ࡱ> #` A D/I<kIAxM7M(B(B^MBU,h,J9-<C-U,U,U,HH9^U,U,U,kI7.7.7.7.dJd JRRRRRR Running head: LANGUAGE AND LITERACY ACQUISITION Language and Literacy Acquisition Mary Jane McIlwain George Mason University EDRD 829, Dr. Sturtevant Summer, 2007 Language and Literacy Acquisition Research in the fields of linguistics, cognition, and literacy has contributed to a clearer understanding of the processes involved in becoming literate. Linguistics includes the study of how language, including metalinguistics, develops as children grow from birth to adulthood. Metalinguistics is the ability to attend to and monitor the use of various linguistic components (phonemes, morphemes, syntax, semantics, discourses, etc.) in addition to considering the meaning of a particular communicative act  ADDIN EN.CITE Chaney1991797947Chaney, C.Language development, metalinguistic awareness and emergent litecary skills of 3-year-old children in relaation to social classBiennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development1991AprilSeattle, WashingtonRoth1996111117Roth, F. P.Speece, D. L.Cooper, D. H.De La Paz, S.Uresolved mysteries: How do metlinguistic and narrative skills connect with early reading?Journal of Special EdcuationJournal of Special Edcuation257-2773031996(Chaney, 1991; Roth, Speece, Cooper, & De La Paz, 1996). Such reasoning and the work highlighting how language and literacy learning are situated in cultural dialects and discourses points to the importance of cognition in the building of language and literacy  ADDIN EN.CITE Gee200481815Gee, James PaulRuddell, R. B.Unrau, N. J.Reading as situated language: A sociocognitive perspectiveTheoretical models and processes in reading116-1325th52004Newark, DEInternational Reading Associationlanguage scaffolds action and scaffolds perspctive more than information conveyor children learn grammar and meaning through interactive, intersubjective dialogue with more advaned peers adn adults many different social languages w/ different patterns of vocabulary , sytnax and discourse connectors "The mapping from elements of vocabulary, syntax, and discourse to a spcific style of language used in characteristic social activuitiies is just as much a part of reading adn writing as the phoics mapping. In fact, more people fail to become successful school-based academic, work work-related readers or writers becasuse of failing to master this sort of mappping than the phonics one."---connect to heath social language is a part of early literacy classification questions and related syntactic an ddiscourse resources are a common part of may school based and academic social languages early language and early phonological awareness are correlated everyone comes with language but some kids' verbal abilities are not tied to specific school=based practices and school-based genres of oral and written language of classificatory or interpretive questions...countless protoforms Watson2001995Watson, RitaDickinson, David K.Neuman, Susan B.Literacy and oral language: implications for early literacy acquisitionHandbook of Early Literacy Research43-52122001New York, N. Y.The Guilford Pressgenerational affect on language--making it more literate and inferential need lots of "events"....takes a long time to get from experiential to the definitional/interpretaionalHeath1983666Heath, Shirley BriceWays with words language, life, and word in communities and classrooms1983New York, N. Y.Cambridge University Presstalk more isn't it...trackton got more, but it tranferred less; townspeople created avenues for children and directed their attention "It is as thought in the drama of life, townspeiople parents freeze scenes and prats of scenes at certain points along the way."--running narratives on items and events using referents using focused language as a tool and the turntaking and next steps associated with it including "listen to and benefit from..." "In any case, unless the bondaries between classrooms and communities can be broken, and the flow of cultural patterns etween them encouraged, the schools will continue to legitmate and reproduce communities of townspeiople who control and limit the potential progress of other communities and who themselfves remain untiouced by other values and ways of life."--369(Gee, 2004; Heath, 1983; Watson, 2001). The growing understanding of how literacy develops with the help of language and cognition is beginning to move us away from the linear conception of literacy and language that was followed by the earlier conceptual models of reading acquisition and research agendas. Recent studies and more sophisticated statistical modeling are leading some to a more systems view of reading acquisition and development  ADDIN EN.CITE Dickinson200671715Dickinson, David K.McCabe, AllyssaEssex, Marilyn J.Dickinson, David K.Neuman, Susan B.A window of opportunity we must open to all: The case for preschool with high-quality support for language and literacyHandbook of Early Literacy Research 11-28222006New YorkThe Guilford Press(Dickinson, McCabe, & Essex, 2006). However, the question remains as to how oral language is related to reading acquisition and early reading development. Many in the field of reading research agree that oral language is an important contributor to literacy development  ADDIN EN.CITE Lonigan2000262617Lonigan, Christopher J.Burgess, Stephen R.Anthony, Jason L.Development of emergent literacy and early reading skills in preschool children: evidence from a latent-variable longitudinal studyDevelopmental Psychology596-6133652000file:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Mary%20Jane/My%20Documents/Libraries/language%20development/dev.early.rdy.in.prsch.pdfStorch2002272717Storch, Stacey A.Whitehurst, Grover J.Oral language and code-related precursors to reading: evidence from a longitunidnal strucural modelDevelopmental Psychology934-9473862002file:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Mary%20Jane/My%20Documents/Libraries/language%20development/oral.language.cod.related.pdf(Lonigan, Burgess, & Anthony, 2000; Storch & Whitehurst, 2002). Some researchers have used statistical analysis to determine that oral language takes the back seat and plays an indirect role during the reading acquisition stage  ADDIN EN.CITE Storch2002272717Storch, Stacey A.Whitehurst, Grover J.Oral language and code-related precursors to reading: evidence from a longitunidnal strucural modelDevelopmental Psychology934-9473862002file:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Mary%20Jane/My%20Documents/Libraries/language%20development/oral.language.cod.related.pdfWhitehurst19989917Whitehurst, Grover, J.Lonigan, Christopher J.Child development and emergent literacyChild DevelopmentChild Development848-8726931998internal-pdf://child.dev.em.lit.whitehurst-1103487493/child.dev.em.lit.whitehurst.pdf(Storch & Whitehurst, 2002; Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998). Others have structured their statistical analysis in a way that shows a direct link between vocabulary and phonological awareness  ADDIN EN.CITE Lonigan200715155Lonigan, Christopher J.Wagner, R. K. Muse, A. E.Tannenbaum, K. R.Vocabulary development and the development of phonological awareness skills in preschool childrenVocabulary Acquisition: Implications for Reading Comprehension15-312007New YorkThe Guilford Press(Lonigan, 2007), as well as a direct link between oral language abilities and reading acquisition  ADDIN EN.CITE Torok2005101032Torok, Sarah E.Vellutino, FrankCognitive and metalinguistic precursors of emergent literacy skills: A reexamination of the specific roles played by syntactic awareness and phonological awareness in phonological decoding, decontextualized word identification, and reading comprehensionDepartment of Educaional and Counseling Psychology186Doctor of Philosopgy2005AlbanyUniversity at Albany, State University of New York1699575303380807687clipping.bmpDissertationphonological awareness and sytnactic awareness play unique roles in phonological decoding, word identification, and reading comprehension using SEM it was found that metalinguistic awareness made statistically signigican contributions not only to phonological