Staphylococcal infected lip lesions (eg central fissure of lip) -Non-candidal angular cheilitisFusidic acid 2% Sodium fusidate 2% (Fucidin)5 g cream 5 g ointment1x3/day to skin for 1/52-Bacterial skin infectionsBetamethasone valerate 0.1% plus fusidic acid 2% (Fucicort)15 g cream Apply sparingly 1x3/day to skin-Inflammatory skin lesionsHydrocortisone 1% plus miconazole 2% (Daktacort)5 g cream or ointment1x2 or 1x3/day to skin -Bacterial and fungal infections - Severe angular cheilitisClobetasol propionate (Dermovate, Temovate)60 g cream or ointment1x2/day for 4/52 (must not exceed 50 mg/week)-Various skin disorders -Skin lichen planusImiquimod 5% (Aldara)creamTwice weekly for 6/52 (an immune response modifier)-Actinic cheilitis -Focal epithelial hyperplasia -Lentigo malignaHYPERLINK "http://dermnetnz.org/treatments/tacrolimus.html"Tacrolimus 0.1% (Protopic)ointment 0.1% >16yr 0.03% < 16yr1x2/day for 6/52 Short-term use only Topical immunomodulator Use with caution Gradually stopped-Granulomatous cheilitis -Lip-licking dermatitis -Exfoliative cheilitis - Cheilitis glanduaris eg 4/12 (i.e. 4 months), 5/52 (i.e. 5 weeks), 2/7 (i.e. 2 days) Table 3. Systemic drugs used in oral medicine Generic name/brand nameDoseUsesIndicationsMILD CASES Corticosteroids* (Prednisolone) 1 5 10 mg tabsReducing dose: 20 mg 1x2/day after breakfast and lunch for 5 days, reducing by 5mg every 2 days (20/15, 20/10, 20/5, 20, 15, 10, 5), then reducing by 1 mg/day until stop. Best taken dissolved in some water but can be swallowed Maintenance dose: 5-10 mg daily or on alternate days - RAS unresponsive to topical treatment -Severe erosive OLP -Oral ulcers of EM -Oral pemphigus vulgaris -Oral pemphigoid -Oral pemphigus vulgaris -Oral pemphigoid -Oral ulcers of Behcets diseaseSEVERE CASES Corticosteroids (Prednisolone) Admit to hospital 100 mg tab1x2 mg/day until control, then reduces to 40 mg daily, and add AZA 50 mg 1x2/day for 3 weeks. Reduce prednisolone to 40 mg on alternate days. When stable reduce to a maintenance dose above, then add AZA 50 mg daily-Systemic pemphigus vulgaris with oral ulcers (patients usually need to be maintained on low dose of prednisolone for life) -To be monitored by a specialist Azathiorpirne (AZA) (Imuran, Asasan, Immunoprin)50 100 mg tab50-100 mg/day in combination with 10-20 mg of prednisolone on alternate days -Steroid sparing agent and immunosuppressant used as long term treatment in pemphigus vulgaris, severe pemphigoid, or Behcets disease Carbenoxolone Sodium (Bioplex, Bioral)20 mg tab1 or 2/day after meals-Severe RAS unresponsive to topical steroids or tetracyclineColchicine (Colcrys) 0.5 0.6 mg tab0.5-0.6 mg 1x2 or 1x3/day depending on the disease for which it is used-Behcets disease -Sarcoidosis Diaminodiphenyl sulfone (Dapsone)25 100 mg tab1x2/day up to maximum 200 mg (if no response add prednisolone 40mg/alternate days)-Dermatitis herpetiformis -Pemphigoid unresponsive to oral steroidsSulphasalazine (Azulfidine, Salazopyrin) 500 mg tab1-4 g/day depending on the disease for which it is used -Oral Crohn -Ulcerative colitis -Rheumatoid arthritis Supplements doseUsesIndicationsFerrous sulphate (iron) (Feosol, Ferosul, Fer-iron, Hemobion) 200 mg tab 1x3/day for 3/12, 2 hrs after meals, if patient cant tolerate ferrous sulphate, then ferrous gluconate 325 mg 1x3/day or ferrous fumarate 325 mg 1x2/day-Iron deficiencyFolic acid (Folvite) 150-400 mcg tab Once daily taken as directed -Folic acid deficiency -Folic