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Sigmund Freud Sigmund FreudVznam:NarozenDatum: HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/6._kv%C4%9Bten" \o "6. kvten" 6. kvtna HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1856" \o "1856" 1856Msto: HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C5%99%C3%ADbor_%28okres_Nov%C3%BD_Ji%C4%8D%C3%ADn%29" \o "PYbor (okres Nov Ji n)" PYbormrtDatum: HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/23._z%C3%A1%C5%99%C3%AD" \o "23. zY" 23. zY HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1939" \o "1939" 1939Msto: HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lond%C3%BDn" \o "Londn" Londn,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spojen%C3%A9_kr%C3%A1lovstv%C3%AD" \o "Spojen krlovstv" UKSigmund Freud ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/6._kv%C4%9Bten" \o "6. kvten" 6. kvtna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1856" \o "1856" 1856  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C5%99%C3%ADbor_%28okres_Nov%C3%BD_Ji%C4%8D%C3%ADn%29" \o "PYbor (okres Nov Ji n)" PYbor   HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/23._z%C3%A1%C5%99%C3%AD" \o "23. zY" 23. zY  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1939" \o "1939" 1939  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lond%C3%BDn" \o "Londn" Londn) byl znmm  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9ka%C5%99" \o "LkaY" lkaYem a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychiatr&action=edit" \o "Psychiatr" psychiatrem  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsbursk%C3%A1_monarchie" \o "Habsbursk monarchie" Habsbursk monarchie. Proslul pYedevam jako autor  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorie" \o "Teorie" teorie  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanal%C3%BDza" \o "Psychoanalza" psychoanalzy. Sigmund Freud ( 1856-1939 ) Narodil se v PYboYe na Morav dne 6 kvtna. V sedmncti letech ukon il stYedn akolu a pod vlivem Goethovy bsn "PYroda " - se rozhodl zprvu vnovat vd. Pro vdeHskho ~ida bylo vaak studium " ist" vdy vylou eno. Tehdy byly ~idom otevYeny pouze tyto mo~nosti: obchod, prva a medicna. Rozhodl se pro medicnu a na podzim roku 1873 vstoupil na vdeHskou universitu. Vtainu asu strvil ve fyziologick laboratoYi pod vlivem profesora Ernsta Brcka.Zjem doby o fyziologi byl tsn spjat s evolu n orientac. Vdci se sna~ili vyplnit mezery v poznn fylogenetickho vvoje od jednobun nch organismo k vyaam ~ivo ichom, v etn lovka. Zvlatn doraz kladli na fyzikln energie, pY iny a nsledky a zcela vylu ovali nehmotn , antropomorfn plny a bo~sk ely. Darwin byl pro toto hnut hvzdou. Freud co by mlad vdec se tohoto hnut z astnil a stal se na njakou dobu materialistou. V roce 1876 byl pYijat do Brckova Fyziologickho stavu jako vdeck pracovnk. Zde zkoumal histologii nervovch bunk a za pt let shrom~dil dole~it poznatky, kter shrnul v Yad stat. V roce 1881 kone n doshl doktortu, jeho ~ivot se tm vaak prozatm nezmnil, neboe nespchal se zahjenm lkaYsk praxe a pracoval dle ve vdeck innosti na Fyziologickm stav. Po zasnouben s Martou Bernaysovou se v ervenci roku 1882 rozhodl nastoupit tYletou praxi ve vdeHsk vaeobecn nemocnici. Zde pYeael z oddlen internch chorob na psychiatrickou kliniku Theodora Meynerta, kde nasbral psychiatrickou praxi l enm paciento, ae u~ trpli vnitYnmi i duaevnmi chorobami. Pozdji se chtl alspoH ste n vrtit k vdeck prci a byl pYijat do laboratoYe, kde se zabval zkoumnm ontogenetickho vvoje mozku, zvlat prodlou~en mchy, od dtsv a~ po dosplost. Dky publikovanm lnkom si zskal povst vznamnho neurologa. Roku 1885 splnil po~adavky na msto soukromho docenta neurologie a pYednesl veYejnou pYednaku na tma "Medullrn drhy mozku". Njak as strvil v Charcotov laboratoYi v Salpetriere v PaY~i, kde se studoval hysterii, zvlat ochrnut, kter tuto chorobu v nkterch pYpadech doprovz. Do t doby znal pY inu organickho porann, ale co zposobuje hysterick ochrnut ? Profesor Jean Martin Charcot , jeden z nejvznamnjach neurologo devatenctho stolet, mu odpovdel , ~e pY inou je njak dynamick trauma , o kterm mohl Yici jen to, ~e je to trauma, kter nen mo~no vidt. Od tto chvle Freud dle pokra oval ve sv neurologick prci a jednak ptral po vznamu nevidnho, dynamickho traumatu jako po pY in funk n duaevn choroby, tomuto ptrn zasvtil tyYicet let. PYed odjezdem do PaY~e nastoupil jako Yeditel neurologick kliniky v novm stavu pro dtsk choroby ve Vdni. Zde pobyl Yadu let, publikoval zprvu o hemianopsii u dt, zajmal se o problm afzie a v dalach letech uveYejnil osm lnko a monografii o mozkov paralze u dt. V tto dob se ji~ hluboce zabval zkoumnm dynamickho traumatu, kter Charcot ozna il za pY inu neurz. Na jaYe roku 1886 se o~enil s Martou Bernaysovou a otevYel si ve Vdni ordinaci, kde chtl Freud l it nemocn pacienty. Vdl, ~e vtaina paciento, kteY budou pYichzet, jsou ambulantn pYpady t i on neurzy a jen mlo z nich trp organickou poruchou. Jak je m l it, kdy~ povahu neorganick choroby nezn ani on, ani nikdo jin ? Jak to, ~e lid onemocn bez skute nho porann nebo nemoci? Freud musel pragmaticky zkouaet to i ono bez teoretickho zkladu. V tto dob si Freud znepYtelil lkYsk kruhy ve Vdni, kdy~ v pYednace hjil Charcotov nzor, ~e hysterie se neomezuje jen na ~eny. Jako ve vtain zem svta se pokldala za vlu n ~enskou chorobu a hjila se teze, ~e mu~i nemo~ou bt hysteri t. Freudovi poslucha i prohlaaovali, ~e snad hysteri trp Francouzi, Rakuaan vaak nikdy. Freud nakonec dokzal sv tvrzen ukzkou hysterika pYmo v lkaYsk nemocnici a zposobil si tak sr~ku s LkaYskou spole nost. Po mnoha nezdarech pYi l en si Freud pYe etl knihu dr. Hypplota Bernheima "Sugesce a jej pou~it jako terapie", bvalho studenta prof.Charcota . Dr. Bernheim podrobn popisoval pou~it hypnotick sugesce jako formu terapie a byl pYesvd en o efektivnosti tto metody. Freud tuto metodu ihned vyzouael na svch pacientech s pYekvapujcmi vsledky, kdy~ v prvnch tdnech zaznamenal nkolik rychle vyl ench pYpado. Do ordinace se hrnuli neurotikov a Freud ve svm ~ivotopise pae:" ... A tak se samozYejm stalo, ~e v prvnch letech m lkaYsk praxe mm hlavnm pracovnm nstrojem - vedle nhodnch a nesoustavnch psychoterapeutickch metod - byla hypnotick sugesce. Znamenalo to ovaem , ~e jsem se vzdal l en org. nervovch chorob; to vaak nebylo dole~it. Neboe v soukrom praxi lkaYe, kter pracuje ve velkm mst, mno~stv takovch paciento nen ni m ve srovnnm se zstupy neurotiko, jejich~ po et se zdnliv zvyauje tm, jak bhaj od jednoho lkaYe ke druhmu - ani~ odstran jejich pot~e - a krom toho bylo v prci s hypnzou nco svodnho. Po prv jsem ctil, ~e jsem pYekonal vlastn nemohoucnost; ..." . Pozdji zjistil, ~e nkter pacienty nelze vobec hypnotisovat nebo jen velmi povrchn, proto strvil nkolik tdno roku 1889 v Nancy a pozoroval dr. Libaulta a dr. Bernheima pYi prci. Jejich pacienti byli hypnotisovni, doshli somnambilismu s amnzi a pak jim lkaY povdl nebo i naYdil, ~e ji~ nikdy nebudou ctit pYznaky choroby. Freud se nadaen vrtil do Vdn, ale jak sm Yk : " zskal jsem dojem, ~e snad existuj mocn psychick procesy, kter vaak zostvaj pro lidsk vdom skryty " . Nabval dle pYesvd en, ~e jde ve skute nosti o podvdn pacienta a vdeck prozkum neurz zostv utajen, spolu s objevem dynamickho traumatu. Co je to dynamick trauma, kter zposobuje "bezpY inn choroby"? Freud si vzpomnl na rozhovor s dr. Josefem Breuerem, kter mu vyprvl o pYpadu hysterie mlad ~eny, jen~ onemocnla pYi oaetYovn umrajcho otce. Byla ochrnut a trpla stavy psychick pomatenosti, kter mizela, jakmile byla schopna vyslovit ur itou fantastickou pYedstavu, jen~ v dan okam~ik mla na mysli. Breuer ji pYiml ve stavu hlubok hypnosy, aby mu sdlila, co t~ jej mysl. Tmto zposobem postupn rozptlil rozn ochrnn a tlum, jimi~ nemocn trpla. To byl slavn pYpad Anny O. Breuer sdlil Freudovi, ~e pacientka nebyla v bdlm stavu naprosto schopna uvst souvislost pYznako se svmi ~ivotnmi z~itky. V hypnotickm stavu je vaak sdlila a Breuer zjistil, ~e vaechny souvis s udlostmi umrajcho otce a vzpomnkami na nj. Breuerova teorie spo vala v tom, ~e pYznak nahradil hnut, kter se nemohlo uskute nit v situaci, kdy pacientka musela oaetYovat svho otce. Freud ctil, ~e naael dynamick trauma, kter hledal. Nutnost potla it siln impuls vyvolala duaevn poruchu a fyzick pYznaky byly nhra~ky jednn, kter by odpovdalo danmu impulsu. Dle Breuer tvrdil, ~e kdy~ pacientka pro~ila vaechny emoce pYsluaejcmu potla enmu psychickmu hnut, pYznaky zmizely a ji~ se nevrtily. Tento zposob nazval "katarze". Freud pou~il tuto metodu na l en hysteriko a po dvou letech pYipojil tyYi vlastn pYpady a oba lkaYi napsali knihu "Studie o hysterii", kter vyala v roce 1895. Zde ji~ alo o vznamn krok k psychoanalze, jeliko~ tato teorie zdorazHovala vznam emoc a rozliaovn mezi vdommi a nevdommi psychickmi iny. U lovka existuje konstantn mno~stv tzv."psychick energie", kter nenajde-li