deconding, word identification and reading comprehension, but also to domain genreal academic ability--reciprocity metalinguistic awareness can be asssumed to underlie the relationships shared between phonological and syntacti awareness and reading skills by vietue of it connections with other general linguistic and academic abilities Tummer et/ a;s 1988 thoery suggests that phonological awareness lays the foundation for acquisition of phonolgical decoding skills and sytnactic awareness facilitates the use of these skills during text reading therefore kids need both skills some conlinear relations--limitation virtue of the links that phonological awareness and sytnactic awareness share with reading skills directly and domain genereal academic abilities indirectly, they should be considered fundamental skills that need to be addressed in both formal and informal classroom instructionNICHD2005181817NICHDPathways to reading: the roles of oral language in the transition to readingDevelopmental Psychology428-4424122005calls for more comprehensive definitions and measurements of oral language in the research (incl. narrative, semantics, syntax or words, grammar, morphology, and discourse. claims direct and indirect influence of language on reading acquisition teaching vocabulary and ponological awareness is not enougth to "butress" continued language growth(NICHD, 2005; Torok, 2005). It is imperative that preschool and primary teachers come to know the relationship between oral language and phonological awareness and reading acquisition because this understanding will lead to the need to know how to provide for the development language in the classroom. This paper will attempt to bring the research in reading and language together to help teachers, administrators and policy makers understand the importance of language and language development for children during the preschool and primary years. I will begin by reviewing past models of reading, paying particular attention to the role language development played in each one. Next, we will take a historical look at first language acquisition and development. Finally, I will attempt to bring reading theories and language theories together to advocate for a more systems oriented approach to research and practice associated with reading acquisition and early development. Reading Models Definitions of reading acquisition and decoding need to be worked out in order understand how language aids children during this stage. Reading acquisition could be considered the time in which students transition out of the emergent stage into a novice stage. They are able to use their knowledge of the alphabetic principles and language to read continuous text at very simple levels. Decoding is seen by some as the ability to use phonology to sound out words and it is often measured by having participants decode words in isolation  ADDIN EN.CITE Storch2002272717Storch, Stacey A.Whitehurst, Grover J.Oral language and code-related precursors to reading: evidence from a longitunidnal strucural modelDevelopmental Psychology934-9473862002file:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Mary%20Jane/My%20Documents/Libraries/language%20development/oral.language.cod.related.pdfWhitehurst19989917Whitehurst, Grover, J.Lonigan, Christopher J.Child development and emergent literacyChild DevelopmentChild Development848-8726931998internal-pdf://child.dev.em.lit.whitehurst-1103487493/child.dev.em.lit.whitehurst.pdfNeuhaus2006222217Neuhaus, Graham E.Roldan, Luis W.Boulware-Gooden, ReginaSwank, Paul R.Parsimonious reading models: identifying teachable subskillsReading PsychologyReading Psychology37-58272006internal-pdf://pars.models.neuhas-3336376326/pars.models.neuhas.pdf(Neuhaus, Roldan, Boulware-Gooden, & Swank, 2006; Storch & Whitehurst, 2002; Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998). Yet others situate decoding in continuous text which extends the definition of this act. To decode in continuous text is to use phonological, syntactical, and semantic information to problem solve a word  ADDIN EN.CITE Sadoski200424245Sadoski, MarkPaivio, AllanRudell, Robert B.Ruddell, M. R.Singer, HarryA dual coding theoretical model of readingTheoretical Models and Processes of Reading1329-1360552004NewarkInternational Reading Associationinternal-pdf://a.dual.coding.theoretical.model.reading.sadoski-3204708865/a.dual.coding.theoretical.model.reading.sadoski.pdfRumelhart199420205Rumelhart, David E.Ruddell, Robert B.Ruddell, M. R.Singer, HarryTowards an interactive model of readingTheoretical Models and Processes of Reading864-8944t51994NewarkInternational Reading AssociationNICHD2005181817NICHDPathways to reading: the roles of oral language in the transition to readingDevelopmental Psychology428-4424122005calls for more comprehensive definitions and measurements of oral language in the research (incl. narrative, semantics, syntax or words, grammar, morphology, and discourse. claims direct and indirect influence of language on reading acquisition teaching vocabulary and ponological awareness is not enougth to "butress" continued language growth(NICHD, 2005; Rumelhart, 1994; Sadoski & Paivio, 2004). The definition one chooses has great influence as to how reading research and instruction practices areis carried out with regards to oral language in academic and classroom settings. Reading Models from the Mid 19th Century Early reading research led to two models of reading that seem to have been at odds with one another by the 1970sthe bottom up model and the top down model. The bottom up construct perceived the act of reading as decoding text from the smallest linguistic unit to the largest and thus creating meaning . This model treats decoding as a visual motor activity that combines with knowledge of linguistic piecesletters, letter sounds, etc. Bottom up models still influence research and practice. Citations? There is a tendency in some of the literature informing policy today to include print knowledge as oral language. Briefs, policies and directives define language development as a composite of vocabulary, phonological awareness, and print knowledge  ADDIN EN.CITE Patton20054427Patton, Paul E.Kempthome, DirkHuckabee, MikeGranholm, JenniferHolden, BobTaft, BobRendell, Edward G.Sanford, MarkBuilding the Foundation for Bright Futures2005National Governors Associationfile:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Mary%20Jane/My%20Documents/achievement%20gap/contributions%20to%20the%20gap/early%20childhood%20points/building.foundations.bright.futures.pdf2001171727Emig, CarolMoore, AmberScarupa, HarrietSchool Readiness: Helping Communities Get Children Ready for School and Schools Ready for ChildrenResearch Brief20012001Washington, D.C.Child Trendsfile:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Mary%20Jane/My%20Documents/achievement%20gap/contributions%20to%20the%20gap/school/rb.school.read.schools.ready.children.pdf(Patton et al., 2005; School Readiness: Helping Communities Get Children Ready for School and Schools Ready for Children, 2001). This is a focus on print knowledge and phonological awareness and takes away from a focus on? oral language development. The assumption being made by these reports seems to be that, when speaking of language development, the quickest and most direct route (the linear track) to reading acquisition is print knowledge and phonological awareness. It seems that language is minimized (awkward) to print knowledge and phonology in the bottom up model, and that semantics, syntax, and discourse are considered not of importance. Another model that came into the reading debate in the 1970s is the top down model. This approach maintains that reading begins with the readers purpose and it is his or her thought processes and attempts to confirm predictions that bring him down to the smallest linguistic formsletters, words, etc.as needed. It would seem that this model gives great power to the readers level of language; however, how does an emergent reader learn to break the code in such a model? Another model that was developed in the 1970s is Rummelharts interactive model  ADDIN EN.CITE Rumelhart199420205Rumelhart, David