ࡱ> #` bjbj\.\. t>D>D%  $VBVBVBPBCݑRDFE"hEhEhECFZGdH4\^^^^^^$}hNjCFCFjjhEhE'r'r'rjrhEhE\'rj\'r'rbhEFD ~VBKl.\0ݑH:3o34B3Ď5H S8'r[bV5H5H5H{q5H5H5HݑjjjjD92B$2B  Legal Outline of Authorities & Decisions Related to Criminal Records and Employment Sharon Dietrich, Community Legal Services Maurice Emsellem, National Employment Law Project* June 2006 *This outline of the major laws and cases regulating criminal background checks was produced with the help of several experienced advocates who specialize in the employment rights of people with criminal records, including Fran Fajana, Melanca Clark, Miriam Aukerman, Laurie Parise, Margaret Love, Roberta Meyers-Peeples, and Linda Mills. Legal Outline of Authorities & Decisions Related to Criminal Records and Employment TABLE OF CONTENTS Limiting Availability & Improving Accuracy of Criminal Records 1 Accuracy and Dissemination of Criminal Records. 1 Criminal Identity Theft . 2 Fair Credit Reporting Act Protections ... 2 First Amendment & Privacy Rights .. 5 Civil Rights Litigation ......... 6 Cleaning Up Records (Expungements, Pardons, Sealing) 9 Statutory Employment Restrictions . 10 Suitability for Work (Waivers, Certificates of Rehabilitation) 14 Other Litigation 15 Labor & Employment Law Anti-Retaliation .. 15 Labor Law (Required Subject of Bargaining) 15 Legal Outline of Authorities & Decisions Related to Criminal Records and Employment I. Limiting Availability & Improving Accuracy of Criminal Records Accuracy and Dissemination of Criminal Records Authorities (a) Criminal Justice Information Systems Regulations, 28 C.F.R. Part 20. Regulations cover central repository records and criminal court indices. Purpose is to ensure that criminal history record information is collected, stored, and disseminated in a manner to ensure the accuracy, completeness, currency, integrity, and security of such information and to protect individual privacy. 28 C.F.R. 20.1. Highlights: 28 C.F.R. 20.21(g): establishing right to individual access and review for correction of criminal record. 28 C.F.R. 20.21(a)(1): establishing 90-day period for disposition reporting. 28 C.F.R. 20.21(b)(2): permitting dissemination of nonconviction information only if permitted by official policy (such as statue or court rule). (b) Implementing the federal regulations, state statutes in every state govern accuracy and dissemination of criminal records. See citations and summary of state statutes in Paul L. Woodard and Eric C. Johnson, Compendium of State Privacy and Security Legislation: 2002 Overview, NCJ 187669 (U.S. Dept. of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Nov. 2003), available at  HYPERLINK "http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/cspsl02.htm" http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/cspsl02.htm. Other Resources SEARCH, the National Consortium for Justice Information and Statistics, Report of the National Task Force on the Commercial Sale of Criminal Justice Record Information (2005) (available from SEARCHs website:  HYPERLINK "http://www.search.org/services/publications/default.asp" http://www.search.org/services/publications/default.asp ). Owen M. Greenspan and Eric C. Johnson, Survey of State Criminal History Information Systems, 2003, NCJ 210297 (U.S. Dept. of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Feb. 2006). Sharon M. Dietrich, Expanded Use of Criminal Records and Its Impact on Re-entry. Criminal Identity Theft Authorities State statutes governing criminal record accuracy (see above). State constitutional provisions: deprivation of liberty and property interests without due process (Massachusetts); right to reputation (Pennsylvania). State defamation law: but issues around immunity and remedy. Paul v. Davis, 424 U.S. 693 (1976): the stigma plus case. Reputation alone is not protected by the due process clause of the U.S. Constitution; a right or status previously recognized by state law [must be] distinctly altered or extinguished. Id. at 711. Litigation Bland v. Flynn, Secretary of the Executive Office of Public Safety, Mass. Super. Ct. SUCV2004-01751-F (filed April 22, 2004) (raising claims under state statute governing criminal record accuracy, claim under state statute establishing privacy rights, and due process claims under state and federal constitutions) (Contacts: Fran Fajana). Michigan and Pennsylvania legal advocates reached pre-litigation settlements with their central repositories. In both cases, the State