ventil,je-li zadr~ena, projev se jako patologick pYznak. Clem je vytvoYit podmnky na usmrnn do normlnho stavu. Jeat v tm~e roce Freud napsal spis "Projekt" v nm~ hlavn lohu pYidlil vzruaivmu a tlumovmu procesu. Freud se sna~il vybudovat celou teoretickou stavbu lidsk psychiky z hlediska fyziologie, od po itko a vjemo a~ k myalen a emocm. Od roku 1895 se Freud stal dualistou, jeliko~ nebyla v t dob prozkoumna fyziologie mozku a nemohl studovat psychologii jako vdu zvislou na tto fyziologii a sm pae: "Naprosto se nedomnvm, ~e oblast psychologickho se vzna ve vzduchu, bez jakhokoli org. zkladu. Avaak krom tohoto pYesvd en nemm ani teoretick ani terapeutick poznatky }ivot Byl nejstaram ze aesti dt z tYetho man~elstv  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDid%C3%A9" \o "}id" ~idovskho obchodnka s ltkami Jcoba Freuda s Amli Nathannovou. Narodil se do spole enstv asimilovanch ~ido v Moravskm PYboYe. Od roku  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1859" \o "1859" 1859 vaak rodina ~ila ve  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%ADde%C5%88" \o "VdeH" Vdni. Freud jako mal nechodil do akoly, zkladn vzdln zskal doma. V deseti letech nastoupil na stYedn akolu, pozdji znmou jako Sperlovo gymnzium, patYil zde k nejlepam ~kom, stal se primusem a absolvoval s vyznamennm. Za tkem zimnho semestru roku  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1873" \o "1873" 1873 za al studovat medicnu a to ve velmi airokm spektru a opt s vynikajcmi vsledky. V osmm roce studia se stal doktorem. Dlouho se brnil emigraci pYed  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" \o "Adolf Hitler" Hitlerem, a kdy~ poznal, ~e utct je nutn, nacist mu to ji~ nechtli dovolit. S pomoc svch vlivnch pYtel nakonec tsn pYed vlkou a krtce pYed svou smrt uprchl pYed  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacismus" \o "Nacismus" nacismem i s velkou st sv rodiny do Londna, kde tak zemYel. Jeho tyYi sestry, kter zostaly v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakousko" \o "Rakousko" Rakousku, se staly obtmi  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocaust" \o "Holocaust" holocaustu. Prce Aby vydlal penze zvolil msto teoretick drhy praxi v mstskch nemocnicch na intern, pozdji na psychiatrii  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%ADde%C5%88" \o "VdeH" vdeHsk nemocnice. Roku  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1884" \o "1884" 1884 zastval msto primYe a pYatho roku se stal  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docent" \o "Docent" docentem. Po nvratu z ro nho stipendijnho pobytu v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pa%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%BE" \o "PaY~" PaY~i u profesora Jeana-Martina Charcota se vrtil v roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1886" \o "1886" 1886 do Vdn, kde se o~enil s Martou Bernaysovou a otevYel si soukromou praxi, kde se zabval l enm  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neur%C3%B3za" \o "Neurza" neurz a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hysterie" \o "Hysterie" hysterie.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soubor:Sigmund_Freud_memorial_plaque.jpg" \o "Sigmund Freud  pamtn deska na rodnm dom v PYboYe."  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Sigmund_Freud_memorial_plaque.jpg/180px-Sigmund_Freud_memorial_plaque.jpg" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soubor:Sigmund_Freud_memorial_plaque.jpg" \o "Zvtait"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://cs.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Sigmund Freud  pamtn deska na rodnm dom v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C5%99%C3%ADbor_%28okres_Nov%C3%BD_Ji%C4%8D%C3%ADn%29" \o "PYbor (okres Nov Ji n)" PYboYe. Publikoval Yadu prac a sna~il se pYednaet o svch vzkumech a hypotzch, ale ve sv dob se tyto snahy nesetkaly s pYlia kladnm ohlasem, zvlat u odborn veYejnosti. Podobn dl mla vaak i dla zahrani nch lkaYo, napYklad ji~ zmnnho Charcota. Velice vznamn je napYklad Vklad sno z roku  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1900" \o "1900" 1900. Spole n se svm pYtelem doktorem Breuerem publikoval prci o pYpadu  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \l "P.C5.99.C3.ADpad_Anny_O._.28Chorobopis_Anny_O..29" \o "" Anny O. a z jeho katarzn metody vyvinul svtov proslulou  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanal%C3%BDza" \o "Psychoanalza" psychoanalzu, jej~ zkladn myalenkou je nalezen  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nev%C4%9Bdom%C3%AD" \o "Nevdom" nevdomch pudovch ( asto  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pohlavn%C3%AD_styk" \o "Pohlavn styk" sexulnch) pY in psychickch obt~, kter mohou mt vliv na fyzick stav pacienta. Svmi objevy o vlastnostech tehdy spae neznmho a zhadnho  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nev%C4%9Bdom%C3%AD" \o "Nevdom" nevdom naprosto zmnil tmY vaechny oblasti lidskho ~ivota a i ti lkaYi, kteY jeho u en neuznvaj, se s jeho zklady setkvaj a jeat dlouho setkvat budou v ka~dodenn praxi. Metody a Hypotzy Freudovy teorie a metody byly nejdYve velmi kontroverzn, pozdji velmi mdn. A  se dnes zd, ~e st jeho  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypot%C3%A9za" \o "Hypotza" hypotz nebyla zcela sprvn (pYeceHoval napYklad vliv  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pohlavn%C3%AD_styk" \o "Pohlavn styk" sexuality), zna n st jeho nzoro na l en lidsk psychiky plat dodnes. Podlel se na vvoji hlubinn  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie" \o "Psychologie" psychologie, kter vychz z  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestaltismus" \o "Gestaltismus" gestaltismu a ten z  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nativismus&action=edit" \o "Nativismus" nativismu. V jeho klinick praxi vyu~val metod, kter setrvaly do dneanch dob. Myslel si, ~e problm je ukryt v podvdom sti mysli. Dky stylu  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diagn%C3%B3za&action=edit" \o "Diagnza" diagnza +  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Terapie&action=edit" \o "Terapie" terapie doclil vyplynut problmu do racionln sti mysli. Freud zastval teorii, ~e mozek je rozdlen do tY st: Ego, superego a id Pojmy ego, superego a id jsou v psychologick teorii  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Sigmunda Freuda zkladn slo~ky osobnosti lovka. Ego Pojem ego, neboli  j , se Yd principem reality a vyrovnv posoben slo~ky sociln (superego) a pudov (id), je vdom i pYedvdom, a vsledkem jeho innosti je naae chovn. V modern psychologii se tmto pojmem ozna uje nejen Ego podle Freuda, ale i slo~ka, kterou vydlil jako SuperEgo. Jde o racionln slo~ku, kter se Yd principy svdom, povinnost a socilnch jistot. Jej protivahou je stle ID. Pokud ve vvoji lovka dojde k njak chyb (krtko i dlouhodob vznikajc), mo~e nastat porucha rozpolcen osobnosti (napY.:  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizofrenie" \o "Schizofrenie" schizofrenie). Superego Superego, neboli  Nad J , je jedna ze tY slo~ek osobnosti podle Sigmunda  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud" \o "Freud" Freuda. Xd se principem dokonalosti:  Chce bt dokonal z hlediska spole nosti a posob vdom i nevdom. Vznik posobenm vchovy, neboli okol, kter na ns m vliv a sna~ se ns civilizovat do standardo spole nosti, ve kter vyrostme. Je naa za~itou vnitYn morlkou, neboli svdomm. V dnean modern psychologii se ji~ pojem superego nepou~v a nahradilo ho prost ego, kter vaak podle  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud" \o "Freud" Freuda existuje tak a m vlastn vznam.  J"  Ze sou asnho pohledu ozna en lidsk jedine nosti a odlianosti od ostatnch lid. T~ rozpoznn a vnmn osobn identity, vnman vlastnmi smysly a pocity. Id neboli ono, je jednou ze tY slo~ek teorie  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osobnost" \o "Osobnost" osobnosti podle Sigmunda Freuda.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud" \o "Freud" Freud tvrd, ~e vae je zalo~eno na uspokojovn slasti a id tento rys naaeho  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nev%C4%9Bdom%C3%AD" \o "Nevdom" nevdom pYedstavuje a zastupuje. Je slo~kou vrozenou, primrn je pro nj dosahovn slasti; funguje v oblasti  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podv%C4%9Bdom%C3%AD" \o "Podvdom" podvdom (nevdom, chcete-li) a to bez vjimky iracionln.  