E.Ruddell, Robert B.Ruddell, M. R.Singer, HarryTowards an interactive model of readingTheoretical Models and Processes of Reading864-8944t51994NewarkInternational Reading Association(Rumelhart, 1994). His model treats reading as a perceptual and cognitive task simultaneously. RThe readerss use information in the sensory, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic domains to read; and, his model is upheld at the acquisition stage by those who define decoding as processing continuous text (clarity of sentence). He placed special significance in a readers control of syntax in word perception. He also believed that knowledge of the higher levels helps problem solve a word, as do knowledge of the lower levels. The reader accesses the higher and lower levels based on his need which depends on his experience. Although this model is still linear in fashion, it is more flexible and it involves the visual, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic aspects of oral language even at the onset of reading. Reading Models from the Turn of the Century Conceptual models developed over the past decade have included the inside-out and outside-in view of reading acquisition and development, as well as the bottleneck theory. The inside-out outside-in conceptual construct was proposed by Whitehurst and Lonigan (1998). This model defined two domains for reading skills. Inside-out skills consisted of code related tenets, such as phonological awareness and letter knowledge. Outside-in skills consisted of language and conceptual knowledge. The authors believed that these domains were stand alone entities that were not impacted by the same experiences. Moreover, it was proposed that although language and conceptual knowledge may be tied to emergent literacy, these skills did not provide significant influence until after the acquisition stage was completed. The inside-out skills were more important during the acquisition stagephonological awareness and print knowledge. Scarborough (2001) takes a similar position, but he describes the reading process as a group of intertwined strands. The language comprehension strands include background knowledge, vocabulary, language structures (syntax, semantics, etc.) and literary knowledge (print concepts and genres). The word recognition strands include phonological awareness, decoding and sight recognition. His work noted two important aspects of language. First, syntactic development during preschool seemed to predict later reading achievement. Second, phonological awareness seemed to be predicted by lexical and syntactic abilities as well as phonological abilities themselves. Although Scarboroughhe discusses the importance of language, he argues that we should continue to focus on the word recognition strand during the acquisition stage because we are not yet sure if focusing on other language skills would pay off; therefore the risk is too great at this time  ADDIN EN.CITE Scarborough200111115Scarborough, Hollis S.Dickinson, David K.Neuman, Susan B.Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: evidence, thoery, and practiceHandbook of early literacy research97-110122001New York, N.Y.The Guilford Press(Scarborough, 2001). The bottleneck theory is similar to the above models. This framework states that phonological awareness, phonemic awareness, and letter knowledge are of the most importance during the acquisition stage. Therefore the wide space of emergent literacy narrows to code related skills in order to begin processing text  ADDIN EN.CITE Roth1996111117Roth, F. P.Speece, D. L.Cooper, D. H.De La Paz, S.Uresolved mysteries: How do metlinguistic and narrative skills connect with early reading?Journal of Special EdcuationJournal of Special Edcuation257-2773031996(Roth et al., 1996). The world reopens as the children transition out of the bottle and into fluent reading. Finally, it is at this point that syntactic, semantic, and discourse abilities facilitate continued reading development. The final model to be presented comes from an unpublished 2005 dissertation by Sarah Torok. She used structural equation models to show that phonological awareness plays a unique roles in phonological decoding, word identification and reading comprehension. She concludes that phonological awareness is needed for acquisition of phonological decoding skills, but syntactic awareness facilitates the use of these skills during text reading. As a result, students in preschool and primary grades need both skills during the acquisition stage  ADDIN EN.CITE Torok2005101032Torok, Sarah E.Vellutino, FrankCognitive and metalinguistic precursors of emergent literacy skills: A reexamination of the specific roles played by syntactic awareness and phonological awareness in phonological decoding, decontextualized word identification, and reading comprehensionDepartment of Educaional and Counseling Psychology186Doctor of Philosopgy2005AlbanyUniversity at Albany, State University of New York1699575303380807687clipping.bmpDissertationphonological awareness and sytnactic awareness play unique roles in phonological decoding, word identification, and reading comprehension using SEM it was found that metalinguistic awareness made statistically signigican contributions not only to phonological deconding, word identification and reading comprehension, but also to domain genreal academic ability--reciprocity metalinguistic awareness can be asssumed to underlie the relationships shared between phonological and syntacti awareness and reading skills by vietue of it connections with other general linguistic and academic abilities Tummer et/ a;s 1988 thoery suggests that phonological awareness lays the foundation for acquisition of phonolgical decoding skills and sytnactic awareness facilitates the use of these skills during text reading therefore kids need both skills some conlinear relations--limitation virtue of the links that phonological awareness and sytnactic awareness share with reading skills directly and domain genereal academic abilities indirectly, they should be considered fundamental skills that need to be addressed in both formal and informal classroom instruction(Torok, 2005). Summary of the Reading Models Presented All of the models presented take a somewhat linear view of reading acquisition and early development. The models respect the hierarchy of relations between the smallest linguistic structures to the comprehension of discourse. The bottom up model and top down models seem to allow this hierarchy to control the reading process, although the top down model values the contribution of language and experience. The interactive model is also linear but allows language, cognition, and pragmatics to determine how a reader moves within this hierarchy, even at the acquisition stage. Interestingly, the models of the late 1990s and early in this century seem to sway back to the bottom up theory during the acquisition stage, noting that it is not certain how oral language uniquely contributes to decoding words in isolation or in continuous text. These conceptual models were developed during athe time whenthat many studies were conducted on school age children. Their foundation is based on the idea that phonological skills emerge from formal reading instruction (i.e. once letters and sounds are explicitly taught in school). The move to study younger children has shown that the relationship between phonological awareness and reading is not as linear as once thought; but, rather, there is a foundational tie between oral vocabulary and phonological awareness  ADDIN EN.CITE Burgess200613135Burgess, S. R.Dickinson, D. K.Nueman, S. B.The development of phonological sensitivityHandbook of Early Literacy Research90-100222006New YorkThe Guilford Press(Burgess, 2006) which begins to come together during the toddler years. Lonigan (2006) revisited the inside-out outside-in construct given the new understandings related to phonological awareness and language. He considered the idea that the two domains are not necessarily independent of common experiences, as once thought. They may be tied together through listening comprehension, understanding syntax, and definitional