Police agreed to flag records where criminal identity theft had been proved so that this information would not be given to employers. (Contacts: Miriam Aukerman in Michigan; Sharon Dietrich in Pennsylvania). Other Resources Report of the BJS/SEARCH National Focus Group on Identity Theft Victimization and Criminal Record Repository Operations (Dec. 2005) (available from SEARCHs website:  HYPERLINK "http://www.search.org/services/publications/default.asp?category=9" http://www.search.org/services/publications/default.asp?category=9 ). Fair Credit Reporting Act Protections Authorities (a) Federal Fair Credit Reporting Act, 15 U.S.C. 1681 et seq. The Fair Credit Reporting Act (FCRA) regulates the reporting of credit and public record information by consumer reporting agencies, as well as the way in which these reports are used to deny credit and/or employment. The statute establishes civil liability for both negligent and willful non-compliance. Highlights: Consumer Reporting Agencies (CRAs): 15 U.S.C. 1681c Requirements relating to information contained in consumer reports. Prohibits CRAs from reporting arrests or other adverse information, other than convictions of crimes, which are more than seven years old, provided that the report is not in connection with employment of an individual who has an annual salary of $75,000 or more. 1681c(a)(2) ,1681c(a)(5), 1681c(b)(3). (Note that the statute has no time limit restriction for reporting criminal convictions; however, other adverse items include non-criminal offenses). 15 U.S.C. 1681e(b) Compliance procedures accuracy of report. Requires CRAs to maintain reasonable procedures to insure maximum possible accuracy of the information concerning the individual in the report. 15 U.S.C. 1681k Public record information for employment purposes. Requires that when a CRA reports public record information for employment purposes which are likely to have an adverse effect on the consumers ability to obtain employment, the CRA must notify the consumer that the public record information is being reported with the name and address of the person who is requesting the information OR the CRA must maintain strict procedures to insure that the information it reports is complete and up to date. 1681k(a)(1),1681k(a)(2). Employers: 15 U.S.C. 1681b(b) Conditions for furnishing and using consumer reports for employment purposes. Requires that an employer, when using a consumer background report for employment purposes, provide the applicant with a copy of the report and a copy of the Federal Trade Commission Summary of Consumer Rights prior to taking any adverse action based in whole or in part on the report. 1681b(b)(3)(a)(i)(ii). 15 U.S.C. 1681m Requirements on users of consumer reports. This section applies to all users of consumer reports, including employers, and requires among other things that before taking an adverse action, the user of the information must provide notice of the adverse action to the consumer. 1681m(a)(1). (b) State: Certain states have further protections regarding how public record information is maintained and reported and either restrict or partially restrict the reporting of arrest/non-conviction information and/or an employers use of such information. The states are: Alaska, California, Connecticut, Georgia, Hawaii, Indiana, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Nevada, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Utah, Virginia, and Washington. For example, the New York Fair Credit Reporting Act prohibits CRAs from reporting information relative to an arrest or a criminal charge unless there has been a criminal conviction for such offense or unless there is a pending charge. GBL 380-j(a)(a) (emphasis added). Therefore, in New York CRAs are barred from reporting non-criminal violations. California has set a time limit on the reporting of criminal convictions at seven-years from the date of disposition. CA Civil Code 1786.1(a)(7). Litigation The Legal Action Center is filing a case in the Eastern District of New York against a large CRA and the employer that used the agencys consumer background report to deny plaintiffs employment. The complaint asserts that the CRA violated the New York Fair Credit Reporting Act for reporting the plaintiffs three non-criminal convictions in the background check it furnished to the employer, and did not have reasonable procedures in place to insure maximum accuracy when it prepared the misleading