Idem v akci mo~eme ozna it novorozence. V modern psychologii je id nzvem pro van, pudy, pYn, touhy,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spont%C3%A1nnost&action=edit" \o "Spontnnost" spontnnost& a jeho protivahou je ego. Pokud dojde k njakmu v~nmu naruaen ve vvoji osobnosti (s krtkodobm i dlouhodobm trvnm) nsledkem mo~e bt rozpolcen osobnosti na osobnost, kde pYeva~uje id a osobnost, kde pYeva~uje ego (napY. schizofrenie).cs:Ego, superego a id  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superego" \o "Superego" superego osobn morlka jedince  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ego" \o "Ego" ego individuln zkuenosti  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/ID" \o "ID" ID pudov tendence, podle principu slasti Z tchto st byly  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superego" \o "Superego" superego a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/ID" \o "ID" ID iracionln. Dle definoval vvoj sexulnho pudu: Orln obdob (0.  1. rok; kojenci) Erotogenn zna (dle e. z.) ! sta Anln (1.  2. rok) E. z.: vyprazdHovac funkce Falick (2.  3. roky) E.z.: genitlie Oidipovsk drama = oidipovsk komplex Falick chlapec ! kastra n komplex  mu~i se boj o svoj penis ! potla en touhy po matce ! ztoto~nn se s otcem Falick dvka ! strach z otcova penisu ! ~rlivost na matku ! ztoto~nn se s matkou pYes ob asn roztr~ky a stl respekt a lska k otci Latentn (7.  12. let) Zamrz sexuln pud Genitln (13. a vce let) Zral pro~vn sexulnch pudo PYpad Anny O. (Chorobopis Anny O.) PYpad Anny O. byl tm, co Freuda nejspa nejvce inspirovalo k  vynlezu psychoanalzy. PYtele Breuera, s kterm se jako se staram lkaYem seznmil pYi studich a kter ho dlouhou dobu podporoval, tmY donutil k napsn tohoto chorobopisu, kter byl o Bert Pamppeheimov. Poprv se o tomto pYpadu Freud dozvdl v roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1882" \o "1882" 1882 od Breuera, prostYednictvm nejen jeho poznmek. Pak pYpad sledoval, a i pozdji se cht necht o Bert dozvdal, jeliko~ byla nkolikansobn spYznn s jeho ~enou. PYpad za al v roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1880" \o "1880" 1880, kdy byl k devtadvacetilet ~en poprv povoln Breuer. Diagnostikoval t~kou hysterii a za al ~enu l it. Ta trpla fyzickmi poruchami, kter vaak mly povod v psychickm vypt, proto~e se po nocch starala o nemocnho otce. Breuer l il klidem na lo~ku, ale rok na to otec umr a symptomy se vrtily. Breuer byl jedin, komu dvka dovYovala, a tak mohl vyzkouaet hypnzu. Uvdl do n Bertu dvakrt denn: rno nechval dvku samostatn hovoYit mnohem vce a dlal si poznmky; ve er poznmkami zhypnotizovan ~en pomhal jako vodtkem a sna~il se zjistit vce konkrtnch informac. Navdnm se dozvdl to, co by dvka pYi vdom nikdy neYekla. Kdy~ prozradila, ~e radji, ne~ bt s otcem, by dlala nco jinho, pYznaky postupn zmizely a l ba tak byla velmi span, ovaem pacientka mla k doktorovi m dl bl~, co~ se nelbilo jeho ~en a tak Breuer v roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1882" \o "1882" 1882 l bu nhle pYeruail. Berta si vsugeruje porodn bolesti a jeat ten ve er se zmt v kYe ch, kYi c:  Te se narod dt doktora Breuera . Ten je pYivoln, uvede ji naposled do hypnzy a pak odeale do sanatoria a sm odjede se ~enou na jaksi druh lbnky. Freud mu to velmi vy tal a nutil Breuera, aby v l b pokra oval kvoli vzkumu. Nakonec ho pYesvd il k napsn chorobopisu Anny O. na jeho~ zklad pak spole n publikovali Studie o hysterii (nikoliv bez vzjemnch neshod). Z tehdy ji~ znmho lidovho lku   vymluvit se, vyplakat se  vytvoYili terapii a nazvali ji  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Katarzn%C3%AD_metoda&action=edit" \o "Katarzn metoda" katarzn metoda. Z n se vyvinula o hodn pozdji  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanal%C3%BDza" \o "Psychoanalza" psychoanalza. K tomu ovaem Freud musel jeat rozvinout metodu  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Voln%C3%A1_asociace&action=edit" \o "Voln asociace" voln asociace, dialog mezi lkaYem a pacientem nijak zvlat ast a v jeho dob spa nechtn, dokonce postupn povait na monolog ( m~ vylou il nebezpe  ovlivnn vzpomnek lkaYem), a aby jeat mn rozptyloval, vytvoYil i dokonal prostYed k l b, kter je dnes znm pYedevam jako pojem Freudova pohovka. Nejasnosti a zajmavosti Jist je znmo, ~e se narodil njakho aestho dne roku 1856 v Zmeck ulici (po nm dnes Freudov) v PYboYe na Morav jako syn Jcoba Freuda a Amlie Nathannov, ale zda to bylo v kvtnu, jak se oficiln uvd, je nejist. A~ do roku  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1931" \o "1931" 1931 toto datum tak vaichni pova~ovali za nesporn, ale tehdy radn v PYboYe chtli na po est rodka vytvoYit pamtn desku a po nahldnut do obecn matriky zjistili, ~e psaY jasn pozna il 6. bYezen. V rodinn bibli otec zaznamenal narozen na ter msce roachodea roku 5616 (po nesmrn slo~itm vpo tu z ~idovskho letopo tu se dojde k datu 6. kvtna) ovaem mo~n jen proto, aby mezi svatbou a narozenm prvnho dtte bylo 9 msco. Navc se povodn nejmenoval Sigmund, ale Sigismund i spa Schlomo (jak ho otec zaznamenal do rodinn bible). Posledn jmno nepou~val, jeliko~ patYil k asimilovanm ~idom a jmno Sigismund si zmnil na studich kvoli svmu pYbuznmu, kter se jmenoval rovn~ Sigismund. Freudova matka byla tYet ~enou jeho otce (ob man~elky pYed n zhy zemYely), kdy~ se Sigismund Freud narodil, ml u~ dva dospl nevlastn bratry. Byl to dajn  mmin mazl ek (prvorozen) a mnohem bl~ ne~ k sourozencom ml ke svmu stejn starmu synovci. Byli to nerozlu n pYtel. Zkladn vuku dostal do rodi o. Od roku 1865 (jako 10let) navatvoval stYedn akolu v Leopoldstatu (Taborstrae  pozdji Sperlovo gymnzium) a byl vynikajc ~k: od 1. do 8. tYdy nejlepa ve tYd s uznvanm postavenm (Jak sm Yk:  & tmY nikdy m nezkouaeli&  ). Ale ve tvrt tYd (14 let) ml z chovn msto vborn dostate nou: vdl toti~ o tom, ~e jeho spolu~ci navatvuj vykYi en domy a lokly a nikomu o tom neYekl. Znmka sn~en o dva stupn se v nsledujcch dvou pololetch opt vrtila na vbornou a tam u~ zostala do konce studi, a koliv Freud nebyl andlkem, ani mezi spolu~ky neoblbenm aprtem. Byl nejednou mluv m nespokojench chlapco, ale u itel tyto nzory u jinak pilnho ~ka se smyslem pro povinnost tolerovali. Na vysok akole se velice spYtelil se staram kolegou Josefem Breuerem, kter jej velmi podporoval, jak pYi studiu, tak po zalo~en Freudovy vlastn praxe, nejen pen~n, ale tak pYenechnm nkterch svch paciento, m~ Freudovi zajistil prvn vdlek a dopomohl mu tak k man~elstv. Na svatbu se svou snoubenkou ekal Freud pYes tyYi roky, proto~e matka snoubenky nechtla dt dceru nezajiatnmu mladkovi bez penz. Dokonce se s Martou odsthovala z Vdn. Velmi se zajmal o  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kokain" \o "Kokain" kokain (tehdy to byla neznm, za neakodnou pova~ovan droga). PYiael na jeho povzbuzujc inky a dost s nm experimentoval. Poslal jej snoubence i pYtelom a nutil kolegom: pYtele Fliee chtl zbavit zvislosti na morfiu, ale po l b kokainem se Flie stal zvisl na obou drogch. Freud sm vaak koku pravideln u~val a zvislm se nestal. Kdy~ pYiael na jej znecitlivujc inky (jednou mu zdYevnl jazyk) a nsledn chtl pomoct asistentovi v nemocnici, jen~ si st~oval na dsiv bolesti zubo, velmi sv kariYe uakodil. Pacient mu vYil a odeael s nm do laboratoYe, kam je nsledoval houf zvdavch Freudovch kolego. Dky droze asistenta bolesti su~ovat pYestaly. Freud po njak dob odjel za svou snoubenkou, ale dva lkaYi  Carl Koller a Leopold Knigstein, kteY spchu koky pYihl~eli, ji nezvisle na sob piln zkoumali. Kdy~ se Freud vrtil do Vdn, dovdl se o zprv, kter u~ stihla oblett svt: doktor Koller splnil sen ka~dho anesteziologa, operovat napYklad o i bude mo~n bezbolestn. Freud, kter s publikovnm svch poznatko ekal, a~ jich bude vc, byl tak pYipraven o mo~nost se proslavit. Z po tku bral tuto velkou kYivdu gentlemansky a Kollerovi nic nezazlval, z daleko pozdja korespondence se dovdme, ~e epizodu pova~uje pYinejmenam za mrzutou a ke Kollerovi ct ur it vztek, neboe VdeH se mohla stt kolbkou lokln  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anesteziologie&action=edit" \o "Anesteziologie" anesteziologie dky nmu. Na rodn PYbor vzpomnal rd, dokonce napsal tamjamu starostovi o svch pYjemnch pocitech z dtstv, ale do konce ~ivota se tam ji~ nepodval, a  se v roce 1886 ocitl na Morav na manvrech jako c. k. vrchn lkaY relativn blzko rodiati, myalenky vaak ml jin, jak dokazuje jeho korespondence s Breuerem:  Stle si hrajeme na vlku. To jedin, co je v Olomouci snesiteln, je velkomstsk kavrna se zmrzlinou, novinami a dobrm pe ivem. Nevnoval se jen lkaYskmu vzkumu. Jak napsal mladamu kolegovi, kdy~ udlel rady:  V sobotu ve er po jedenctihodinov prci a na konci tdne bez nedle nejsem k ni emu a udlm dobYe, kdy~ si jdu zahrt karty. Tak sbral staro~itn pYedmty, jimi~ zdobil jak byt, tak ordinaci a vyr~el pro jejich zskn do ciziny (a~ do  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt" \o "Egypt" Egypta) a nau il se hrt hru Go. Freud se stal relnm pYedobrazem lkaYe, kter vystupuje v komiksech, kter kresl  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladim%C3%ADr_Jir%C3%A1nek" \o "Vladimr Jirnek" Vladimr Jirnek. Dlo Nrys vdeck psychologie ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1895" \o "1895" 1895) Studie o hysterii ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1895" \o "1895" 1895) Vklad sno ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1900" \o "1900" 1900) Psychopatologie vaednho ~ivota ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1901" \o "1901" 1901) Vtip a jeho vztah k nevdom ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1905" \o "1905" 1905) TYi vahy o sexuln teorii ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1905" \o "1905" 1905) Totem a tabu ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1913" \o "1913" 1913) Truchlen a melancholie ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1916" \o "1916" 1916) Vzpomnka z dtstv Leonarda da Vinci Psychoanalytick chorobopisy K uveden narcismu ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1911" \o "1911" 1911) Mimo princip slasti ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1920" \o "1920" 1920) Masov psychologie a analza j ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1921" \o "1921" 1921) Ego a Id ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1923" \o "1923" 1923) tlum, pYznak a zkost ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1926" \o "1926" 1926) Budoucnost jedn iluze ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1927" \o "1927" 1927) Nespokojenost v kultuYe ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1930" \o "1930" 1930) Kone n a nekone n analza ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1937" \o "1937" 1937) Psychoanalza Psychoanalza je druh  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoterapie" \o "Psychoterapie" psychoterapie zalo~en  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Sigmundem Freudem. Freud tvrdil, ~e nejvznamnja  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pud_%28psychologie%29&action=edit" \o "Pud (psychologie)" pudov sly lovka je pud destruk n a zejmna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pohlavn%C3%AD_pud&action=edit" \o "Pohlavn pud" pud pohlavn. Vvoj libida  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Libido&action=edit" \o "Libido" Libido se bhem lidskho vvoje mn. Orln fze - na po tku vvoje(po narozen) dochz k uspokojovn snm. Anln-sadistick fze - kolem 18 msco dochz k uspokojovn zadr~ovnm i vyprazdHovnm stolice Genitln - kolem 3 let objevuje dt  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Genit%C3%A1l&action=edit" \o "Genitl" genitl jako zdroj pYjemnch pocito Pot nastv obdob klidu a pak pokra uje normln pohlavn vvoj.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oidipovsk%C3%BD_komplex&action=edit" \o "Oidipovsk komplex" Oidipovsk komplex (u dvek ElektYin komplex) - nevdom erotick vztah k roznopohlavnmu  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodi%C4%8D" \o "Rodi " rodi i, stejnopohlavn je brn jako sok. Kastra n komplex - strach ze ztrty penisu (u dvek zvidn penisu) Definice Typy vdom: PYedvdom - jsou obsahy, kter nejsou ve vdom, ale lovk je schopen si je vybavit Nevdom - jsou obsahy, kter nejsou ve vdom, ale lovk si je nen schopen vybavit. Slo~ky: Id - pudov sly  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superego" \o "Superego" Superego - Morln normy  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ego" \o "Ego" Ego - regulujc initel Pokud je pYla siln id dochz k  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Perverze&action=edit" \o "Perverze" perverzi. Pokud je pYilia siln id a siln superego dochz ke vzniku neurzy. zkost Freud hodnot jako reakci na zvaen pudov nebo emo n napt. Existuj rozn  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Obrann%C3%BD_mechanismus&action=edit" \o "Obrann mechanismus" obrann mechanismy: Vytsnn - pln zapomenut z~itku Izolace - oddlen emo n slo~ky od pro~itku Projekce - sv vlastn impulzy i motivy pYipisuje nkomu jinmu PYesunut - zmna jednoho cle za druh (napY. vybit vzteku na panence) Racionalizace - spole ensky pYijateln vysvtlen svch ino PYemna v opak - dl pYesn opak svch motivo, napY. lovk se silnmi pudovmi silami se stane zastncem boje proti  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pornografie" \o "Pornografie" pornografii intelektualizace sublimace projektivn identifikace popYen kompenzace regrese Anna Freud Anna Freudov ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/3._prosinec" \o "3. prosinec" 3. prosince  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1895" \o "1895" 1895,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%ADde%C5%88" \o "VdeH" VdeH   HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/9._%C5%99%C3%ADjen" \o "9. Yjen" 9. Yjna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982" \o "1982" 1982,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lond%C3%BDn" \o "Londn" Londn) byla  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velk%C3%A1_Brit%C3%A1nie" \o "Velk Britnie" britsk  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanal%C3%BDza" \o "Psychoanalza" psychoanalyti ka  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakousko" \o "Rakousko" rakouskho povodu, dcera znmho  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Sigmunda Freuda. Freudov byla zakladatelkou dtsk psychoanalzy, posobila jako vkonn lenka vboru VdeHskho psychoanalytickho stavu. Popsala psychick mechanismus identifikace dtte s agresorem. Publikace J a obrann mechanismy Obrann mechanismy Dole~it je jej teorie obrannch mechanismo, mezi kter patY: regrese, represe, reaktivn vtvor (formace), izolace, od inn, projekce, introjekce, zvrat v opak nebo obrcen proti sob, sublimace, pYemstn pudovch clo. Anna Freud Anna Freud ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_3" \o "December 3" December 3,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1895" \o "1895" 1895 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_9" \o "October 9" October 9,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982" \o "1982" 1982) was the sixth and last child of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Sigmund and Martha Freud. Born in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna" \o "Vienna" Vienna, she followed the path of her father and contributed to the newly born field of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalysis" \o "Psychoanalysis" psychoanalysis. Compared to her father, Anna Freud's work emphasized the importance of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ego" \o "Ego" ego, and its ability to be trained socially. The Vienna Year Anna did not have a very close bond with her mother and had difficulties getting along with her  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sibling" \o "Sibling" siblings, specifically with her sister Sophie Freud. She also had troubles with her cousin Sonja Trierweiler. Sonja was a bad influence on her and caused many of the depressions she suffered. Sophie, who was the prettiest child, represented a threat in the struggle for the affection of their father. Apart from this rivalry between the two sisters, Anna had some other difficulties growing up. Out of correspondence between father and daughter, it can be concluded today that Anna suffered from a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_depression" \o "Clinical depression" depression which caused  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eating_disorder" \o "Eating disorder" eating disorders. The relationship between Anna and her father was different from the rest of her family; they were very close. She was a lively child with a reputation for mischief.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Freud wrote to his friend  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Fliess" \o "Wilhelm Fliess" Wilhelm Fliess in 1899: "Anna has become downright beautiful through naughtiness... ", Sigmund was very proud of his daughter. It was found that he mentioned her in his diaries more than others in the family. Later on Anna would say that she didnt learn much in school; instead she learned from her father and his guests at home. This was how she picked up  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language" \o "Hebrew language" Hebrew,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language" \o "German language" German,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language" \o "English language" English,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language" \o "French language" French and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_language" \o "Italian language" Italian. At the age of 15, she started reading her fathers work. At a young age she started to tell her father her dreams and he would publish them in his book Interpretation of Dreams. Anna finished her education at the Cottage Lyceum in Vienna in 1912. Suffering from a depression, she was very insecure about what to do in the future. Subsequently, she went to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy" \o "Italy" Italy to stay with her grandmother. In 1914, she started teaching at her old school, the Cottage Lyceum. In 1918 her father started  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalysis" \o "Psychoanalysis" psychoanalysis on her and she became seriously involved with this new profession. Her analysis was completed in 1922 and thereupon she presented the paper "Beating Fantasies and Daydreams" to the Vienna Psychoanalytical Society, subsequently becoming a member. In 1923 she began her own psychoanalytical practice with children and two years later she was teaching at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Training Institute on the technique of child analysis. From 1925 until 1934 she was the Secretary of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Psychoanalytical_Association" \o "International Psychoanalytical Association" International Psychoanalytical Association while she continued child analysis and seminars and conferences on the subject. In 1935 Anna became director of the Vienna Psychoanalytical Training Institute and in the following year she published her influential study of the "ways and means by which the ego wards off displeasure and anxiety", The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence. It became a founding work of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ego_psychology" \o "Ego psychology" ego psychology and established Annas reputation as a pioneering theoretician. 1938 and Later: Anna in London In 1938 the Freuds had to flee from  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria" \o "Austria" Austria as a consequence of the Nazis' continuous harassment of Jews in Vienna. Her father's health was getting bad due to a severe jaw cancer infection, so she had to organize the family's emigration to London. Here she continued her work and took care of her father, who finally died in the autumn of 1939. When Anna arrived in London, a conflict emerged between her and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanie_Klein" \o "Melanie Klein" Melanie Klein regarding developmental theories of children. This conflict threatened to split the British Psycho-analytical Society, but ended in training courses given from two different points of view. The war gave Anna opportunity to observe the effect of deprivation of parental care on children. She set up a centre for young war victims, called "The Hampstead War Nursery". Here the children got foster care although mothers were encouraged to visit as often as possible. The underlying idea was to give children the opportunity to form attachments by providing continuity of relationships. This was continued, after the war, at the Bulldogs Bank Home, which was an orphanage, run by colleagues of Anna and was taking care of children who survive concentration camps. Based on these observations Anna published a series of studies with her lifelong friend, Dorothy Burlingham on the impact of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_%28medicine%29" \o "Stress (medicine)" stress on children and the ability to find substitute affections among peers when parents cannot give them. In 1947 Anna Freud and Kate Friedlaender established the Hampstead Child Therapy Courses. Five years later, a children's clinic was added. Here they worked with Anna's theory of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_lines" \o "Developmental lines" developmental lines. Furthermore Anna started lecturing on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_psychology" \o "Child psychology" child psychology. Until then Child analysis had remained a quite uncharted territory. Siegfried Bernfeld and August Aichorn, who both had practical experience of dealing with children, mentored her in this. From the 1950s until the end of her life Anna Freud travelled regularly to the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" United States to lecture, to teach and to visit friends. During the 1970s she was concerned with the problems of emotionally deprived and socially disadvantaged children, and she studied deviations and delays in development. At Yale Law School she taught seminars on crime and the family: this led to a transatlantic collaboration with Joseph Goldstein and Albert Solnit on children and the law, published as Beyond the Best Interests of the Child (1973). Anna Freud died in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London" \o "London" London on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_9" \o "October 9" October 9,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982" \o "1982" 1982. She was cremated at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golders_Green_Crematorium" \o "Golders Green Crematorium" Golders Green Crematorium and her ashes placed in a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marble" \o "Marble" marble shelf next to her parents'  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece" \o "Ancient Greece" ancient Greek funeral urn. Her lifelong friend Dorothy Burlingham and several other members of the Freud family also rest there. One year after Anna Freud's death a publication of her collected works appeared. She was mentioned as "a passionate and inspirational teacher" and in 1984 the Hampstead Clinic was renamed the Anna Freud Centre. Furthermore her home in London for forty years was in 1986, as she had wished, transformed into the Freud Museum, dedicated to her father and the psychoanalytical society. Major contributions to psychoanalysis Anna Freud moved away from the classical position of her father, who was concentrating on the unconscious  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Id" \o "Id" Id (a perspective she found to be restrictive) and instead emphasized the importance of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ego" \o "Ego" ego, the constant struggle and conflict it is experiencing by the need to answer contradicting wishes, desires, values and demands of reality. By this, she established the importance of the ego functions and the concept of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_mechanisms" \o "Defense mechanisms" defense mechanisms. Focusing on research, observation and treatment of children, Freud established a group of prominent child developmental analysts (which included  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erik_Erikson" \o "Erik Erikson" Erik Erikson,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edith_Jacobson" \o "Edith Jacobson" Edith Jacobson and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Mahler" \o "Margaret Mahler" Margaret Mahler) who noticed that children's symptoms were ultimately analogue to personality disorders among adults and thus often related to developmental stages. At that time, these ideas were revolutionary and Anna provided us with a comprehensive developmental theory and the concept of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_lines" \o "Developmental lines" developmental lines, which combined her father's important drive model with more recent  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_relations" \o "Object relations" object relations theories of development, which emphasize the importance of parents in child development processes. As such, the formation of the fields of child psychoanalysis and child developmental psychology can be attributed to Anna Freud. Anna Freud furthermore developed different techniques of assessment and treatment of childhood disorders, thereby contributing to our understanding of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety" \o "Anxiety" anxiety and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_depression" \o "Clinical depression" depression as significant problems among children. Anna Freud about essential personal qualities in Psychoanalysts "Dear John ..., You asked me what I consider essential personal qualities in a future psychoanalyst. The answer is comparatively simple. If you want to be a real psychoanalyst you have to have a great love of the truth, scientific truth as well as personal truth, and you have to place this appreciation of truth higher than any discomfort at meeting unpleasant facts, whether they belong to the world outside or to your own inner person. Further, I think that a psychoanalyst should have...interests...beyond the limits of the medical field...in facts that belong to sociology, religion, literature, ,[and] history,...[otherwise]his outlook on...his patient will remain too narrow. This point contains...the necessary preparations beyond the requirements made on candidates of psychoanalysis in the institutes. You ought to be a great reader and become acquainted with the literature of many countries and cultures. In the great literary figures you will find people who know at least as much of human nature as the psychiatrists and psychologists try to do. Does that answer your question?" Publications by Anna Freud: Freud, Anna (1966-1980). The Writings of Anna Freud: 8 Volumes. New York: IUP. (These volumes include most of Anna Freud's papers.) Vol. 1. Introduction to Psychoanalysis: Lectures for Child Analysts and Teachers (1922-1935) Vol. 2. Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense (1936) Vol. 3. Infants Without Families Reports on the Hampstead Nurseries by Anna Freud Vol. 4. Indications for Child Analysis and Other Papers (1945-1956) Vol. 5. Research at the Hampstead Child-Therapy Clinic and Other Papers: (1956-1965) Vol. 6. Normality and Pathology in Childhood: Assessments of Development (1965) Vol. 7. Problems of Psychoanalytic Training, Diagnosis, and the Technique of Therapy (1966-1970) Vol. 8. Psychoanalytic Psychology of Normal Development Anna Freud in collaboration with Sophie Dann: An Experiment in Group Upbringing, in: 'The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child', VI, 1951. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Freud" \l "cite_note-1" \o "" [2] A group of six three-year-old former Terezin children is observed as regards group behavior, psychological problems and adaption. Biographies Coles, Robert (1992). Anna Freud: The Dream of Psychoanalysis. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0201577070" ISBN 0-201-57707-0. Peters, Uwe Henrik (1985). Anna Freud: A Life Dedicated to Children. New York: Schocken Books.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0805239103" ISBN 0-8052-3910-3.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisabeth_Young-Bruehl" \o "Elisabeth Young-Bruehl" Young-Bruehl, Elisabeth (1988). Anna Freud: A Biography. New York: Summit Books.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/067161696X" ISBN 0-671-61696-X. Carl Gustav Jung Carl Gustav Jung ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/26._%C4%8Dervenec" \o "26. ervenec" 26. ervence  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1875" \o "1875" 1875  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kesswil&action=edit" \o "Kesswil" Kesswil,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0v%C3%BDcarsko" \o "`vcarsko" `vcarsko   HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/6._%C4%8Derven" \o "6. erven" 6. ervna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1961" \o "1961" 1961  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=K%C3%BCsnacht&action=edit" \o "Ksnacht" Ksnacht,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0v%C3%BDcarsko" \o "vcarsko" vcarsko) byl vcarsk psycholog a psychoterapeut, zakladatel  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Analytick%C3%A1_psychologie&action=edit" \o "Analytick psychologie" analytick psychologie. Jeho pYnos psychologii spo v v pochopen lidsk psychiky na pozad svta  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sen" \o "Sen" sno, umn,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mytologie" \o "Mytologie" mytologie,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A1bo%C5%BEenstv%C3%AD" \o "Nbo~enstv" nbo~enstv a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" \o "Filosofie" filosofie. M vznamn podl na zkoumn pY in a l b  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizofrenie" \o "Schizofrenie" schizofrenie. Jako syn protestantskho farYe pro~val vaechny otcovy pochybnosti spojen s vrou. Jako velmi senzitivn dt se asto oddval osobn imaginaci, pYi n~ se pokouael navzat kontakt s  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C5%AFh" \o "Boh" Bohem. Vzhledem k velikmu mno~stv duchovnch hodnostYo v rodin se pYedpokldalo, ~e i jeho drha pojde v otcovch stopch. Pot, co objevil v ran dosplosti filosofii a literaturu, rozhodl se vymanit z rodinn tradice a nechal se zapsat ke studiu medicny a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatrie" \o "Psychiatrie" psychiatrie.  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://eldar.cz/kangaroo/jung/cgj.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) - vcarsk psycholog a psychoterapeut, zakladatel analytick psychologie. Ve svch za tcch byl jednim z nejlepsich zaku Sigmunda Freuda, tou dobou znmeho a uznvaneho lkaYe a psychoanalytika, dokonce r. 1910 stanul v cele Mezinarodni psychoanalyticke spolecnosti. Po nkolikalet spoluprci vaak mezi nimi dochz k nzorovm neschodm. Jungovy vlastn vzkumy se rozchzej s Freudovou psychoanalzou a Freud nen schopen pYijmout cokoli, co by bylo v neshod s jeho teori, kterou u~ mezitm povail na dogma. Jung se stavi predevsim proti Freudovu jednostrannemu pojeti libida, v nemz spatruje dusevni, nikoli jen sexualni energii. Od t doby C.G.Jung nastupuje vlastn samostatnou cestu. Vsledky jeho vzkumu nebyly v souladu s dosud uznvanmi teoriemi a proto se setkal jak s nadenm pYijetm, tak s naprostm odmtnutm. Pro modern psychologii vaak znamenaly jeho poznatky nesporn zna n krok vpYed. Junguv pYnos je pYinejmenam srovnateln s pYnosem Freudovm. Jungova analytick psychologie je obecn pou~iteln a neomezuje se pouze na ur it psychologick typy, nbr~ respektuje jakoukoliv povahu lovka. Vyskytuje se v n mnoho vznamnych koncepc. PatY k nim psychologick typy, kolektivn nevdom, archetypy, synchronicita. Jungovo dlo naalo mnoho pokra ovatelo, ale zatm ~adn z nich nijak vrazn nerozvinul jeho teorie. V sou asn dob se jeho dlo dostv do zjmu veYejnosti a pYznivco stle pYibv. Posoben v Burghlzli V letech  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1895" \o "1895" 1895  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1900" \o "1900" 1900 studoval na univerzit v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilej" \o "Basilej" Basileji a pozdji  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curych" \o "Curych" Curychu. Curyask univerzita mla svoj klinickou bzi v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Burgh%C3%B6lzli&action=edit" \o "Burghlzli" Burghlzli a Jung se stal jejm lkaYem v roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1900" \o "1900" 1900. stav vedl  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eugen_Bleuler&action=edit" \o "Eugen Bleuler" Eugen Bleuler, kter se zabval spae tradi nm deskriptivnm zkoumnm duaevnch chorob. V opozici k filosofick psychologii se Jung zabval experimentln psychologi, v n~ odvozoval zkony se stejnou platnost jako ve vd. Se svm spolupracovnkem  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Franz_Riklin&action=edit" \o "Franz Riklin" Franzem Riklinem vznamn pYepracovali Bleulerem pou~van  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Asocia%C4%8Dn%C3%AD_test&action=edit" \o "Asocia n test" asocia n test, rozaYili aklu podntnch slov i asocia nch pro. Asocia n test tak pro Junga pYedstavoval brnu k obsahom nevdomch  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komplex" \o "Komplex" komplexo v lidsk psychice. Ve fabulacch duaevn nemocnch nachzel podobnosti s mty a tuto shodu chpal jako projev spole n zkladny individuln  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Imaginace&action=edit" \o "Imaginace" imaginace a vdom cel lidsk rasy. Studoval mytologii a sbral materil  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=P%C5%99elud&action=edit" \o "PYelud" pYeludo,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halucinace" \o "Halucinace" halucinac a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sen" \o "Sen" sno paciento, kter se mu zdl pro tuto teorii relevantn. Spoluprce a pYtelstv s Freudem V ur itm slova smyslu se hovoY o vztahu u itele a ~ka, avaak spoluprci Junga s  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Freudem charakterizuje pYedevam dovra a pYtelstv. Jung se poprv setkal s Freudem v roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1907" \o "1907" 1907, jejich spoluprce trvala do roku  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1912" \o "1912" 1912. Pro Freuda znamenal Jung nejinspirativnja prvek svho psychoanalytickho hnut, pYedevam se shodovali ve vzkumech v oblasti  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hysterie" \o "Hysterie" hysterie. Freudovsk  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanal%C3%BDza" \o "Psychoanalza" psychoanalza, kter se zamYovala na sexuln povod  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neur%C3%B3za" \o "Neurza" neurzy, vaak pYipadala Jungovi pYlia omezen, pYl si pracovat s  trajektori neurzy a jejmi implikacemi pro budouc vvoj pacienta. Stejn tak pojet  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Komplexu&action=edit" \o "Komplexu" komplexu jako jakhosi sexulnho rezidua z psychickch pro~itko ranho dtstv mu pYialo jako siln omezujc. Objev fantazi americk spisovatelky Frank Millerov jej pYivd k podvdomm tvoYivm imaginacm, mytologickm snom a fantazim, kter mly veskrze neosobn charakter. Subjekt se vrac k archaick mimoslovn