vocabulary. In fact, a study situated at the preschool level, which did not involve any phonological training, revealed that there was a causal relationship between vocabulary and phonological development. Additionally, this relationship exists during the preschool years and into the early elementary years  ADDIN EN.CITE Lonigan200715155Lonigan, Christopher J.Wagner, R. K. Muse, A. E.Tannenbaum, K. R.Vocabulary development and the development of phonological awareness skills in preschool childrenVocabulary Acquisition: Implications for Reading Comprehension15-312007New YorkThe Guilford Press(Lonigan, 2007). Finally, Toroks work extends the importance of language to reading acquisition by showing the relationship of both phonology and syntax in reading acquisition. The work of both Lonigan and Torok could help lead us to a more systems oriented approach to reading acquisition. Toroks work emphasizes the importance of syntactical awareness as well as phonological awareness, which we can now associate with vocabulary. Therefore, instruction is needed in language development throughout the emergent, acquisition, and early stages of reading. Dickenson (2006) captures a great deal of the findings related to metalinguistic awareness and reading acquisition and development discussed to this point through a window metaphor. His focus was specifically directed toward vocabulary development and its relationship with the phonological aspects of metalinguistics. He conceptualized that a window is open for this learning from preschool through fourth grade. During this time a childs environment is critical in that it helps form the brain functions that allow for attentional control and higher cognitive functioning. Language is a key in this environment because it allows for the continuous development of attention and cognition, which together eventually define that watershed moment when metalinguistic awareness begins to form. Finally, it is this awareness that creates the connections between print and language. Language Development There are two findings exposing a direct link between language and the onset of decoding ability. First, Lonigan found There is a relationship showing vocabulary as a precursor to the development of phonological development  ADDIN EN.CITE Lonigan200614145Lonigan, Christopher J.Dickinson, D. K.Nueman, S. B.Conceptualizing phonological processing skills in prereadersHandbook of Early Literacy Research77-89222006New YorkThe Guilford Press(Lonigan, 2006). Also, Torok found that Syntactical syntactical awareness facilitates use of this phonological awareness in continuous text  ADDIN EN.CITE Torok2005101032Torok, Sarah E.Vellutino, FrankCognitive and metalinguistic precursors of emergent literacy skills: A reexamination of the specific roles played by syntactic awareness and phonological awareness in phonological decoding, decontextualized word identification, and reading comprehensionDepartment of Educaional and Counseling Psychology186Doctor of Philosopgy2005AlbanyUniversity at Albany, State University of New York1699575303380807687clipping.bmpDissertationphonological awareness and sytnactic awareness play unique roles in phonological decoding, word identification, and reading comprehension using SEM it was found that metalinguistic awareness made statistically signigican contributions not only to phonological deconding, word identification and reading comprehension, but also to domain genreal academic ability--reciprocity metalinguistic awareness can be asssumed to underlie the relationships shared between phonological and syntacti awareness and reading skills by vietue of it connections with other general linguistic and academic abilities Tummer et/ a;s 1988 thoery suggests that phonological awareness lays the foundation for acquisition of phonolgical decoding skills and sytnactic awareness facilitates the use of these skills during text reading therefore kids need both skills some conlinear relations--limitation virtue of the links that phonological awareness and sytnactic awareness share with reading skills directly and domain genereal academic abilities indirectly, they should be considered fundamental skills that need to be addressed in both formal and informal classroom instruction(Torok, 2005). These findings indicate that it may be importanterefore, it is necessary for researchers, teachers, and policy makers to consider how children acquire and control language, thus allowing school communities create classrooms that allow for the its continuous development. The issue of defining language in the reading literature was raised in the section about reading models. It is worth revisiting the definitions in order to refine our perspective as we begin to discuss first language development. Some reading researchers in the area of reading acquisition and policy makers classify language as a composite of vocabulary, phonological awareness, and print knowledge  ADDIN EN.CITE 2001171727Emig, CarolMoore, AmberScarupa, HarrietSchool Readiness: Helping Communities Get Children Ready for School and Schools Ready for ChildrenResearch Brief20012001Washington, D.C.Child Trendsfile:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Mary%20Jane/My%20Documents/achievement%20gap/contributions%20to%20the%20gap/school/rb.school.read.schools.ready.children.pdfPatton20054427Patton, Paul E.Kempthome, DirkHuckabee, MikeGranholm, JenniferHolden, BobTaft, BobRendell, Edward G.Sanford, MarkBuilding the Foundation for Bright Futures2005National Governors Associationfile:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Mary%20Jane/My%20Documents/achievement%20gap/contributions%20to%20the%20gap/early%20childhood%20points/building.foundations.bright.futures.pdf(Patton et al., 2005; School Readiness: Helping Communities Get Children Ready for School and Schools Ready for Children, 2001). Others advocate for a description that includes semantic, syntactic, and conceptual knowledge  ADDIN EN.CITE Storch2002272717Storch, Stacey A.Whitehurst, Grover J.Oral language and code-related precursors to reading: evidence from a longitunidnal strucural modelDevelopmental Psychology934-9473862002file:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Mary%20Jane/My%20Documents/Libraries/language%20development/oral.language.cod.related.pdf(Storch & Whitehurst, 2002), as well as verbal reasoning literary knowledge  ADDIN EN.CITE Scarborough200111115Scarborough, Hollis S.Dickinson, David K.Neuman, Susan B.Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: evidence, thoery, and practiceHandbook of early literacy research97-110122001New York, N.Y.The Guilford Press(Scarborough, 2001). The researchers associated with the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NIHD) Early Child Care Research Network (2005) defined language as words, grammar, morphology, and discourse. Linguists concerned with language acquisition and development are concerned with phonology, morphology, the lexicon, semantics, syntactical structures, and discourse. The discussion that follows will adhere to the aspects of language aligned with how language acquisition is studied. Vocabulary Acquisition and Development There are several theories about how infants and young children begin to develop oral vocabulary. This section will discuss fast mapping, bootstrapping, the lexicalist theory, and linguistic schemata. It is my hope that you will see the discussion of this linguistic literature move from phonology, morphology, and the lexicon (fast mapping and bootstrapping) to the more modern ideas connecting these three components to semantics, syntactical structures and discourse (lexicalist theory and linguistic schema). Fast mapping is a concept of word acquisition first framed by Susan Cary in 1978. She proposed that to learn a word a child must know its syntactical properties and understand how the meaning relates to other words and concepts already known. Initial word learning consists of direct modeling and over teaching at the infant and early toddler stages. However, by the age of two a child learn words based on their use in linguistic context and the specific situation that surrounds its use  ADDIN EN.CITE Carey197872725Carey, S.Hale, M.Bresnan, J.Miller, G. A.The child as a word learnerLinguistic Thoery and Psychological Reality264-2911978CambridgeThe MIT Press(Carey, 1978). It has also been determined that growth in one year olds vocabularies accelerated as these toddlers began to use two or more word phrases  ADDIN EN.CITE Anisfeld1998676717Anisfeld, MosheRosenberg, Erica S.Hoberman, Mara J.Gasparini, DonLexical acceleration coincides with the onset of combinatorial speechFirst LanguageFirst Language165-18418