acid deficiency due to coeliac disease Vitamin B12 injection (cyanocobalamin ) Mecobalamin (copal)1000 mcg/ml vial im 500 mg tabOn alternate days for 2/52, then once every 2-3/12 1x2/day-Vitamin B12 deficiency -Pernicious anemia -Vitamin B12 deficiencyZinc gluconate 10 mg/ (Zinc)10 mg 25 mg tab10 mg/day with meal for 1/12-Zinc deficiency  eg 4/12 (i.e. 4 months), 5/52 (i.e. 5 weeks), 2/7 (i.e. 2 days) *Careful monitoring is necessary with long-term therapy of oral steroids, 1/12 after therapy started, then every 3/12 (CBC, U&E, LFT, serum cortisol level, urinalysis, BP and weight). Check adrenal function before stopping oral steroids. Table 4. Antibacterial drugs used in oral medicine AntibacterialGeneric nameDoseUsesContraindication/ drug interactionNatural penicillins Phenoxymethyl penicillin Benzylpenicillin  Penicillin-V Penicillin-G  250-500 mg tab 1X4 on empty stomach for 5/7 300,000 units, single im injection  Narrow spectrum Severe dental infections Dental infections in CTX patients NUG Submaxillary cellulitis (Ludwigs angina) Acute osteomyelitis of the jawsAllergies Renal insufficiency Oral contraceptives Warfarin Tetracycline Aminopenicillins (Flumox)Amoxicillin Ampicillin Flucloxacillin + Amoxicillin Flucloxacillin or Dicloxacillin250-500 mg caps 1X3/day for 5/7 (ampicillin on empty stomach) 250 mg caps 250 mg caps 250-500 mg caps 1X4/day on empty stomach for 5/7Amoxicillin better absorbed than ampicillin Bactericidal Broad spectrum Dental infections Can be used safely in pregnancy SialadenitisAllergies Renal insufficiency GIT disease Infectious mononucleosis Alcohols Oral contraceptives Warfarin Amoxicillin and clavulanic acid ( penicillinase resistant penicillin)Augmentin375-625 mg tab 1X3/day for 5/7Bactericidal Dentoalveolar abscess Sinusitis TonsillitisAllergies Renal insuficiency Liver disease Oral contraceptives WarfarinCephalosporins (cross sensitivity with penicillin) Cephalexin 250-1000 mg caps 1X4/day for 5/7 Bactericidal Act as penicillin-G substitute Only used when indicated Allergies Renal disease Haemorragic tendency Pregnancy Probenecid (gout drug) Erythromycin TetracyclineMacrolidesErythromycin stearate Azithromycin or Clarithromycin 250-500 mg caps 1X3/day for 5/7 (with meals) 500 mg as a single doseBacteriostatic Narrow spectrum As an alternative to penicillin for prevention of endocarditis Nursing mother Liver disease Skin sensitivity to sun Carbamazepine Phyenytoin Theophyllines (asthma drug) Digoxen WarfarinLincosamidesClindamycin 150-450 mg caps 1X4/day for 5/7 600 mg as a single dosePost surgical extractions Bone or joint infections Anaerobic infections Sinusitis As an alternative to penicillin for prevention of endocarditis Nursing mother Liver disease Kidney disease Stomach disease Pseudomembranous colitis ErythromycinNitroimidazolesMetronidazole Rodogyl250 mg tab 1X3/day for 5-7/7 2x2mg tab/day for 5/7Active against anaerobes Dental infections in combination with amoxicillin (pericoronitis or acute dentoalveolar abscess) Aggressive periodontitis ANUG Nursing mother Epilepsy Liver/GIT disease Alcohols/Warfarin Lithium Unpleasant metallic taste Peripheral neuropathy after prolonged useTetracyclines Doxycycline Minocycline100 mg caps 1x2/day for 1/52 or 100 mg/day for 2/52 200 mg caps as initial dose, then 100mg 1x2/day for 4-15/7Bacteriostatic ANUG as an alternative to penicillin Aggressive periodontitis Can be used in renal impairment Cheilitis glandularisPregnancy < 12yrs old