form vrazu. Zatmco pro Freuda byl symbolismus z vta sti dosledkem historickho a kulturnho kontextu, Jung kladl na tyto faktory minimln doraz a zamYil se na neosobn vrstvu lidsk duae, kterou nazval kolektivn  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nev%C4%9Bdom%C3%AD" \o "Nevdom" nevdom. Zde se za aly spole n cesty rozchzet. V roce 1912 vydv Jung studii Symboly promny, kde odmt Freudov pYlian doraz na sexualitu a na pYklad symbolismu viz Frank Millerov rozaiYuje pojet  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Libido&action=edit" \o "Libido" libida jako obecn psychick a ~ivotn energie zamYen na cl. Freud nebyl schopen pYijmout cokoli, co by bylo v neshod s jeho teori, kterou u~ mezitm povail na dogma. Vztah Freuda a Junga neml jen vdeck, ale i osobn pozad. Freud se rozhodl Junga adoptovat a  po vzoru patriarcho jej pomazat in patribus infidelium  v zemi nevYcch . To pozdji zalo~ilo problm jak se vymanit z otcovsk autority, a to zejmna ve chvli, kdy se objevil vztah konkurence. Jung v roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1911" \o "1911" 1911 stanul v ele Mezinrodn psychoanalytick spole nosti, kde setrval do roku  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1914" \o "1914" 1914. Charakteristika Jungovy hlubinn psychologie Rok  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1913" \o "1913" 1913 byl pro Junga zlomov. Po srii apokalyptickch sno a viz rezignoval na pYednaky na univerzit a v roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1914" \o "1914" 1914 se vzdv funkce prezidenta Mezinrodn psychoanalytick spole nosti. V tomto obdob se vnuje pYev~n prci na svch teoretickch studich, zakld zk krou~ek Psychologickho klubu, vnuje se soukrom terapeutick praxi, avaak pYedevam zdokonaluje svoj techniku, jak promlouvat se svm nevdomm. Navazuje tak na sv ran z~itky z dtsk imaginace. U  se  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personifikace" \o "Personifikace" personifikovat fenomny nevdom, naslouchat jejich hlasu, a tm je vydlovat z bezbYehosti a init je uchopitelnmi  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%9Bdom%C3%AD" \o "Vdom" vdomm. Dochz k postultu, ~e v individuln mysli existuj prvky, kter j nepatY. Vdom a nevdom Jung se sna~il zachytit a popsat njakou praktickou metodiku, jak se lovk mo~e vypoYdat se svm nevdomm. Byl si vdom toho, ~e nbo~ensk filosofie, metafyzick systmy nebo symbolick imaginace pracuj s tmto faktem. Psychologick vpovdi maj stejnou vhu jako vpovdi vdeckho rzu, jakmi disponuje napYklad fyzika. Jung v tto souvislosti zavd pojem  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychick%C3%A1_realita&action=edit" \o "Psychick realita" psychick reality, kterou modern osvcen pojet lovka odkazuje mimo skute nost. Neustle se sna~ zdorazHovat empirickou povahu duaevnch vpovd a je si zroveH vdom, ~e pro modern vdeck nzor nebude snadn tento fakt pYijmout. Poukazuje na nebezpe  plynouc z oddlen psychickho svta od racionalisticky chpan skute nosti. Na mnoha mstech vyslovil pYedtuchu nebezpe nho vlivu nezpracovanch nevdomch  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archetyp" \o "Archetyp" archetyp, kter se mu splnila druhou svtovou vlkou. V tchto vahch dospl Jung k podstatnmu zjiatn, ~e vdom a nevdom s k sob chovaj komplementrn a kompenza n. Po vzoru matematick vdy vytvoYil pojem  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendentn%C3%AD_funkce" \o "Transcendentn funkce" transcendentn funkce, faktor vdom a faktor nevdom tvoY jednu psychickou funkci, podobn jako komplexn slo ur uje pomr jednotlivch komponent. Rozn varianty vztahu vdomch a nevdomch faktoro jsou charakteristick pro rozn typy  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du%C5%A1evn%C3%AD_nemoc" \o "Duaevn nemoc" duaevnho onemocnn. Jung pracoval na koncepci  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychologick%C3%A9_typy&action=edit" \o "Psychologick typy" psychologickch typo. Zavedl dvoj kategorii povahy podle zamYen libida,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introvert" \o "Introvert" introvertn (orientovan do svho nitra) a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrovert" \o "Extrovert" extrovertn (orientovan na vnja svt). Pozdji klasifikaci doplnil o tyYi zkladn funkce lidsk psychiky ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/My%C5%A1len%C3%AD" \o "Myalen" myalen,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cit" \o "Cit" cit,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vn%C3%ADm%C3%A1n%C3%AD" \o "Vnmn" vnmn,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intuice" \o "Intuice" intuice). V tto souvislosti hovoY o  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diferenciace" \o "Diferenciace" diferenciaci (rozliaen) jednotlivch funkc, pYi em~ nejmn diferencovan  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychick%C3%A1_funkce&action=edit" \o "Psychick funkce" psychick funkce patY u jednotlivce do oblasti  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nev%C4%9Bdom%C3%AD" \o "Nevdom" osobnho nevdom. Symbolismus nevdomch projekc V roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1923" \o "1923" 1923 zahajuje Jung stavbu v~e v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bollingen&action=edit" \o "Bollingen" Bollingenu, obydl, kter je ~ivoucm dokazem jeho dalaho objevu, psychickho stYedu v lidsk duai  Self neboli  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bytostn%C3%A9_J%C3%A1" \o "Bytostn J" Bytostnho J.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bollingensk%C3%A1_v%C4%9B%C5%BE&action=edit" \o "Bollingensk v~" Bollingensk v~, kterou psycholog neustle vlastnmi silami rozaiYoval, nebyla jen mstem setkvn s roznmi osobnostmi, ale pYedevam symbolickm vyjdYenm osobnho rostu k celistvosti kombinac praktick ~ivotn orientace a zpracovnm snov imaginatvn ltky. Pracuje pYesn v intencch svho zjiatn, ~e  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Projekce&action=edit" \o "Projekce" projekc nevdomch obsaho do reality se stvaj obsahy viditeln. Stavba tmto pYekra ovala svoj symbolick vznam. Koncem 20. let za n Jung studia  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchymie" \o "Alchymie" alchymistickho symbolismu, obrac se ke starm filosofickm mistrom ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eckhart_z_Hochheimu&action=edit" \o "Eckhart z Hochheimu" Mistr Eckhart,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracelsus" \o "Paracelsus" Paracelsus,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurelius_Augustinus" \o "Aurelius Augustinus" Augustin aj.), zkoum  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%99es%C5%A5anstv%C3%AD" \o "KYeseanstv" kYeseanstv, jeho  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hereze" \o "Hereze" heretick hnut a symbolismus, sm se astn objeven  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gn%C3%B3ze" \o "Gnze" gnostickch svitko z  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt" \o "Egypt" egyptskho  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nag_Hamm%C3%A1d%C3%AD" \o "Nag Hammd" Nag Hammd. Na pod religionistickho spolku  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eranos&action=edit" \o "Eranos" Eranos se setkv s  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" \o "Mircea Eliade" Mirceou Eliadem,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=K%C3%A1rol_Ker%C3%A9nyi&action=edit" \o "Krol Kernyi" Krolem Kernyim. S  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Richard_Wilhelm&action=edit" \o "Richard Wilhelm" Richardem Wilhelmem pracuje na interpretaci  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tajemstv%C3%AD_zlat%C3%A9ho_kv%C4%9Btu&action=edit" \o "Tajemstv zlatho kvtu" Tajemstv zlatho kvtu, esoterickho textu nskho  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoismus" \o "Taoismus" taoismu, pae pYedmluvu k nsk knize promn  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-%C5%A5ing" \o "I-eing" I-eing. Veakerou zskanou ltku a znalosti trvale konfrontoval se svoj prax psychiatra, jej~ spektrum klientely se pohybovalo od oby ejnch paciento psychiatrickho stavu v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=K%C3%BCsnacht&action=edit" \o "Ksnacht" Ksnachtu po znm i zmo~n osobnosti (dcera  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joyce" \o "James Joyce" Jamese Joyce, spisovatel  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Hesse" \o "Hermann Hesse" Hermann Hesse, dcera  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_D._Rockefeller&action=edit" \o "John D. Rockefeller" Johna D. Rockefellera). PoYdal pYednaky, psal lnky do odbornch asopiso, studoval myalen primitivnch africkch kmeno. Bytostn J Na Basilejsk univerzit se v roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1943" \o "1943" 1943 stv Ydnm profesorem lkaYsk psychologie, ani~ by