and incomplete report, in violation of both the New York and Federal Fair Credit Reporting Act. In addition, it contends that the employer violated the Federal Fair Credit Reporting Act because it used this inaccurate and incomplete consumer background check to deny the clients employment, without first giving him a copy of the report and a reasonable period of time to respond to it. Community Legal Services of Philadelphia has several federal FCRA cases in the pipeline. The first will be against a CRA that misreported another persons conviction on the report for CLSs client, even though there was no match on the date of birth or social security number. Decisions The majority of claims brought under the FCRA are by individuals who were denied credit due to an inaccurate credit report, and not by those denied employment based on an inaccurate criminal background check. However, below are two noteworthy cases which involve a plaintiff who was denied employment due to an inaccurate criminal background check. Dalton v. Capital Associated Industries, 257 F.3d 409 (4th Cir. 2001) Plaintiff was denied employment for lying on his job application based on an inaccurate background check which incorrectly listed his conviction as a felony. The CRA had mischaracterized the offense as a felony based on the representation of a court clerk. The court held that the CRA violated the federal FCRA because it produced an inaccurate report that was patently incorrect and misleading in such a way and to such an extent that could be expected to have an adverse affect on the plaintiffs employment. Obabueki v. IBM and Choicepoint, 236 F.Supp.2d 278 (S.D.N.Y. 2002) Plaintiff was denied employment because he did not reveal an expunged conviction on his employment application. The court held that the CRAs report was incomplete; however, since the plaintiff provided the employer with a copy of the expungement order before it made its decision to deny his employment, the CRA was not the proximate cause of the plaintiffs harm. Other Resources National Consumer Law Center, Fair Credit Reporting (2002) and Supplement (2005). First Amendment & Privacy Rights Litigation AFT Michigan (Jane Doe 1 and Jane Doe 2) v. State of Michigan (E.D. Mich. Feb. 22, 2006)(Gadola, J.)(order granting permanent injunction). The State of Michigan was enjoined from releasing a"preliminary" list of the school employees with criminal records to the school districts, citing theirreparable injury to those employees whose were incorrectly identified by the state as having a criminal record.The school employee's union arguedthat the "stigma plus" test applied to the case based on a line of federal cases which hold that the inaccurate labeling of a person as having been convicted of a crime violates the person's liberty interest. Service Employees International Union , Local # 3 v. Municipality of Monroeville, No. 04cv1651 (W.D. Pa. filed Oct. 28, 2004): In the days before the November 2004 election, the American Civil Liberties Union of Pennsylvania brought suit on behalf of several plaintiffs involved in get-out-the-vote efforts, challenging the registration and permit ordinances of two Western Pennsylvania towns as prior restraints violating the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. Monroevilles ordinance provided that persons convicted of a felony would not receive a license; however, the plaintiffs settled with Monroeville before the district court decision. The district court determined that the ordinance of the Municipality of Mt. Lebanon was not unconstitutional; an appeal is pending in the Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit. The complaint, district courts decision, and Third Circuit briefs are available online at  HYPERLINK "http://www.aclupa.org/legal/legaldocket/seiucanvassinginmtlebanon.htm" http://www.aclupa.org/legal/legaldocket/seiucanvassinginmtlebanon.htm . Decisions United States Dept. of Justice v. Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press, 489 U.S. 749 (1989) (FBI rap sheets are not available under the Freedom of Information Act because of the unwarranted invasion of personal privacy; employs the useful phrase practical obscurity with respect to a compilation of information already in the public sphere). Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York v. Village of Stratton, 536 U.S. 150 (2002) (ordinance that required individuals to obtain a permit prior to engaging in door-to-door advocacy and to display the permit on demand violated the First Amendment). II. Civil Rights Litigation Authorities: Statutes Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, 42 U.S.C. 2000e et seq. Cal. Lab. Code 432.7 (West 1989 & Supp. 2002). Conn. Gen. Stat. 46a-79 (2001). Colo. Rev. Stat. 24.5-101 (2001). Haw. Rev. Stat. 378-2 (1993 & Supp. 2000). 775 Ill. Comp. Stat. Ann. 5/2-103 (West 2001). Mass. Gen. Laws Ann. Ch. 151B, 4(9) (West 1990 & Supp. 2002). Mich. Comp. Laws 37.2205a (2001). Minn. Stat. 364.03 (1998). N.J. Stat. Ann. 2A:168A-1 (West 1985 & Supp. 2001). N.Y Correct. Law 752-54 (McKinney 1987 & Supp. 2001-2002); N.Y. Crim. Proc. Law 160.60 (McKinney 1992 & Supp. 2001-2002); N.Y. Exec. Law 296 (15)-(16) (McKinney 2001). R.I. Gen. Laws 28-5-7(7) (2000). Wis. Stat. Ann. 111.321 (West 1997 & Supp 2001). Authorities: Caselaw (a) Appellate decisions Griggs v. Duke Power Co., 401 U.S. 424 (1971) (seminal case establishing disparate impact claim under Title VII. The act proscribes not only overt discrimination but also practices that are fair in form, but discriminatory in operation). Wards Cove Packing Co., Inc. v. Atonio, 490 U.S. 642 (1989) (re-defined burden of proof by permitting employer unable to meet business justification test to proffer a business necessity defense. However, this point was legislatively overruled). Gregory v. Litton Systems, 472 F.2d 631 (9th Cir. 1972) (racially-neutral questionnaire which operated to bar employment to African American applicants in far greater proportion than white applicants unlawful practice under Title VII). Carter v. Gallagher, 452 F.2d 315 (8th Cir. 1972) (blanket prohibition of employment based on arrest record unlawful under the act). Green v. Missouri Pacific Railroad Company, 523 F.2d 1290 (8th Cir. 1975) (examined alternative ways to use statistics to prove disparate impact). (b) Lower court decisions Richardson v. Hotel Corporation of America, 332 F. Supp. 519 (E.D. La. 1971) (security sensitive position as a bellman served as justification to fire former offender convicted of theft). Dozier v. Chupka, 395 F. Supp. 836 (S.D. Ohio 1975) (fire departments use of arrest and conviction data disproportionately burdened black men because as a group [they] are arrested more than white men). United States v. City of Chicago, 411 F. Supp. 218 (N.D. Ill. 1976) (standardless inquiry about bad character, immoral conduct and dissolute habits including arrest and background investigations enjoined under the act). Ekunsumi v. Cincinnati Restoration, Inc., 120 Ohio App.3d 557, 562 (1997) (appellants claim failed where proof of employers automatic disqualification of people with criminal record was not shown). Watkins v. City of Chicago, 73 F. Supp. 2d 944, 948 (N.D. Ill. 1999) (appellant failed to make showing of racial disparity in employers workforce. Evidence that African-Americans are arrested at higher rates than whites in the general population deemed insufficient). Field v. Orkin Extermination Co., Inc., 2002 WL 32345739 (E.D. Pa. 2002) (stating that blanket policy of denying employment to any person having a criminal conviction is violative of the act). Douglas El v. SEPTA, 2005 U.S. Dist LEXIS 14133 (E.D. Pa.)(on appeal to 3rd Cir.)(trial court deemed criminal record to operate to measure minimum qualification necessary for successful performance as a paratransit driver regardless of the length of time lapsed since the criminal conduct). Administrative Policies U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Compliance Manual, 15 Race and Color Discrimination (April 19, 2006) available at  HYPERLINK "http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/docs/race-color.html" http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/docs/race-color.html (last visited 4-24-06). U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Policy Statement on the Issue of Conviction Records Under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as amended,  HYPERLINK "http://web2.westlaw.com/find/default.wl?DB=1000546&DocName=42USCAS2000E&FindType=L&AP=&mt=LawSchoolPractitioner&fn=_top&sv=Split&vr=2.0&rs=WLW5.02" \t "_top" 42 U.S.C. 2000e (1982)  HYPERLINK "http://web2.westlaw.com/find/default.wl?DB=1000546&DocName=42USCAS2&FindType=L&AP=&mt=LawSchoolPractitioner&fn=_top&sv=Split&vr=2.0&rs=WLW5.02" \t "_top" II, EEOC Compliance Manual 604 (Feb. 4, 1987). U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Policy Guidance on the