Photosensitivity Antacids Antiepileptics MethotrexateFluoroquinolonesCiprofloxacin 500-750 mg tab 1X2/day for 7-10/7Not common to treat dental infections PeriodontitisPregnancy <18 yrs old Photosensitivity Dairy products Antacids Iron or zinc supplements Theophylline (asthma drug) Probenecid (gout drug) WarfarinSerratiopeptidase (proteolytic enzyme)Danzen5 mg tab 1X3/day after meals for 5/7Postsurgical to prevent pain and swelling Enhance the action of antibiotics Dentoalveolar abscess Pericoronitis Periodontitis Tendonitis Sinusitis TonsillitisHypersensitivity Renal disease Liver disease Coagulation abnormality Warfarineg 4/12 (i.e. 4 months), 5/52 (i.e. 5 weeks), 2/7 (i.e. 2 days) Table 5. Antifungals and antivirals used in oral medicine Generic name/brand name Antifungals DoseUseIndicationsAmphotericin B (Fungilin, Fungizone)10 mg lozenges1x4/day for 10-14/7 (suck slowly)-Can use for the 1st 7 days in each month for persistent recurrent oral candidiasis -Oropharyngeal candidiasisMiconazole (Mycoheal, Daktarin)250 mg/ml oral gel 1x4/day for 1-2/52 -Denture stomatitis (apply to denture fitting surface) -Mild angular cheilitisNystatin (Mycostatin)500,000 u/ml lozenges 1x4/day for 2-4/52 (suck slowly)-Oropharyngeal candidiasis -Its effect is better than suspensionNystation suspension (Mycostatin) 100,000 u/ml oral rinse5ml swish and spit 1x3 for 2-4/52 (high sugar content needs good oral hygiene measures)-Oropharyngeal candidiasis -Candidiasis in patients with very dry mouth who cant suck lozenges -Black hairy tongueFluconazole (Diflucan)50, 150 200 mg tab2 tab loading dose (100 mg), then 50 mg/day for 7-14/7-Oropharyngeal candidiasis -Candidal leukoplakiaKetaconazole (Nizoral)200-400 mg tab 1tab/day for 10-20/7 (beware of hepatic impairment)-Systemic fungal infections -Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasisAntiviralsdoseUseIndicationsAcyclovir (Zovirax)5% creamApply to lesion 1x5/dayRecurrent herpes simplex that affects lips and skin (at early stage)Acyclovir suspension (Zovirax)125 ml (200 mg/5 ml) oral rinse1x5/day for 5/7-Oral viral infections Acyclovir oral (Zovirax) Valacyclovir Famciclovir200 mg caps 800 mg tab 800 mg tab 500, 1000 mg tab 500 mg tab1x5/day for 5/7 1x4/day for 5/7 1x5/day for 7-10/7 1000mg 1x3 for 7 days 500 mg 1x3 for 5 days 2000mg every 12 hrs for 1 day 1,500 mg, single dose 500 mg 1x3 for 7 days-Frequent herpes or intra-oral herpes -Primary herpes simplex or chickenpox in adults -Acute herpes zoster -Oral hairy leukoplakia Herpes zoster Chickenpox Herpes labialis -Herpes labialis -Herpes zostereg 4/12 (i.e. 4 months), 5/52 (i.e. 5 weeks), 2/7 (i.e. 2 days) Table 6. Peripherally acting analgesics used in oral medicine AnalgesicsGeneric name/ brand name DoseUsesContraindication/ drug interactionSalicylates Analgesics Anti-inflammatory Antipyretics Regular aspirin Diflunisal (dolobid, dolostop)75 mg tab, 1x4/day for 7/7 75 mg tab, 3/7as prophylactic 1g loading dose then 500 mg caps , 1x2/day for 5/7 on empty stomachMild to moderate dental pain TMJ pain Arthritis To prevent clot formation Severe dental pain (superior to aspirin or paracetamol) Long acting TMJ pain Arthritis Periodontitis Reyes syndrome in children Prolong bleeding time Peptic ulcers Kidney dysfunction Allergy Asthma Pregnancy Oral hypoglycemics Lithium Alcohol Warfarin Not recommended in children Prolong bleeding time (less effect than aspirin) Dry mouth Not used with paracetamol High BP medications (beta