165
1998internal-pdf://lex.acc.coinc.two.wd.ainsfeld-3222840576/lex.acc.coinc.two.wd.ainsfeld.pdf(Anisfeld, Rosenberg, Hoberman, & Gasparini, 1998). Anisfeld et al. (1998) also found that the sentence helped create the mappings to meaning. Thus, a child as early as the age of one year creates a word to world path through syntax and social engagement which allow the word to be internalized and extended  ADDIN EN.CITE Behrend2001222217Behrend, Douglas, A.Scofield, JasonKleinknecht, Erica E.Beyond fast mapping: yourng children's extentions of novel words and novel factsDevelopmental Psychology698-7053752001file:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Mary%20Jane/My%20Documents/Libraries/language%20development/beyond.fast.mapping.pdf(Behrend, Scofield, & Kleinknecht, 2001). Some linguists are finding that there is more than one way to map a word and this is dependent on the type and complexity of the word  ADDIN EN.CITE Best2006151517Best, RachelDockrell, JulieBraisby, Nick RReal-world word learning: exploring children's developing semantic representations of a science termBritish Journal of Developmental Psychology265-282242006adequate understanding of the lexical processes for school age word learning is necessary fast mapping only leads to minimal knowledge of words which is unstable, partial, and framentary need to know about the kinds of input needed to support extended meanings learning a new word calls for noting phonological patterns, morphosyntactic features, semantic characteristics, links to conceptual knowledge what aids word retention over time acc. word knowledge based on strong semantic foundation learning a word is based on understanding of the concept of which it relatesDeak2003666610Deak, G.Wagner, J. H."Slow Mapping" in children's leanring of sematic relationsProceedings of the twenty-fifthannual conference of the cognitive science society318-323252003LondonLEAinternal-pdf://slow.mapping.deak-0573763329/slow.mapping.deak.pdf(Best, Dockrell, & Braisby, 2006; Deak & Wagner, 2003). This leads us to the concept of bootstrapping. Researchers have uncovered various forms of bootstrapping, three of which are perceptual or phonological bootstrapping, logical bootstrapping, and syntactic bootstrapping  ADDIN EN.CITE Bates1997464617Bates, ElizabethGoodman, Judith C.On the Inseparability of Grammar and the Lexicon: Evidence from Acquisition, Aphasia and Real-time ProcessingLanguage & Cognitive ProcessesLanguage & Cognitive Processes507-584125/6LANGUAGE & languagesLEXICAL grammar1997Psychology Press (UK)http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ufh&AN=7611972&site=ehost-live internal-pdf://on.insep.gram.lex.bates-2251782657/on.insep.gram.lex.bates.pdf(Bates & Goodman, 1997). Phonological bootstrapping involves the infant, toddler, or young childs use of the prosodic aspect of speech flow to ascertain word and phrase boundaries  ADDIN EN.CITE Christophe1997474717Christophe, AnneGuasti, TeresaNespor, MarinaReflections on Phonological Bootstrapping: Its Role for Lexical and Syntactic AcquisitionLanguage & Cognitive ProcessesLanguage & Cognitive Processes585-612125/6GRAMMAR, Comparative & general -- PhonologyLEXICAL phonologySPEECH perception in infants1997Psychology Press (UK)http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ufh&AN=7611971&site=ehost-live internal-pdf://reflections.phon.bootstrapp.lex.syn.acp.christophe-0524049153/reflections.phon.bootstrapp.lex.syn.acp.christophe.pdf(Christophe, Guasti, & Nespor, 1997). Logical bootstrapping explains the order in which children learn word typesproceeding from nouns to verbs to function words (e.g. for, of)is due to the relational aspects of verbs and function words. These linguists suggest that such relations cannot be worked out until syntax is used. Ultimately, children use many aspects of sentences (semantics, morphological, word order, and prosody) in learning words and grammar, which is known as syntactic bootstrapping  ADDIN EN.CITE Bates1997464617Bates, ElizabethGoodman, Judith C.On the Inseparability of Grammar and the Lexicon: Evidence from Acquisition, Aphasia and Real-time ProcessingLanguage & Cognitive ProcessesLanguage & Cognitive Processes507-584125/6LANGUAGE & languagesLEXICAL grammar1997Psychology Press (UK)http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ufh&AN=7611972&site=ehost-live internal-pdf://on.insep.gram.lex.bates-2251782657/on.insep.gram.lex.bates.pdf(Bates & Goodman, 1997). The concept of bootstrapping and the idea that there is more than one way to learn a word has led some linguists to suggest that the lexicon and learning of syntactical structures are so intertwined that they can not be studied or learned separately. This new construct is known as the lexicalist theory  ADDIN EN.CITE Bates1997464617Bates, ElizabethGoodman, Judith C.On the Inseparability of Grammar and the Lexicon: Evidence from Acquisition, Aphasia and Real-time ProcessingLanguage & Cognitive ProcessesLanguage & Cognitive Processes507-584125/6LANGUAGE & languagesLEXICAL grammar1997Psychology Press (UK)http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ufh&AN=7611972&site=ehost-live internal-pdf://on.insep.gram.lex.bates-2251782657/on.insep.gram.lex.bates.pdf(Bates & Goodman, 1997) and it suggests that a unified system consisting of an interactive-activation model which uses current input and previous context to predict and determine word order and meaning  ADDIN EN.CITE Bates1997464617Bates, ElizabethGoodman, Judith C.On the Inseparability of Grammar and the Lexicon: Evidence from Acquisition, Aphasia and Real-time ProcessingLanguage & Cognitive ProcessesLanguage & Cognitive Processes507-584125/6LANGUAGE & languagesLEXICAL grammar1997Psychology Press (UK)http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ufh&AN=7611972&site=ehost-live internal-pdf://on.insep.gram.lex.bates-2251782657/on.insep.gram.lex.bates.pdf(Bates & Goodman, 1997). Past experience with the phrase or word will determine which bootstrapping system will be used to bring the word or phrase into the lexicon; therefore the lexicon does not work independently. The lexicalist theory and use of input and previous context seems to be closely tied to the use of semantics and linguistic schema. Childrens use of the two constructs increases as they grow from infants through school. New words, especially verbs, are learned based on a preexisting grammatical schema and lack of this schema leads to listening comprehension problems  ADDIN EN.CITE Akhtar1997242417Akhtar, NameeraTomasello, MichaelYoung children's productivity with word order and verb morphologyDevelopmental Psychology952-9653361997file:///C:/Documents%20and%20Settings/Mary%20Jane/My%20Documents/Libraries/language%20development/children.word.order.tomasello.pdf(Akhtar & Tomasello, 1997). Linguists studying elementary aged children noted that fast mapping led to minimal and unstable word learning, but a strong semantic foundation accelerated vocabulary growth  ADDIN EN.CITE Best2006151517Best, RachelDockrell, JulieBraisby, Nick RReal-world word learning: exploring children's developing semantic representations of a science termBritish Journal of Developmental Psychology265-282242006adequate understanding of the lexical processes for school age word learning is necessary fast mapping only leads to minimal knowledge of words which is unstable, partial, and framentary need to know about the kinds of input needed to support extended meanings learning a new word calls for noting phonological patterns, morphosyntactic features, semantic characteristics, links to conceptual knowledge what aids word retention over time acc. word knowledge based