ࡱ> c 0jbjb&& $BDD*08888T$06^, R#11F^D,:{,x 8@ \0R##00$ T 00T  Native American Voices Native American traditions are rich and varied. There are over five hundred Native American languages, each one as different as English is from Arabic and as Arabic is from Swahili. Each Indian nation has its own myths, its own histories, its own personal stories. As Native American author N. Scott Momaday writes, "The voices are all around us, the three voices. You have the mythic and the historical and the personal and then they become a wheel, they revolve, they alternate. ... Myth becomes history becomes memoir becomes myth." What unites these Native American cultures? What does it mean to study American Indian literature? To answer these questions is to begin to consider what it means to be American and Native American simultaneously. The definition of Native American literature is closely tied to what people think constitutes the essence of Native American identity. Three views stand out in this highly contested debate: those of legal bloodlines, cultural traditions, and bicultural production. As literary critic Kenneth Lincoln notes, one "working definition of 'Indian,' though criteria vary from region to region, is minimally a quarter blood and tribal membership"; Native American literature, then, would be those works written by someone who legally is Native American, regardless of their content or style. A second perspective links Native American identity and literature with the preservation of cultural traditions. Literary critics who rely on this view focus on aspects of "traditional" Indian culture in contemporary American Indian literature, such as the continuance of oral traditions. A third trend in Native American studies defines American Indian identity and literature not in terms of what it preserves (whether it be blood or culture), but rather as a bicultural mixture of Native and European American people and traditions. Some Native Americans have argued that since their indigenous cultures have always assimilated aspects of other cultures (including those of other American Indians), to be Indian is to be bicultural, or multicultural. Many American Indians define themselves not primarily as "Native Americans" but as members of a specific tribe. It is important as you read the authors in this unit to remember that what you know about the Navajo and their religious traditions probably will not apply to the Chippewa, a people geographically, linguistically, and culturally separate from them. Some scholars have suggested, however, that Native American communities within a particular geographic region tend to be culturally more homologous because they are often from the same language family and because cultures are often shaped by the landscapes out of which they emerge. There are several key regions in Native American studies: the Southwest, Plains, California, Midwest, Northeast, Northwest, South, and Southwest. The video focuses on the Southwest; however, in the unit you will find information about the other regions. You will also find a balance between information that is specific to the tribe of each author and information about qualities that are shared among American Indian peoples. Oral traditions vary by region and tribe, and scholars have tended to examine the influence of the American Indian oral tradition upon contemporary American Indian written literature in two ways: (1) the content and (2) the style. When people explore how the content of the American Indian oral tradition has influenced contemporary literature, they usually turn to the stories and songs of American Indian peoples. These stories tend to focus on particular characters and to include standard events and elements. Some of the most common tale-types include gambler, trickster, creation, abduction, and migration legends. Contemporary authors can use these tale-types in their works: for example, Leslie Marmon Silko's Ceremony retells Yellow Woman storiesa Pueblo Abduction Cycle. In addition to looking at the content of the stories, scholars have looked at the style of contemporary American Indian literature to examine the influence of the oral tradition. Oral style has been characterized as empathetic, participatory, situational, and reliant on repetition. In the oral tradition, repetition is crucial both for ceremonial reasons and because it aids in the process of memorization and provides narrative cohesion. To repeat words is also to wield a certain power. Perhaps most importantly, the oral tradition is tied to the land: as author and critic Greg Sarris explains, "The landscape becomes the bible and each stone, each mountain, each set of trees or a river, or a section of the river becomes a text, because they become a way of remembering stories, and stories associated with that place." TURTLE Mother Earth Turtle is the oldest symbol for the Earth. It is the personification of goddess energy and the eternal Earth itself. If you have a Turtle totem, you must be mindful of returning to the Earth what she has given you. Honor the creative source within you. Use water and earth energies to create a harmonious flow in your life. Ask the Earth for assistance and her riches will pour forth. If a Turtle totem shows up in your life, slow down the