blockers, ACE inhibitors, diuretics)Anilines Analgesics Antipyretics Paracetamol/ Acetaminophen (Panadol, Calpol) Acetaminophen with codeine (Tylenol)500 mg tab every 4-6 hrs, not exceeding 4g/day or 8tab/day 300 mg + 30 mg one tab every 4-6 hrs not exceeding 4g/dayMild to moderate dental pain The safest during pregnancy and in elderly TMJ pain Severe dental pain Best tolerated Long-term use lead to renal toxicity Drug overdose causes severe liver damage Hepatitis Alcohol WarfarinNSAIDs Analgesics Anti-inflammatory AntipyreticsIbuprofen (Brufen, Advil) Naproxen sodium (Proxen, Nubain) Memfenamic acid (Ponstan) Celecoxib (Celebrex) Rofecoxib (Viox)200-400 mg tab1x3/day for 3/7 220-440 mg 1x2/day for 3/7 250 mg 1x4/day for 1/52 100-200 mg 1x2/day 50 mg /day for 3/7Acute dental pain Post surgery TMJ pain Not recommended for children under 14yrs Mild to moderate dental pain Contraindicated for CABG patients Long-term use Not recommended for acute dental pain or post surgery Chronic facial pain Chronic pain of TMJ Short-term use Long duration of action Acute dental pain and post surgery Patients allergic to aspirin should avoid NSAIDs Prolong bleeding time Dry mouth Abdominal pain Peptic ulcers Kidney dysfunction Oral hypoglycemics High BP medications Methotrexate Asthma Pregnancy Lithium Alcohol Warfarin Patients allergic to sulfonamide may also be allergic to celecoxib Lower incidence of stomach and intestinal ulcers Lower incidence of stomach and intestinal ulcers eg 4/12 (i.e. 4 months), 5/52 (i.e. 5 weeks), 2/7 (i.e. 2 days) Table 7. Mouth washes, oral gel, and lozenges used in oral medicine Generic nameBrand nameUsesEffectsBisquanide Chlorhexidine digluconate 0.02% Hexetidine 0.2%  Gar Garol (sugar free) Sensi Kin (alcohol free) Lacalut fresh (alcohol free) Corsodyl Eludril Oraldene DAD Hexoral RAS Antiplaque Anticaries Gingivitis Oral infections Improve wound healing Halitosis Antiplaque GingivitisStaining of teeth, restorations, and tongue Increased calculus deposition Taste alteration Burning sensation Contraindicated if pregnant or nursing Contraindicated in CTX-induced mucositis or xerostomia Use after rinsing with water and after brushing Doesnt cause staining Less effective than chlorhexidineQuaternary ammonium compound Cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC) Sidium benzoateListermint Search Macleans active TriclosanAntiplaque Anticaries Gingivitis Taste alteration Phenolic essential oils Thymol Menthol Eucalyptol Methyl salicylateListerine Chloraseptic Philstryn DettolRAS Antiplaque Anticaries Gingivitis Halitosis Sore throat Geographic tongueContraindicated in patients with xerostomia or dental erosion, due to low oral pH Oxygenating (peroxidase agents) Hydrogen Peroxide Oxy-M (alcohol free) Oxifresh Peroxyl Gingivitis Halitosis (neutralises sulfa compounds) Oral sores Xerostomia Coated tongue Reduce stains For soaking dentures Rapidly degraded Long- term use may cause dental erosion due to low pH Rinse after brushing Use once a day only Overuse may damage filiform papillae, and cause dry mouthAluminum chlorate Potassium aluminum sulphate Sansilla (20 drops in glass of water) Lethana Antiplaque Gingivitis Halitosis Acute stomatitis Astringent Antiseptic Temporary burning, itching, prickling, or tingling in treated areas May cause severe allergic reactionsPovidine-iodine 1% IodophoreBetadine Povidine Philadine Povicenter Piodin PerimedAntibacterial Antifungal Antiviral Gingivitis Oral ulcers