Consideration of Arrest Records in Employment Decisions Under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as amended, 42 U.S.C. 2000e et seq., EEOC Compliance Manual (Sept. 7, 1990). U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Policy Statement on the Use of Statistics in Charges Involving the Exclusion of Individuals with Conviction Records from Employment, EEOC Compliance Manual 604-B (July 29, 1987). EEOC Guide to Pre-Employment Inquiries, 8A Fair Empl. Prac. Man. (BNA) 443:65 (1992). Law Review Articles Walking a Tightrope: Balancing Competing Public Interest in the Employment of Criminal Offenders, 34 Conn. L. Rev. 1281 (2002). Sociologists and Other Expert Articles Robert D. Crutchfield & Susan. R. Pitchford, Work and Crime: The Effects of Labor Stratification, 76 Social Forces 93 (1997). Michael Ezell & Lawrence Cohen, Desisting From Crime (2005). Miles D. Harer, Recidivism among Federal Prisoners released in 1987, 46 Journal of Correctional Education 98 (1995). Megan C. Kurlycheck, Robert Brame, Shawn D. Bushway, Enduring Risk? Old Criminal Records and Short-Term Predictions of Criminal Involvement (March 2006). John Laub & Robert Sampson, Shared Beginnings, Divergent Lives (2003). Jeffrey K. Liker, Wage and Status Effects for Employment on Affective Well-being among Exfelons, 47 American Sociological Review 264 (1982). Thomas Meisenhelder, An Exploratory Study of Exiting From Criminal Careers, 15 Criminology 319 (1977). Devah Pager, The Mark of a Criminal Record, 108 Am. J. Soc. 937 (2003) . Devah Pager, Bruce Western, Discrimination in Low-Wage Labor Markets: Evidence from an Experimental Audit Study in New York City, available (2005) available at  HYPERLINK "http://paa2005.princeton.edu/download.aspx?submissionId=50874" http://paa2005.princeton.edu/download.aspx?submissionId=50874 . Christopher Uggen, Work as a Turning Point in the Life Course of criminals: A Duration Model of Age, Employment, and Recidivism, 65 American Sociological Review 529 (2000). Ann Dryden Witte & Helen Tauchen, Work and Crime: An Exploration Using Panel Data (Nat'l Bureau of Econ. Research, Working Paper No. 4794, 1994). III. Cleaning Up Records (Expungements, Pardons, Sealing) Authorities Transportation Security Administration Regulations Requiring Criminal Background Checks for Hazardous Material Endorsements for Commercial Drivers License, 49 C.F.R. 1572.3 (Convicted includes any plea of guilty or nolo contendere, or any finding of guilt, except when the finding of guilt is subsequently overturned on appeal, pardoned or expunged. For purposes of this part, a conviction is expunged when the conviction is removed from the individuals criminal history record and there are no legal disabilities or restrictions associated with the expunged conviction, other than the fact that the conviction may be used for sentencing purposes for subsequent convictions.) Litigation Tom Johnsons upcoming Minnesota litigation (Separation of Powers & Sealing) Decisions  SEQ CHAPTER \h \r 1The Pennsylvania courts recognize a constitutional right to seek expungement of an arrest record. See, e.g., Commonwealth v. Armstrong,434 A.2d 1205, 1206 (Pa. 1981); Commonwealth v. Wexler, 431 A.2d 877, 879 (Pa. 1981); Commonwealth v. Malone, 366 A.2d 584, 487-88 (Pa. Super.1976)(noting serious losses that can be caused by an arrest record, including reputational and economic injury).  SEQ CHAPTER \h \r 1In recent years, the Pennsylvania Supreme Court concluded that despite a lack of statutory authority to expunge Protection from Abuse (PFA) records, Art. I, 1 provides a right to expunge PFA records where the petitioner seeks to protect his reputation. Carlacci v. Mazaleski, 798 A.2d 186, 188 (Pa. 2002). Other Resources Margaret Colgate Love, Relief from the Collateral Consequences of a Criminal Conviction: A State by State Resource Guide (forthcoming 2006), previewed at  HYPERLINK "http://www.sentencingproject.org/rights-restoration.cfm" http://www.sentencingproject.org/rights-restoration.cfm . Margaret Colgate Love, Relief from the Collateral Consequences of Conviction" 4-part series inNational Hire Network Newsletter, November 2005 (Nondiscrimination Statutes); December 2005 (Expungement and Sealing); February 2006 (Pardon); Spring 2006 ("Notes from the Laboratories of Democracy"). Boston Foundation, CORI: Balancing Individual Rights and Public Access,  HYPERLINK "http://www.tbf.org/uploadedFiles/CORI%20Report.pdf" http://www.tbf.org/uploadedFiles/CORI%20Report.pdf. IV. Statutory