on strong semantic foundation learning a word is based on understanding of the concept of which it relates(Best et al., 2006). Therefore, it would follow that children in preschool and primary grades that do not have a store of linguistic and semantic schemes to help them acquire new words and structures will need to develop such schemata. Language Acquisition and Development: Grounded in Evolving Theories Now that we know that vocabulary and grammar can be closely tied into a single construct through linguistic and semantic schemata, lets consider how such complex language develops beyond the use of fast mapping and bootstrapping. We will revisit the theories of Burrhus Skinner, Noam Chomsky, Roger Brown, and Lev Vygotsky. During the mid 19th century, Skinner suggested that children learn language through imitating adult models. He also noted that children increase accurate use of meaning and grammar based on the feedback provided by parents. In 1957, Noam Chomsky dislodged this platform by noting that childrens structures are not always similar to adult use. Chomsky proposed that universal syntactic structures were used to develop language and these were operated through a linguistic activation device, which was innate in every human being. In 1973, Roger Brown published A First Language. Brown agreed with Chomsky in that syntactic structures seemed to help generate language learning. He also noted that children begin developing these structures soon after they turn one and continue through the elementary years at varying rates. He was unsure, however, what motivated children to want to increase the complexity of their language  ADDIN EN.CITE Brown1973556Brown, RogerA first language the early stages1973Cambridge, MAHarvard University Presskids learn various rates but go through same stages defined by cumulative complexity--basic grammatical/semantical relations; stage two of 14 basic english grammatical morphemes and their meaning; begins w/ a couple inflections and little words like in and on; grow on major construction blocks like nouns--stage 3; tag questions grammatical morphemes continue development through stage V frequency and perceptual variance play smaller role two word utterences cannot be tegraphic or pivot-- not sure what impels a child to improve studies adam, eve, sarah, just beginning to use two word sentences; only children at the start of the study stage 1--mlu 1.75-2.25......stage II--2.25-2.75....stage III--2.75-3.0....stage IV--3.5-4.0....stage V--4.0- stage 1--semantic roles and syntactic relations "sweep broom" 179 stage 2--grammatical roles and the modulation of meaning stage 3--modalities of the simple sentence stage 4--embedding of one sentence within another ("I hope I don't hurt it.") 21 stage 5--coordination of simple sentences and propositional relations ("We went up to Foxboro and there were slides.") 26 (Brown, 1973). It could be said that the work of Vygotsky actually ties together the views of Skinner, Chomsky, and Brown. The knot that keeps the work tied is based on Browns question about what motivates and enables children to engage in and learn language. Vygotsky actually developed his theories on language in the early 20th century. However, his work was not introduced to the western world until the 1960s and it was not widely understood until late in the 1970s  ADDIN EN.CITE Cole19787728Cole, MichaelJohn-Steiner, VeraScribner, SylviaSouberman, EllenMind in societyMind in society the development of higher psychological processes1978Cambridge, MAHarvard University Press(Cole, John-Steiner, Scribner, & Souberman, 1978). Vygotsky saw language as a tool that enables humans to manipulate their perception of their environment. Adults mediate the use of this tool for children within a social context. I would say that an increase in the effective use of language as a tool to engage with his environment could be the motivating factor in developing full use of language. Further, although language development is not solely dependent on imitation of adult models, it is dependent on the level of modeling and type of feedback provided by advanced speakers. Still further, once the lexical-syntactical forces are primed with sufficient linguistic schema, then syntactical structures begin to help drive the force behind language learning (although this process may be more simultaneous than linear). This entire operation is fueled by the social context in which it is situated. The context will determine what is modeled, type of feedback provided, and therefore the complexity of linguistic schema to develop as a tool. It is also important to note that the types of linguistic schemas that develop are varied; and it could be this variance as well as developmental level that cause some school age children to struggle in school. Social Context and Discourse Matter Language development is contextually bound. Children grow up in unique contexts that facilitate the development of complex structures and meanings, as well as particular dialects and discourses  ADDIN EN.CITE Ruddell197018185Ruddell, Robert B.Singer, HarryRuddell, Robert B.Language acquisition and the reading processTheoretical Models and Processes of Reading1-19151970NewarkInternational Reading Association4 things to consider: language comprehension preceeds and exceeds ability to produce language lang comp is a direct function of his control over the grammatical and lexical coponents of the discourse languae competenceand performance appear to move through a develpmental sequence druing the elementary years (like Brown?) his language performance is directly related to his language environment, including available language model and opportunity for language interaction, his comprehension strategies and objectives, and possibly matruation of his laten language structuresHodges1970775Hodges, Richard E.Singer, HarryRuddell, Robert B.Reactions to language acquisition an the reading processTheoretical Models and Processes of Reading 20-22Affective BehaviorCognitive ProcessesLanguage SkillsLinguisticsModelsReadingReading AbilityReading InstructionReading ProcessesReading RateReading ResearchWord Recognition1970NewarkInternational Reading Association, consider variations in language as developmental, dialectic, pathological must be considered for a practical modelHeath1983666Heath, Shirley BriceWays with words language, life, and word in communities and classrooms1983New York, N. Y.Cambridge University Presstalk more isn't it...trackton got more, but it tranferred less; townspeople created avenues for children and directed their attention "It is as thought in the drama of life, townspeiople parents freeze scenes and prats of scenes at certain points along the way."--running narratives on items and events using referents using focused language as a tool and the turntaking and next steps associated with it including "listen to and benefit from..." "In any case, unless the bondaries between classrooms and communities can be broken, and the flow of cultural patterns etween them encouraged, the schools will continue to legitmate and reproduce communities of townspeiople who control and limit the potential progress of other communities and who themselfves remain untiouced by other values and ways of life."--369Gee200481815Gee, James PaulRuddell, R. B.Unrau, N. J.Reading as situated language: A sociocognitive perspectiveTheoretical models and processes in reading116-1325th52004Newark, DEInternational Reading Associationlanguage scaffolds action and scaffolds perspctive more than information conveyor children learn grammar and meaning through interactive, intersubjective dialogue with more advaned peers adn adults many different social languages w/ different patterns of vocabulary , sytnax and discourse connectors "The mapping from elements of vocabulary, syntax, and discourse to a spcific style of language used in characteristic social activuitiies is just as much a part of reading adn writing as the phoics mapping. In fact, more people fail to become successful school-based academic, work work-related readers or writers becasuse of failing to master this sort of mappping than the phonics one."