Sore throat Radiation and CTX mucositisAllergic reaction can occur in sensitised individuals Contraindicated in patients with thyroid diseaseFluoride Acidulated phosphate fluoride Sodium fluorideProtect Reach Fluocaril ACTAnticaries Teens with bracesShould avoid swallowing Strengthen tooth enamelSodium bicarbonate  ?Mucositis Oral ulcers Xerostomia Coated tongueReduce acidity in mouth Reduce dental erosion Potassium nitrate Potassium chlorideEmofluor (alcohol free)Dentinal hypersensitivity Allergy Do not use more than 4 weeksHyaluronic acid Hyaluronan Xylitol  Gengigel oral rinse (alcohol free)Gingivitis Periodontitis Receding gums Oral ulcers OLPUse 3-4 times daily for 3-4 weeks after brushing teeth No side effectsPolyvinyl pyrolidon (PVP)Aloclair (alcohol free)RAS Oral ulcersFilm coating for pain relief Xerostomia (oral dryness) Bioactive enzymes Artificial saliva Saliva stimulating  Biotene dry mouth Biotene oral balance gel Salivart spray onto tongue and buccal mucosa Salivasure lozenges (previously Salix SST) (up to 10/days)Oral dryness due to aging, DM, and drugs Salivary gland dysfunction Sjogrens syndrome Sore throat Post- irradiation XerostomiaSoothes and protects tissues against minor irritations, sensitivity and burning sensation,s and promotes healing Increase viscosity Protects between brushings Analgesics Benzydamine hydrochloride Lidocaine hydrochloride  HYPERLINK "http://www.catalog.md/drugs-ingredients/rhubarb-extract.html" Rhubarb extract and  HYPERLINK "http://www.catalog.md/drugs-ingredients/salicylic-acid.html" Salicylic acid Povidone-Iodine Lidocaine and Chlorhexidine Tantum Verde Difflam Citrolin-F (alcohol free) Cetrina Pyralvex (paint) Betadine (paint) Trachisan sore throat gargleRadiation-induced mucositis Oral ulcers Tonsillitis BMS Fissured and geographic tongueOral and throat pain relief Avoid prolonged useAnaestheticsdoseUsesIndicationsHaemodialysate/Polidocanol Anti-inflammatory (Solcoseryl) dental adhesive paste1x5/day after meals (dry the lesion and apply the paste with a wet fingertip) -Traumatic oral ulcers -Painful RAS -Painful lip lesions -Denture pressure sores -Dry socket -Teething pain -Dressing after scalingLidocaine hydrochloride 2% (Xylocaine Viscous) Dyclonine hydrochloride 0.5% (Dyclone)solution oral spray lozenges1x4/day for 2 min before meals and spit out. Apply it with a cotton swab in children in order not to swallow it 1x4/day before meals-Widespread painful oral and throat ulcerations or mucositisBenzocaine (Cepacol, chloraseptic) 10 mg lozengesPRN before meals (not more than 12/day)-Painful oral and throat lesions Mouth washes containing more than 25% alcohol could increase the risk of oral and pharyngeal cancers by about 50%; therefore, the use of mw that does not contain alcohol may be equally effective Medicated mw is to be used only for a short-term, as prolonged use may cause undesirable side effects Young children should not use mw because they are not able to spit out properly Mechanical plaque control (regular brushing and flossing) is necessary and not replaceable by mw Table 8. Tooth pastes and tooth brushes used in oral medicine Uses/constituentBrand nameAnti-plaque/gum disease Cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC) Chlorhexidine digluconate Sodium benzoate Peroxidase agents Phenolic essential oilsLacalut Akiv, Corsodyl dental gel, Paradontax, Parodium, Elgydium, Pate gingivale, el-cemed total care, Pyodontyl, HiGeen.Anti-cavity (with