Employment Restrictions Authorities U.S. Constitution, 14th Amendment, Equal Protection Clause State Constitutional Protections Decisions (a) Federal court decisions Schware v. Board of Bar Examiners of New Mexico, 353 U.S. 232 (1957) (holding that individuals arrest record could not be used to prevent his admission to the bar). Barsky v. Board of Regents, 347 U.S. 442 (1954) (holding that a physicians license could be suspended because of a conviction, but emphasizing the due process protections available prior to suspension). FW/PBS, Inc. v. Dallas, 837 F.2d 1298, 1305 (5th Cir. 1988) (upholding a prohibition on the operation of sexually oriented businesses by those convicted of sex crimes). Darks v. City of Cincinnati, 745 F.2d 1040 (6th Cir. 1984) (upholding a blanket policy of denying licenses to operate dance halls to individuals convicted of felonies). Baer v. City of Wauwatosa, 716 F.2d 1117, 1125 (7th Cir. 1983) (holding that city had improperly denied a gunshop owners license to an individual who had been convicted of sexual assault). Schanuel v. Anderson, 708 F.2d 315, 319 (7th Cir. 1983) (upholding a statute prohibiting employment of persons convicted of felonies as security guards for a ten-year period). Miller v. Carter, 547 F.2d 1314 (7th Cir. 1977), affirmed, 434 U.S. 356 (1978) (equally divided court) (striking down ordinance that permanently barred persons convicted of certain offenses from obtaining a public chauffeur's license). Seasholtz v. West Virginia Bd. of Osteopathy, 526 F.2d 590 (4th Cir. 1975) (holding that osteopaths license could be revoked for a prior conviction for fraud committed while practicing as an osteopath because that conviction was rationally connected with a determination of the fitness and capacity of the osteopath to practice his profession). Pordum v. Board of Regents, 491 F.2d 1281 (2d Cir. 1974) (holding that exclusion of convicted persons from a profession can be justified only after a detailed and particularistic consideration of the relationship between the person involved and the purpose of exclusion). Upshaw v. McNamara, 435 F.2d 1188, 1190 (1st Cir. 1970) (holding that a person convicted of a felony and subsequently pardoned could still be disqualified from serving as a police officer). M&Z Cab Corp. v. City of Chicago, 8 F.Supp.2d 941, 947 (D. Ill. 1998) (upholding revocation of taxicab medallions based on the holders felony conviction). Hill v. City of Chester, 1994 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 11951 *19 (E.D. Pa. Aug. 26, 1994) (upholding decision of city council to eliminate position of an employee based on his criminal record). Lewis v. Alabama Dept Pub. Safety, 831 F. Supp. 824, 827 (M.D. Ala. 1993) (finding that a regulation excluding those convicted of a crime of force, violence, or moral turpitude from the states list of towing contractors was totally irrational). Weissinger v. Ward, 704 F. Supp. 349 (E.D.N.Y. 1989) (upholding the discharge of a police officer convicted of criminal facilitation for completing false accident reports). Hill v. Gill, 703 F. Supp. 1034, 1037 (D.R.I. 1989) (upholding regulations prohibiting persons convicted of felonies from being licensed as school bus drivers). Furst v. New York City Transit Authority, 631 F. Supp. 1331 (E.D.N.Y. 1986) (striking down Transit Authority policy that required the discharge of individuals convicted of felonies because it violated the equal protection clause). Dixon v. McMullen, 527 F. Supp. 711 (N.D. Tex. 1981) (upholding refusal to certify pardoned felon as police officer because his conviction for robbery would directly reflect on his qualifications for the job of investigating robberies). Kindem v. City of Alameda, 502 F. Supp. 1108, 1111 (N.D. Cal. 1980) (invalidating citys blanket ban on hiring persons with felony convictions). Smith v. Fussenich, 440 F. Supp. 1077 (D. Conn. 1977) (striking down record-based bar to private detective and security guard work). Butts v. Nichols, 381 F. Supp. 573 (S.D. Iowa 1974) (holding that prohibiting convicted felons from occupying state civil service positions violated the equal protection clause). (b) State court decisions Lopez v. McMahon, 205 Cal. App. 3d 1510 (1988) (upholding refusal to issue daycare license to an applicant residing with an individual convicted of a violent felony) Brandt v. Fox, 153 Cal. Rptr. 683 (Cal. Ct. App. 1979) (reversing the denial of a real estate license because the plaintiffs four-year-old cocaine distribution conviction was not substantially related to the business of selling real estate). Pieri v. Fox, 96 Cal. App. 3d 802 (Cal. Ct. App. 1979) (holding that the denial of a real estate broker's license was impermissible in absence of evidence that the applicant's past crime of making false statements was rationally and substantially related to her present qualifications).  