pace of your life. Bigger, stronger, faster are not always the best ways to reach your goals. Turtle is fine teacher of the art of grounding. When you learn to ground yourself to Earth's power and strength, you place focus on your thoughts and actions and use the Earth's limitless energies rather than your own to accomplish your will. Turtle is the keeper of doors and one of the ways into the Faerie Realm. American Passages Video Native Voices Describe the quality and content of Native American literature (oral traditions). What are some of the key purposes of remembering and retelling the Native American stories? How is Native American literature connected to all American literature? Iroquois Creation Story In Groups: Read aloud and act out the story Questions for discussion: 1. What are the characteristics of the oral tradition? Tone? Movement? Sound of language? 2. Compare the story to any other stories you know: How can we understand the story in reference to our own stories? Mythology - Twins Romulus and Remus, Biblical - Cane and Abel, Mother Earth, Good and Evil, Devil and Angel? Others? 3. What are the different literary criticisms we can apply to this and all texts? Feminist criticism, New Historicist, Psychoanalytic (Jungian)? Use Handout. 4. How can we find elements of America in the story? Landscape, new world, nature, etc. Critical Approaches to Literature and Criticism (Thanks to Marilyn Patton with a few additions) Reader-Response - Focuses on HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading_(process)"the reader (or "HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audience"audience") and his or her experience of a HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_work"literary work, in contrast to other schools and theories that focus attention primarily on the author or the content and HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_(literature)"form of the work. Feminist CriticismFocuses on female representation in literature, paying attention to female points of view, concerns, and values. Three underlying assumptions in this approach are: Western Society is pervasively patriarchal, male centered and controlled, and is organized in such a way as to subordinate women; the concept of gender is socially constructed, not biologically determined; and that patriarchal ideology pervades those writings which have been considered great works of literature. Queer Theory: Combined area of gay and lesbian studies and criticism, including studies of variations in biological sex, gender identity, and sexual desires. Emphasis on dismantling the key binary oppositions of Western culture: male/ female, heterosexual/ homosexual, etc. by which the first category is assigned privilege, power, and centrality, while the second is derogated, subordinated, and marginalized. Marxist CriticismFocuses on how literary works are products of the economic and ideological determinants specific to that era. Critics examine the relationship of a literary product to the actual economic and social reality of its time and place (Class stratification, class relations, and dominant ideology). New Historical CriticismFocuses on examining a text primarily in relation to the historical and cultural conditions of its production, and also of its later critical interpretations. Cultural materialism, a mode of NHC, argues that whatever the textuality of history, a culture and its literary products are always conditioned by the real material forces and relations of production in their historical era. Psychological CriticismFocuses on a work of literature primarily as an expression, in fictional form, of the state of mind and the structure of personality of the individual author. In other words, a literary text is related to its authors mental and emotional traits. Furthest extension is Psychoanalytic Criticism, emphasis on phallic symbols, wombs, breasts, etc. Theorists include Lacan and Klein. New Criticism The proper concern of literary criticism is not with the external circumstances or effects or historical position of a work, but with a detailed consideration of the work itself as an independent entity. Emphasis on the words on the page. Study of poetry focuses on the autonomy of the work as existing for its own sake, analysis of words, figures of speech, and symbols. Distinctive procedure is close reading and attention to recurrent images; these critics delight in tension, irony, and paradox. (Similar to Formalism or Neo-Aristotelian) DeconstructionFocuses on the practice of reading a text in order to subvert or undermine the assumption that the text can be interpreted coherently to have a universal determinate meaning. Typically, deconstructive readings closely examine the conflicting forces/meanings within the text in order to show that the text has an indefinite array of possible readings/significations. Archetypal/Mythic CriticismFocuses on recurrent narrative designs, patterns of action, character types, or images which are said to be identifiable in a wide variety of literary works, myths, dreams, and even ritualized modes of behavior. Critics tend to emphasize the mythical patterns in literature, such as the death-rebirth theme and journey of the hero. 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