fluoride) Stannous fluoride Sodium fluoride Monofluoride phosphate Lacalut fluoride, Elgydium, Aquafresh Iso-Active, Colgate Total, Floucaril.Anti-cavity (without fluoride) Aquafresh cavity protection, Aim anticavity, Ultrashine radiance.Anti-sensitivity Potassium nitrate Sodium citrate Strontium Calcium carbonate ArginineLacalut sensitive, Synsodyne sensitive, Emofluor paste, Emofluor gel (apply with fingertip to sensitive teeth after Emofluor paste at night), Sensigel gel (apply with fingertip to sensitive teeth after usual brushing at night), Colgate sensitive Pro-relief, HiGeen, Protect.Whitening/anti-stain Baking soda Hydrogen peroxideLacalut white, Sensodyne white, Advance white (Arm and Hammer), Bevely Hills formula, Halazon white, Elgedium bicarbonate, Pearl drops, Aquafresh, Colgate advance white, Close-Up, Pearl drops, HiGeen, Oxyfresh, Crest.SLS-free for xerostomia Chlorhexidine digluconate potassium nitrate, sodium fluoride Bioactive enzymes Kin gingival, Sensi Kin (with chlorhexidine) Pro-Enamel sensodyne (with fluoride) Biotene Dry mouth, OraMD, Tom's of Maine.SLS-free natural tooth paste Zendium, Arm and Hammer's Advance White for sensitive teeth with fluoride, Perigel, Enamel saver, Jason, Peelu, Homeodent , Real Purity, Natural. Tooth brushes Soft (gum lesions) Medium (normal) Hard (heavy smokers) Lacalut, Sensodyne, Aquafresh, Elgydium, Trisa, Oral-B, Reach, Butler gum, Ionic.  Dental health care in adults The amount of toothpaste or gel needed on brush for effective cleaning should only be pea-sized Gels can be more abrasive than pastes because of the silica (sand) used to make them Although the current levels of peroxide in toothpaste are safe, peroxide toothpastes are controversial Flossing at least once a day at night after brushing is very important because it removes food and plaque from between teeth where even the best toothbrush and toothpaste are ineffective Studies suggest that plaque (bacteria) regrow on clean teeth about 4 hours after brushing Dental health care in children Once the child has a few teeth, his parent can start brushing his teeth with water and a soft-bristled toothbrush until he is old enough and ready to take on the responsibility himself, which is usually around age 7 or 8 years Toothpaste without fluoride should be used for children under age 6 years Always have the child to rinse and spit out toothpaste after brushing Precautions Major brand toothpastes or mw are loaded with potentially harmful ingredients that enter the blood stream and build up in body organs; some of these ingredients are considered to be carcinogenic Toxins and chemicals in tooth pastes include sodium fluoride, triclosan, propylene glycol, diethanolamine (DEA), FD&C blue dyes1&2, hydrated silica, and SLS (the most dangerous); all of these common ingredients have been found to be harmful to humans Table 9. Emergency kit for dental surgery Equipments 1A bag valve mask (BVM or Ambu bag) is a hand-held device used for artificial ventilation. It is self-inflating with room air or from an oxygen source2Brook airway (a tube for use in mouth-to-mouth resuscitation)3Oropharyngeal airway (OPA, oral airway, or Guedel pattern airway) (sizes 1, 2 and 3) is a medical device used to maintain a patent (open) HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airway" \o "Airway"airway4Pulse Oximeter consists of a probe attached to the patient's finger or ear lobe which is linked to a computerised unit that