HYPERLINK "http://www.lexis.com/research/buttonTFLink?_m=6f963030400c871334c096a125c35a56&_xfercite=%3ccite%20cc%3d%22USA%22%3e%3c%21%5bCDATA%5b56%20Stan.%20L.%20Rev.%201597%5d%5d%3e%3c%2fcite%3e&_butType=3&_butStat=2&_butNum=360&_butInline=1&_butinfo=%3ccite%20cc%3d%22USA%22%3e%3c%21%5bCDATA%5b155%20Cal.%20Rptr.%20643%5d%5d%3e%3c%2fcite%3e&_fmtstr=FULL&docnum=1&_startdoc=1&wchp=dGLbVzz-zSkAW&_md5=0599b6f906c129d1a71a76bebe07a202" \t "_parent" Brewer v. Department of Motor Vehicles, 93 Cal. App. 3d 358 (Cal. Ct. App. 1979) (reversing the denial of a license to sell vehicles based on a criminal record). In Re Manville, 538 A.2d 1128, 1132 n.3 (D.C. Ct. App. 1988) (questioning whether a per se rule excluding persons with felony convictions from bar admission was unconstitutionally over-inclusive and not sufficiently related to legitimate state interests, but ultimately rejecting the rule on policy rather than constitutional grounds). Cronin v. OLeary, 13 Mass. L. Rep. 405 (Mass. Super. Ct. 2001) (striking down ban on employment with state department of human services as a violation of procedural due process). Warren County Human Services v. State Civil Service Commission, 844 A.2d 70 (Pa. Commw.), pet. for allowance of appeal denied, 863 A.2d 1152 (Pa. 2004) (lifetime ban of persons with aggravated assault convictions from employment in child care violated the Pennsylvania Constitution). Nixon v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, 839 A.2d 277, 288 (Pa. 2003) (statute that prohibited employment in elder care facilities for those convicted of certain criminal offenses did not have a real and substantial relationship to Commonwealths interest in protecting elderly individuals, violating Pennsylvania Constitution). Other Resources American Bar Association, Standards on Collateral Sanctions and Discretionary Disqualification of Convicted Persons 1 (2004). Miriam Aukerman, The Somewhat Suspect Class: Towards a Constitutional Framework for Evaluating Occupational Restrictions Affecting People with Criminal Records, Wayne State Journal of Law in Society (forthcoming). Stephen Befort, Pre-Employment Screening and Investigation: Navigating Between a Rock and Hard Place, 14 Hofstra L.J. 365, 376 (1997). Gabriel Chin, Race, the War on Drugs, and the Collateral Consequences of Criminal Conviction, 6 J. of Gender, Race, & Justice 253 (2002). Nora Demleitner, Preventing Internal Exile: The Need for Restrictions on Collateral Sentencing Consequences, 11 Stan. L. & Poly Rev. 153, 156 (1999). Every Door Closed: Barriers Facing Parents with Criminal Records (Amy Hirsch et al. eds., 2002). Thomas Hruz, The Unwisdom of the Wisconsin Fair Employment Acts Ban of Employment Discrimination on the Basis of Conviction Records, 85 Marquette L. Rev. 779 (2002). Susan M. Kuzma, Federal Statutes Imposing Collateral Consequences Upon Conviction (2000), available at:  HYPERLINK "http://www.usdoj.gov.pardon/collateral_ consequences.pdf" http://www.usdoj.gov.pardon/collateral_ consequences.pdf . Sheri-Ann Lau, Employment Discrimination Because of Ones Arrest and Court Record in Hawaii, 22 Hawaii L. Rev. 709 (2000). Jennifer Leavitt, Note, Walking a Tightrope: Balancing Competing Public Interests in the Employment of Criminal Offenders, 34 Conn. L. Rev. 1281, 1301 (2002). Legal Action Center, After Prison: Roadblocks to Reentry: A Report on State Legal Barriers Facing People With Criminal Records 8 (2004). Mark Mauer & Meda Chesney-Lind, Invisible Punishment: The Collateral Consequences of Mass Imprisonment (2002). Bruce E. May, Real World Reflection: The Character Component of Occupational Licensing Laws: A Continuing Barrier to the Ex-Felons Employment Opportunities, 71 N. Dak. L. Rev. 187, 193 (1995). Kathleen M. Olivares, Velmer S. Burton, Jr. & Francis T. Cullen, The Collateral Consequences of a Felony Conviction: A National Study of State Legal Codes 10 Years Later, Fed. Prob. Sept. 1996. Elena Saxonhouse, Note, Unequal Protection: Comparing Former Felons Challenges