---connect to heath social language is a part of early literacy classification questions and related syntactic an ddiscourse resources are a common part of may school based and academic social languages early language and early phonological awareness are correlated everyone comes with language but some kids' verbal abilities are not tied to specific school=based practices and school-based genres of oral and written language of classificatory or interpretive questions...countless protoforms Watson2001995Watson, RitaDickinson, David K.Neuman, Susan B.Literacy and oral language: implications for early literacy acquisitionHandbook of Early Literacy Research43-52122001New York, N. Y.The Guilford Pressgenerational affect on language--making it more literate and inferential need lots of "events"....takes a long time to get from experiential to the definitional/interpretaional(Gee, 2004; Heath, 1983; Hodges, 1970; Ruddell, 1970; Watson, 2001). Studies focused on these different discourses have important implications for the classrooms and literacy acquisition. Heath (1983) and other classroom teachers employed ethnography to study three different communities that were located very close to one another. Each community raised their children in distinctly different discourses, or rules and types of engagement. One was rather loose in that children used an influx of verbal stimuli and types of feedback, much of which was based on teasing. This group came to school with rich language; but lacked attention to rules and types of engagement and met with failure early on in school. Another group only allowed free expression when playing with age appropriate peers, and were to speak only according to strict protocols of politeness when with adults. These children started out fairly steadily in school, but many dropped out of high school or graduated but did not go on to college. These children understood the (school related?) rules of engagement early on, but they were unable to vary the type of engagement to include complex, conceptual learning required for continued success in school. The third community consisted of professionals and their families. CThese children from this community were encouraged to speak and tell stories in and out of the home. Adults used language as a tool to help children access different aspects of their world. The parents asked questions and children learned they benefited from answering and listening. This discourse matched that of their schools and these children succeeded throughout school. Watson (2001) substantiates Heaths observations, also stating that there is a generational effect on language making it more literate and inferential and interpretive (via questions and answering protocols that help frame and define events before, during, and after they occur). This discourse matches the discourse in school which means that children whothat are accustomed to it cross into the school culture rather seamlessly. Many children come to school using a discourse that is more experience basedin the now. Watson goes further to explain that it requires a lot of events to build the linguistic schemas that can add a definitional discourse to a childs toolbox. It may seem as though discourse comes into play more after reading acquisition stage. However, Gee (2004) suggests that it is equally important during the preschool and primary years because These protoformsare the stuff from which success in school-based and academic reading flows (p. 131). Summary of Language Development Children must develop a complex and flexible use of language and language discourses in order to succeed in school. This process begins in the home environment as children begin to fast map and bootstrap various meanings and syntactic structures into a single system. Linguistic schema sets the path for the accumulation of linguistic experiences to develop more and more complex syntax and vocabulary and is dependent on context (Dionne, 2003; Akhtar & Tomeselo, 1997). Different home and community cultures model different discourses through this process, some of which match those used in preschool and school and some which doare not. A great many children come to school with complex and varied syntax and vocabulary, but a mismatch in discourse could block a child from using his or her language tools (Watson, 2001; Gee, 2004; Heath, 1995). Towards a Systems Conceptualization of Reading Acquisition Vocabulary and syntax are directly related to decoding on two frontsthe development of phonological awareness and syntactical awareness. Decoding involves phonological awareness and the development of this skill is dependent on vocabulary. Decoding in continuous texts is facilitated through the efficient use of syntactical awareness, which is also a language skill. Moreover, I suggest syntactical awareness is indicative of the level of linguistic schema developed by a child, which will also impact the rate of vocabulary growth. A systems approach would consider decoding to be multidimensional, accessing phonological, syntactic, and semantic information. Learning to decode would mean learning to access and monitor all sources of information. If there is a delay in any one source, then it will stress the process and the system could break down. Finally the discourse used for instruction could impact the childrenss access to their his vocabulary and syntax in order to develop this decoding system. In a sense, the childs system of language needs to be connected to the system of decoding through a matching instructional discourse. If the discourse doesnt connect these entities, then the child cannot access his or her his language tools and struggles to perceive print. Implications for Practice and Research Preschool and primary teachers could be empowered with knowledge of language development. It is imperative that the classrooms offer the social and pragmatic supports necessary for children to continue to develop more and more complex vocabulary and forms of linguistic schema. Teachers also need to be able to determine and communicate effectively with the discourse community of the home. This will enable them her to bridge the children into the discourse of school so that they continue to build upon the language that they currently control. Teacher education programs can help provide some of the tools that will help teachers in this endeavor. First, courses in linguistics and language should continue to be valued and should include experience with discourse. However, a theoretical understanding of language development and discourse will not be enough to create the classroom described above. The diversity in American classrooms demands that every teacher become a researcher, much like the teachers that worked with Heath in the 1970s  ADDIN EN.CITE Heath1983666Heath, Shirley BriceWays with words language, life, and word in communities and classrooms1983New York, N. Y.Cambridge University Presstalk more isn't it...trackton got more, but it tranferred less; townspeople created avenues for children and directed their attention "It is as thought in the drama of life, townspeiople parents freeze scenes and prats of scenes at certain points along the way."--running narratives on items and events using referents using focused language as a tool and the turntaking and next steps associated with it including "listen to and benefit from..." "In any case, unless the bondaries between classrooms and communities can be broken, and the flow of cultural patterns etween them encouraged, the schools will continue to legitmate and reproduce communities of townspeiople who control and limit the potential progress of other communities and who themselfves remain untiouced by other values and ways of life."