indirectly monitors the oxygen saturation of a patient's HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood" \o "Blood"blood 5Cricothyroid puncture needles to make incision through the HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin" \o "Skin"skin and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cricothyroid_ligament" \o "Cricothyroid ligament"cricothyroid membrane to establish a patent HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airway" \o "Airway"airway during certain life threatening situations, such as airway obstruction6Portable defibrillator (incorporating ECG printout)7Portable oxygen delivery system8Venous access cannulae (venflons, 16 and 22 gauge)9Intravenous infusion sets/ Microdrip sets10Tourniquet, stethoscope and sphygmomanometer to measure blood pressure11High volume aspiration with suction catheters and Yankauer sucker12Disposable syringes (2, 5, 10 and 20 ml sizes)13Needles (19, 21 and 23 gauge) and butterflies14BM sticks for rapid assessment of blood sugar levels by a quick finger prickDrugs (it is essential that stocks are replaced when expiry dates are passed)1Adrenaline injection (1:1000 or 1mg/1ml)2Hydrocortisone sodium succinate (100 mg)3Anti-histamine injection (chlorpheniramine 10 mg/ml)4Diazepam injection (5 mg/ml)5Glucose injection (10% solution) and glucose powder for oral use (50 g for one drink)6Glucagon injection (1 mg/im)7Atropine injection (0.5 mg/im)8Sorbitrate tablets (2.5-5 mg/sublingual)9Nitroglycerine tablet (0.5 mg/sublingual)10Pethidine (25-50 mg/iv) Table 10. Antibiotic prophylactic regimens for dental procedures by American Heart Association SituationAgentRegimen Single dose 30-60 minutes before procedureAdultsChildrenOralAmoxicillin2 g50 mg/kg Unable to take oral medication Ampicillin 2 g im or iv 50 mg/kg im or iv Cefazolin or ceftriaxone 1 g im or iv 50 mg/kg im or iv Oral (allergic to penicillins or ampicillin) Cephalexin*2 g50 mg/kgClindamycin 600 mg20 mg/kgAzithromycin (Zomax) or Clarithromycin 500 mg15 mg/kgUnable to take oral medication (allergic to penicillins or ampicillin)Cefazolin or ceftriaxone 1 g im or iv 50 mg/kg im or iv Clindamycin 600 mg im or iv 20 mg/kg im or iv  *Or other first or second generation oral cephalosporin in equivalent adult or paediatric dosage; cephalosporins should not be used in an individual with a history of anaphylaxis, angioedema, or urticaria following penicillin or ampicillin Table 11. American Heart Association recommendations for antibiotic prophylaxis Antibiotic prophylaxis with certain dental procedures is needed for patients withProsthetic heart valve or prosthetic material used in valve repair. Previous infective endocarditis. Cardiac transplantation recipients who develop cardiac valvular disease. Congenital heart disease only in the following categories: -Unrepaired or incompletely repaired cyanotic congenital heart disease, including those with palliative shunts and conduits. -Completely repaired congenital heart disease with prosthetic material or device, whether placed by surgery or catheter intervention, during the first 6 months after the procedure (prophylaxis is reasonable because endothelialisation of prosthetic material occurs within 6 months after the procedure). -Repaired congenital heart disease with residual defect at the site or adjacent to the site of a prosthetic patch or a prosthetic device (which inhibit endothelialisation). Antibiotic prophylaxis is recommended for dental