ࡱ> }|%` w.bjbjNN ,,w&<<<<X$"v!!!!!!!$#h%`!"!U!@@@!@!@@Vu @9!| P93/<Jv !!0" xP&jP&9!P&9!X|@)d!!*" << Crime and ethnicity Official statistics Ethnicities Racist police practices? Theories: Neo-Marxist Exclusion and alternative economies Left realist approach Statistical artefact approach Synoptic links to class, family and education Theorising race and criminality The Marxist approach: Capitalism in crisis A study by Hall et al. (1978) of street crime (mugging) illustrates a particular kind of Marxist approach. According to Hall, the late 1970s was a crisis for British capitalism or what Gramsci described as a crisis of hegemony (political leadership and ideological domination). By 1972 N. Ireland had degenerated into open warfare, there had been a growth in student militancy and an increase in activity in the Black Power Movement. The unions posed the biggest threat and the miners were using flying pickets to uphold strike action. When capitalism is in crisis the normal methods of control of the population may be inadequate. However, obvious repression needs some sort of justification. Thus, the newspapers, basing their reports on police briefings, highlighted a huge increase in muggings. According to Hall, the focus on a relatively minor problem caused by a group who were already viewed negatively, served the purpose of drawing attention away from the crisis and focusing blame on a scapegoat yopung Afro-Caribbean males. In a sense the police created a crisis by targeting balsk youths in a repressive way they created a violent reaction in self-defence. Black youths were often arrested for violence as a result. Consequently there was a rise in black crime and the media successfully orchestrated public opinion against the black mugger. Hall does also try to explain black criminality inn the light of the 1970s recession which hit immigrant groups hard. Black unemployment was 2x the national average and those in work were over represented in low paid menial jobs or were part of the surplus labour force and turned to hustling and pimping. Task: In pairs come up with 3 criticisms of Halls study. 1. 2. 3. Gilroy: The Myth of Black Criminality Gilroys assertion was that the disproportionate number of black males convicted of crimes in Britain was caused by police racism. He denied that it could be caused by a greater incidence of violence and crime amongst ethnic groups. He claimed that black crime was a continuation of the anti-colonial struggle initially conducted in the native lands of the immigrants. Task 2: Come up with 4 criticisms of Gilroy 1. 2. 3. 4. Cultures of resistance Overlapping with the Marxist approach Scraton and Gordon (1987, 88) focus on policing, media coverage and political debates centring around the issue of race being a problem. Minority ethnic groups have been on the receiving end of discrimination since the first migrants arrived, leaving them in a significantly worse socio-economic position than the white majority. In response cultures of resistance have emerged in which crime is a form of organised resistance that has its origins in the anticolonial struggles. When young ethnic minorities commit crime they are doing so as a political act rather than a criminal one. Task 3: In pairs come up with 2 criticisms of this approach. 1. 2. Exclusion and alternative economies This approach relates closely to the work of Cloward and Ohlin (1960). Bourgois (2002) spent 7 years living in and researching the street life and economy of El Barrio, whose inhabitants were overwhelmingly Puerto Ricans, illegal Mexican immigrants and Afro-Americans. Bourgois argues that the economic exclusion of these minority ethnic groups combined with negative social attitudes has forced them to develop an alternative economy. This involves marginal and illegal activities with drug sales being by far the most lucrative employment. Running alongside this informal economy has developed a distinctive subculture or inner city culture. Bourgois sees it as an incoherent culture of resistance with spontaneous rebellious practices that have emerged in opposition to wider culture. This subculture causes great damage because the illegal trade in drugs eventually involves participants in violence, substance abuse and internalised rage. Such behaviour destroys communities and families with the result being a chaotic and violent community. This can help us to understand issues of race and criminality. Exclusion and racism lead to both cultural and economic developments that involve illegal activities and the development of a culture that helps resolve the issues of lack of dignity in a racist society. Both illegal activities and the resulting culture lead to an involvement in crime. The Left Realist approach: Lea and Young One of the basic tenets of left realism is that crimes other than white collar crimes are rising and they are serious and need to be understood and tackled. Jock Young (1993) argues there has been a real and significant rise in street crime since the second world war. Some sociologists have tried to deny this by pointing to the unreliability of the official statistics, however, Young believes the rises have been so great that changes in reporting and recording cannot account for all of the increase. They also accept there are racist practices by the police, however, they assert that certain types of crime are more common among ethnic minorities. They point to a number of aspects of crime statistics which cannot be explained by police racism alone. The recorded rate for crimes committed by whites is consistently higher than that recorded for Asians. Lea and Young maintain that police racism would have to manifest itself very strangely to be responsible for such rates. Furthermore, in the 1960s the recorded rated for crimes committed by first generation West Indian immigrants were lower than the national average. Even today the official statistics for offences such as burglary show the rate for West Indians to be lower than that for whites. Lea and Young accept that policing practice and police crimes exaggerate black crime but they also believe that there has been a real increase in the number of certain crimes committed by blacks. Relative deprivation: This means deprived in comparison to other similar groups. Deprivation only leads to crime where it is experienced as relative deprivation. Ethnic minorities today feel more deprived than they did in the past when the media and advertising were less developed. The media stresses the importance of economic success and consumption of consumer goods. Lea and Young believe that part of the explanation for the difference between Asian and Afro Caribbean crime rates is that Afro Caribbeans have internalised materialist values to a greater extent than Asians whose traditional culture and religious beliefs are stronger. Thus rising crime rates are the result of rising expectations and restricted opportunities to achieve them (unemployment) Marginalisation Lea and Young argue that marginal groups, who lack organisations to represent their interests in political life, are particularly prone to using violence and riots as forms of political action. Social change and the problem of crime Young (1997) has outlined why social change may be making the problem of crime worse. He argues we have entered a period of late modernity, characterised by much greater uncertainty and instability . There has been unemployment, economic precariousness, systematic cutting of welfare provisions and growing instability of family life. Furthermore there is less consensus about moral values. Instead there is pluralism and individualism. Changes have also taken place in the world of leisure with an increased emphasis on immediacy, hedonism and self actualisation. Combined with fewer secure jobs and rising inequalities between middle classes and poor, communities disintegrated by social mobility and families stressed and fragmented. Task 4: In pairs come up with 4 criticisms of Left Realism 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The statistical artefact approach (and synoptic links ) This approach suggests that the higher levels of involvement of young males from an Afro-Caribbean background is a reflection of how the stats are interpreted than of a genuinely higher level. Fitzgerald et al. (2003) researched ethnic minority street crime in London comparing crime rates against a wide range of socioeconomic and demographic data. Research showed: Street crime related to levels of deprivation and lack of community cohesion (social class) High rates of ethnic minority offending linked to numbers of young, ethnic minority males. All stats point to young males as the highest offending group in the population whatever their background. As there are higher proportions of young, ethnic minority males in the population and in London in particular we would expect higher rates of crime committed by ethnic minority males. (age) Statistical link between higher crime levels and lone parent families. Afro-caribbean households more likely to be headed by a lone parent. (families) They found a subculture which had developed among certain ethnic minority children that provided a justification for crime. This was closely linked to school failure and alienation from school. However, similar views were held by white children doing poorly at school or no longer attending. A disproportionate amount of all crime is performed by young, educationally disaffected children of all backgrounds. (education) They concluded that there is no specific set of factors which motivate young, ethnic minority offenders they are exactly the same as those that motivate white offenders. The overrepresentation of young males from Afro-caribbean backgrounds is the result of their sheer numbers in the age band in which most offending takes place. 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