--369(Heath, 1983). Teachers could use action research skills to learn about the communities from which their children come, t. Then use this knowledge to build discourse communities in their classrooms that connect reading to their students. Applied research efforts via professional development schools could guide this work with in-service and pre-service teachers in their communities. Basic research efforts could further explore the relationship between language and reading acquisition. The work of Lonigan (date) and Torok (date) needs to be replicated and extended so more teachers, researchers, and policy makers understand the nature of reading acquisition. Finally, the researchers in this area should have a summit of sorts to work out the theory that is supporting the development of the structural equation models being used in their research. This may bring some unity and clarification to just how a child accesses the code for reading. References  ADDIN EN.REFLIST Akhtar, N., & Tomasello, M. (1997). Young children's productivity with word order and verb morphology. Developmental Psychology, 33(6), 952-965. Anisfeld, M., Rosenberg, E. S., Hoberman, M. J., & Gasparini, D. (1998). Lexical acceleration coincides with the onset of combinatorial speech. First Language, 18, 165-184. Bates, E., & Goodman, J. C. (1997). On the inseparability of grammar and the lexicon: Evidence from acquisition, aphasia and real-time processing. Language & Cognitive Processes, 12(5/6), 507-584. Behrend, D., A., Scofield, J., & Kleinknecht, E. E. (2001). Beyond fast mapping: yourng children's extentions of novel words and novel facts. Developmental Psychology, 37(5), 698-705. Best, R., Dockrell, J., & Braisby, N. R. (2006). Real-world word learning: exploring children's developing semantic representations of a science term. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 24, 265-282. Brown, R. (1973). A first language the early stages. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Burgess, S. R. (2006). The development of phonological sensitivity. In D. K. Dickinson & S. B. Nueman (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (Vol. 2, pp. 90-100). New York: The Guilford Press. Carey, S. (1978). The child as a word learner. In M. Hale, J. Bresnan & G. A. Miller (Eds.), Linguistic theory and psychological reality (pp. 264-291). Cambridge: The MIT Press. Chaney, C. (1991). Language development, metalinguistic awareness and emergent litecary skills of 3-year-old children in relaation to social class. Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development. Christophe, A., Guasti, T., & Nespor, M. (1997). Reflections on phonological bootstrapping: Its role for lexical and syntactic acquisition. Language & Cognitive Processes, 12(5/6), 585-612. Cole, M., John-Steiner, V., Scribner, S., & Souberman, E. (Eds.). (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Deak, G., & Wagner, J. H. (2003). "Slow mapping" in children's learning of semantic relations. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the twenty-fifth annual conference of the cognitive science society, London. Dickinson, D. K., McCabe, A., & Essex, M. J. (2006). A window of opportunity we must open to all: The case for preschool with high-quality support for language and literacy. In D. K. Dickinson & S. B. Neuman (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (Vol. 2, pp. 11-28). New York: The Guilford Press. Gee, J. P. (2004). Reading as situated language: A sociocognitive perspective. In R. B. Ruddell & N. J. Unrau (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes in reading (Vol. 5th, pp. 116-132). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Heath, S. B. (1983). Ways with words language, life, and word in communities and classrooms. New York, N. Y.: Cambridge University Press. Hodges, R. E. (1970). Reactions to language acquisition an the reading process. In H. Singer & R. B. Ruddell (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (pp. 20-22). Newark: International Reading Association. Lonigan, C. J. (2006). Conceptualizing phonological processing skills in prereaders. In D. K. Dickinson & S. B. Nueman (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (Vol. 2, pp. 77-89). New York: The Guilford Press. Lonigan, C. J. (2007). Vocabulary development and the development of phonological awareness skills in preschool children. In R. K. Wagner, A. E. Muse & K. R. Tannenbaum (Eds.), Vocabulary acquisition: Implications for reading comprehension (pp. 15-31). New York: The Guilford Press. Lonigan, C. J., Burgess, S. R., & Anthony, J. L. (2000). Development of emergent literacy and early reading skills in preschool children: evidence from a latent-variable longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 36(5), 596-613. Neuhaus, G. E., Roldan, L. W., Boulware-Gooden, R., & Swank, P. R. (2006). Parsimonious reading models: identifying teachable subskills. Reading Psychology, 27, 37-58. NICHD. (2005). Pathways to reading: the roles of oral language in the transition to reading. Developmental Psychology, 41(2), 428-442. Patton, P. E., Kempthome, D., Huckabee, M., Granholm, J., Holden, B., Taft, B., et al. (2005). Building the Foundation for Bright Futures: National Governors Association. Roth, F. P., Speece, D. L., Cooper, D. H., & De La Paz, S. (1996). Uresolved mysteries: How do metlinguistic and narrative skills connect with early reading? Journal of Special Edcuation, 30(3), 257-277. Ruddell, R. B. (1970). Language acquisition and the reading process. In H. Singer & R. B. Ruddell (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (Vol. 1, pp. 1-19). Newark: International Reading Association. Rumelhart, D. E. (1994). Towards an interactive model of reading. In R. B. Ruddell, M. R. Ruddell & H. Singer (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (Vol. 4t, pp. 864-894). Newark: International Reading Association. Sadoski, M., & Paivio, A. (2004). A dual coding theoretical model of reading. In R. B. Rudell, M. R. Ruddell & H. Singer (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (Vol. 5, pp. 1329-1360). Newark: International Reading Association. Scarborough, H. S. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: evidence, thoery, and practice. In D. K. Dickinson & S. B. Neuman (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (Vol. 1, pp. 97-110). New York, N.Y.: The Guilford Press. School Readiness: Helping Communities Get Children Ready for School and Schools Ready for Children. (2001).). Washington, D.C.: Child Trends. Storch, S. A., & Whitehurst, G. J. (2002). Oral language and code-related precursors to reading: evidence from a longitunidnal strucural model. Developmental Psychology, 38(6), 934-947. Torok, S. E. (2005). Cognitive and metalinguistic precursors of emergent literacy skills: A reexamination of the specific roles played by syntactic awareness and phonological awareness in phonological decoding, decontextualized word identification, and reading comprehension. Unpublished Dissertation, University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany. Watson, R. (2001). Literacy and oral language: implications for early literacy acquisition. In D. K. Dickinson & S. B. Neuman (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (Vol. 1, pp. 43-52). New York, N. Y.: The Guilford Press. Whitehurst, G., J., & Lonigan, C. J. (1998). Child development and emergent literacy. Child Development, 69(3), 848-872.      PAGE  PAGE 21 Language and Literacy Acquisition Excellent point Great intro! See APA to avoid gender bias. Between the amount of vocabulary the child knows, how easily the child learns vocabulary, that sort of thing? I wonder how this works out cross-culturally or for children with exposure to different types of vocabulary. This is just a suggestion for structuring what you are saying. Good transitions they make the paper easy to follow! Or were used to? I guess they used it and also experienced it. Rules as they existed at school (they knew the rules at home, it seems). Is Watsons work going beyond Heaths? (you do not mention the generational effect above). Could you say, research suggests? and then give a citation or two-- I like the ideawording seems a bit awkward. 12  AByz{HI7"8"^"_"`"a"m"""O#l#m#s####R'S'u'v'x''b(c(....m/n/-5.5e5f5i55588 9 9Q9]9^9EEEEܸܸܸ츴참ܸܸhthc"jhIBhUjhyUh|FjhUhh=h Ljh=Uh!hIBhhzhyhC)hsE23456789>?@Acdxy$a$gdy$a$gdseIf;im#FiI d`gd|Fdgdy $da$gdy$a$gdyEEFFFFfIgI{J|J}J~JJJJK KKKYYYYZZnn%o&onooooooop p7q8qWqqqrr!rrrr !֖֚hZjh!@Uh!h!@hbh!Poh_vh_v6H* h_v6%hvhvcHdhdhdhRӷHhRӷhvhvjh@DUh_vh Ljh. 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