procedures that involve manipulation of: -Gingival tissue. -Periapical region of teeth. -Perforation of the oral mucosa. Antibiotic prophylaxis is not recommended for the following dental procedures: -Routine anaesthetic injections through noninfected tissue. -Taking of dental radiographs. -Placement of removable prosthodontic or orthodontic appliances. -Adjustment of orthodontic appliances. -Shedding of deciduous teeth. -Bleeding from trauma to the lips or oral mucosa. Antibiotic prophylaxis with dental procedures is no longer needed for patients withMitral valves prolapse. Rheumatic heart disease. Bicuspid valve disease. Calcified aortic stenosis. Congenital heart conditions such as ventricular or atrial septal defect, and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Coronary artery bypass grafting, angioplasty, or stent. Table 12. Haematology and biochemistry profiles ContentsType of testHb RCC HCT (PCV) MCV MCH MCHC WCC and DWCC Blood film Platelet count ESRHaematology profile CBC or FBPSerum iron (preferably fasting) TIBC Saturation (%) Serum ferritin Serum vitamin B12 Red cell folate Reticulocyte count (recommended 5-7 days after the start of treatment to detect early response)Haematinic profile Iron studiesCBC Reticulocyte count Direct antiglobulin test Serum bilirubin (direct and indirect) Serum haptoglobin Urinary urobilin and urobilinogen (fresh urine)Haemolytic profileCBC PT PTT Thrombin time Bleeding time Fibrinogen Coagulation profileFactor VIII Von Willebrand factor antigen Ristocetin cofactor activityHaemophilia/von Willebrand screenPlasminogen Alpha2-antiplasmin Tissue plasminogen activator Plasminogen activator inhibitorFibrinolytic profilePT PTT Thrombin time Fibrinogen Antithrombin III Lupus anticoagulant Protein C Protein S Activated protein C resistanceThrombotic risk profile Total lymphocyte count CD4 lymphocytes CD8 lymphocytes CD4/CD8 ratioLymphocyte subset ImmunophenotypingBilirubin ALP ALT (SGPT) AST (SGOT) GGT Total protein Albumin GlobulinLiver profileMCV ALT (SGPT) AST (SGOT) Urate Triglycerides GGT Carbohydrate-deficient transferring Blood alcoholAlcohol use profileCK CK-MB activity LDH Troponin TCardiac profileFasting blood sugar Serum creatinine HbA1c Urine creatinine Urine albumin (microalbumin) Urine albumin/creatinine ratioDiabetes mellitus monitoring profileCalcium Phosphate Albumin ALP (total and bone isoenzyme) Acid phosphatase (bone isoenzyme)Bone profileTotal cholesterol HDL-cholesterol HDL/cholesterol ratio LDL-cholesterol TriglyceridesLipid profileFree T3 Free T4 TSHThyroid profileCBC Cholesterol Triglycerides Calcium Phosphate Urea Urate Creatinine Glucose Total protein Albumin Globulin Bilirubin ALP ALT (SGPT) AST (SGOT) GGT Screening test       PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 103    %&'(9M`økdSD7,7dh;#dhe;mH sH h;#dhe;CJ^JaJh;#dhe;CJOJQJaJ h;#dhe;CJOJPJQJaJ h;#dhe;'h;#dhe;CJ[^J_H,aJnH tH &h2@he;5CJOJQJ\^JaJ h 55CJOJQJ\^JaJ&h2@hR65CJOJQJ\^JaJhZR5CJ \aJ h;#dhe;6]h;#dhe;5CJ \aJ &h2@he;5CJ OJQJ\^JaJ hd65CJ,OJQJ\^JaJ,   '(9M`s # $ A$^`gde;gde;$A$gde;$A$^`gde; $dhA$gdZR$A$gdZR $a$gde; $a$gdu$dha$gdmm # B H I K L N ^ _    4 ? ʼʏʫxʏʫoʏʫʏh;#dhe;PJh2@he;5OJQJ\^J h;#dhdhe;h~&h2@he;5CJOJQJ\^JaJ hZR5CJOJQJ\^JaJh;#dhe;5\hd h;#dhe; h;#dhe;CJ^JaJnH tH  h;#dhe;CJ^JaJmH sH h;#dhe;CJ^JaJ%# B S g {  , I K L ^ _ w $A$gd~$A$gd_$A$gdd$A$gde;$ A$^`gde;  4 W d m    , 8 I c ~ $A$gde;$A$gd_$A$gdd$A$gde;   # 4 ? 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