to Disenfranchisement and Employment Discrimination, 56 Stan. L. Rev. 1597, 1638 (2004). Robert Shepherd, Jr., Collateral Consequences of Juvenile Proceedings: Part I, 15 Crim. Just. 59 (2000). The Collateral Consequences of a Criminal Conviction, 23 Vand. L. Rev. 929, 1002 (1970). V. Suitability for Work (Waivers, Certificates of Rehabilitation) Authorities 49 C.F.R. 1572.7 Regulations requiring a waiver procedure for those commercial drivers denied a hazardous material endorsement (proposed regulations would also extend the rules to port workers) by the Transportation Security Administration due to a disqualifying criminal offense. Decisions California: Peter Sheehan of the Social Justice Law Project in Oakland has focused his litigation on creating procedural protections to better implement the California waiver laws in community care and in removing categories of offenses that are considered non-exempt. See Gresher v. Anderson, 127 Cal.App.4th 88, 25 Cal.Rptr.3d 408 (Cal.App. 1st Dist. 2005). See also Glessman v. Saenz, No. CGC-02-403255 and Doe v. Saenz, No CGC-02-407530 (Cal. Sup. Ct. 12/19/03) (Department of Social Services was forced to make case-by-case determinations about class members eligibility for employment). Florida: Since December 2005, three of the five Florida District Courts of Appeals found that state agencies, in the absence of legislative authority, may not impose the requirement that an individual with a felony conviction obtain the restoration of his civil rights in order to obtain a occupational license. Yeoman v. Construction Industry Licensing Board, State of Florida Department of Business and Professional Regulation, 919 So.2d 542, 31 Fla. L. Weekly D48 (Fla. 1st DCA Dec. 22, 2005); Vetter v. Department of Business and Professional Regulation, Electrical Contractors Licensing Board, 920 So.2d 44, 30 Fla. L. Weekly D2807 (Fla. 2nd DCA Dec. 14, 2005); Daniel Scherer v. Department of Business And Professional, 919 So.2d 662, 31 Fla. L. Weekly D320 (Fla. 5th DCA Jan. 27, 2006). Louisiana: See AFSCME, Council # 17 v. State of Louisiana, 789 So.2d 1263 (La. 2001) (state law defining felony conviction during employment as mandatory cause for termination of classified civil service employees, found unconstitutional in part); Gordon v. Louisiana State Board of Nursing, 804 So.2d 34 (La. Ct. App. 2001) (the Boards denial of a license to an individual who had been paroled and pardoned for a felony narcotics license was illegal). Pennsylvania: Nixon v. Commonwealth, 839 A.2d 277, 288 (Pa. 2003) (statute that prohibited employment in elder care facilities for those convicted of certain criminal offenses did not have a real and substantial relationship to Commonwealths interest in protecting elderly individuals, violating Pennsylvania Constitution). VI. Other Litigation Labor & Employment Law Anti-Retaliation Consolidated Biscuit Company and Bakery, Confectionary, Tobacco Workers and Grain Millers International Union, AFL-CIO, CLS, 2004 NLRB LEXIS 9 (NLRB Div. of Judges Jan. 14, 2004) (Given the absence of any credible explanation, I find that this background check was motivated by CBCs hostility towards Teegardins union activity). Jacobs Heating & Air Conditioning and Sheet Metal Workers International Association, Local Union No. 19, 2001 NLRB 7636 (Sept. 18, 2001) (finding a violation of the National Labor Relations Act because the employer did its best not to hire Bazeski, Kennan, and Joseph by obtaining criminal background checks . . . .). Labor Law (Required Subject of Bargaining) Health Care Workers Union Local 250 v. Sutter County In-Home Supportive Services Public Authority, 29 PERC 114 (May 11, 2005) (holding that the employer erred in failing to bargain with the union over the effects of its unilateral implementation of the a state criminal background check policy, including details such as a workers appeal rights if he believes the results of a background check were erroneous.).  The list of states was compiled by the National Association of Professional Background Screeners for their membership of approximately 500 Consumer Reporting Agencies. The Brennan Center for Justice and the Legal Action Center will be conducting a research project this summer on what the statutory restrictions are for maintaining reporting and using arrest/non-criminal conviction information for a select number of states from this list.     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