pYeruail svou psychiatrickou praxi. Jeho nadmru airok zbr vdomost mu umo~Hoval vyjadYovat se fundovan k sou asnmu dn. asto se vrac ke svm textom a pYepracovv je ve svtle nov nabyt zkuaenosti s religiznmi a esoternmi systmy. Symbolika alchymistickch obrazovch sri jej pYivd ke koncepci dvojice  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archetyp" \o "Archetyp" archetypo  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anima_a_animus" \o "Anima a animus" anima/ HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anima_a_animus" \o "Anima a animus" animus, pYi em~ mu~skmu svtu tvoY nevdom protjaek anima (~ensk st duae) a naopak. Rozvjenm symboliky dochz adepti alchymie ke kontaktu s nevdomm a jejich psychick stYed ve  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=V%C4%9Bdom%C3%A9_j%C3%A1&action=edit" \o "Vdom j" vdomm j se pYesouv smrem k  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self" \o "Self" Self. Stejnou charakteristiku naael Jung u snov imaginace, co~ jen podtrhlo teorii o zamYenosti lidsk psychiky na cl ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Teleologie&action=edit" \o "Teleologie" teleologie), kter nazval procesem  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individuace" \o "Individuace" individuace a ztoto~nil s vytvoYenm psychickho stYedu v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bytostn%C3%A9_J%C3%A1" \o "Bytostn J" Bytostnm J. Jako nstroj takto zamYen terapie pou~il  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktivn%C3%AD_imaginace" \o "Aktivn imaginace" aktivn imaginaci, pYi n~ klienti asto zpracovvali sv vize do obrazo, kter po vzoru  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandala" \o "Mandala" mandal vchodu zobrazuj psychickou celost osobnosti v Ydu kosmu. Jung sv myalenky na vvoj lidsk  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du%C5%A1e" \o "Duae" duae neoddluje od biologick  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluce" \o "Evoluce" evoluce lovka. Nikdy vaak samostatn netematizuje evolu n teorii a v~dy se dr~ svho psychologickho hlu pohledu. Jako psychologickou nutnost v rmci vvoje lidskho myalen vidl napYklad pYijet tvrt nevdom psychick funkce do oblasti psychologie vdom, tak~e jej vyhlaen  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogma" \o "Dogma" dogmatu o nanebevzet  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panna_Marie" \o "Panna Marie" Panny Marie pape~em  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pius_XII." \o "Pius XII." Piem XII. v listopadu  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1950" \o "1950" 1950 nijak nepYekvapilo, a to prv s ohledem na nauku o  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nejsv%C4%9Bt%C4%9Bj%C5%A1%C3%AD_Trojice" \o "Nejsvtja Trojice" Nejsvtja Trojici. V souvislosti s pojmem  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronicita" \o "Synchronicita" synchronicity (nepY inn spojen djo) byl dotazovn fyzikem  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" \o "Wolfgang Pauli" Wolfgangem Paulim na mo~nost analogie pYi pYechodovch djch elementrnch stic. PYi tto pYle~itosti pYekro il i nkter vdeck paradigmata, kdy~ v souvislosti se synchronicitou uva~uje, ~e  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ps%C3%BDch%C3%A9&action=edit" \o "Psch" psch nemus bt vzan na mozek, nen lokalizovan v prostoru nebo ~e je prostor psychicky relativn. Kritika Jungova prce nebyla pYijmna bez vhrad. PYed modern vdou musel trvale dokazovat empirickou povahu svch zjiatn a byl asto obviHovn z  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esoterismus" \o "Esoterismus" esoterismu. Z opa n strany jej napYklad ~idovsk filosof  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Buber" \o "Martin Buber" Martin Buber kritizoval za pYlian zatemHovn  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C5%AFh" \o "Boh" Boha gnostickou spekulac. ast vtka  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teologie" \o "Teologie" teologo smYuje k psychologizujcmu pojet Boha, kter jako autonomn psychick obsah nem ~dnou realitu mimo lidskou psch. K tto vtce se Jung vyjadYoval mnohozna n, v~dy se zYetelem na sv psychologick zamYen. V korespondenci s anglickm dominiknem  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Victor_White&action=edit" \o "Victor White" Victorem Whitem doalo navzdory veakerm sympatim k neshod okolo otzky  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Privatio_boni&action=edit" \o "Privatio boni" privatio boni.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zlo" \o "Zlo" Zlo podle Junga patY do celku skute nosti a nelze je redukovat na pouh nedostatek  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dobro" \o "Dobro" dobra, a i zde nachz pro tvrzen psychologick zdovodnn. Pokra ovn Jungovch myalenek Jungova  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Analytick%C3%A1_psychologie&action=edit" \o "Analytick psychologie" analytick psychologie je obecn pou~iteln a neomezuje se pouze na ur it psychologick typy, nbr~ respektuje jakoukoliv povahu lovka. Zskala si celou Yadu ctitelo a ~ko, kteY pokra ovali v Jungov dle. V roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948" \o "1948" 1948 byl zalo~en  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Institut_C._G._Junga&action=edit" \o "Institut C. G. Junga" Institut C. G. Junga ( HYPERLINK "http://www.junginstitut.ch/" \o "http://www.junginstitut.ch/" http://www.junginstitut.ch/) jako reakce na vzrostajc zjem o rozvjen a spoluprci na myalenkch analytick psychologie. Jung si byl vdom faktu, ~e jeho objevy jej pYekro ily a z analytick psychologie se stalo hnut. Dnes se institut orientuje jako trninkov centrum analytiko a psychoterapeuto, slou~ jako msto k setkvn studento, vdco a u itelo. Obdobn v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lond%C3%BDn" \o "Londn" Londn byla zalo~ena Spole nost pro analytickou psychologii. Wilhelm Dilthey Wilhelm Christian Ludwig Dilthey (* HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/19._listopad" \o "19. listopad" 19. listopadu  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1833" \o "1833" 1833,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiesbaden" \o "Wiesbaden" Wiesbaden-Biebrich   HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1._%C5%99%C3%ADjen" \o "1. Yjen" 1. Yjna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1911" \o "1911" 1911, Seis am Schlern,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomn%C3%AD_provincie_Bolzano" \o "Autonomn provincie Bolzano" Autonomn provincie Bolzano) byl  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C4%9Bmecko" \o "Nmecko" nmeck filosof, psycholog a pedagog, pYedstavitel  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Filosofie_%C5%BEivota&action=editredlink" \o "Filosofie ~ivota (dosud nevytvoYeno)" filosofie ~ivota. }ivot Dilthey pochzel z reformovan kazatelsk rodiny, studoval historii, teologii a filosofii v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berl%C3%ADn" \o "Berln" Berln a v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heidelberg" \o "Heidelberg" Heidelbergu, promoval  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1864" \o "1864" 1864 prac o  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Friedrich_Schleiermacher&action=editredlink" \o "Friedrich Schleiermacher (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Schleiermacherov etice a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1867" \o "1867" 1867 se stal profesorem v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basel" \o "Basel" Basileji, pozdji v Kielu, ve  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vratislav" \o "Vratislav" Vratislavi a od  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1883" \o "1883" 1883 do  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1908" \o "1908" 1908 v Berln. Souborn vydn jeho dla m pYes 30 svazko. Myalen Proti metod pYrodnch vd, kter se bhem 19. stolet nesmrn rozvinula, postavil Dilthey humanitn i  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spole%C4%8Densk%C3%A9_v%C4%9Bdy" \o "Spole ensk vdy" spole ensk vdy (doslova  duchovn vdy , Geisteswissenschaften  napY.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historie" \o "Historie" historii,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A1vo" \o "Prvo" prvo,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liter%C3%A1rn%C3%AD_v%C4%9Bda" \o "Literrn vda" literrn vdu) a sna~il se vybudovat jejich vdeckou  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metoda" \o "Metoda" metodu.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C5%99%C3%ADrodn%C3%AD_v%C4%9Bdy" \o "PYrodn vdy" PYrodn vdy zkoumaj svt z hlediska pY innosti, kde~to kolem  duchovnch vd je podle nho chpat a vysvtlovat vztahy mezi ~ivotem, vyjadYovnm a rozumnm. Z povahy vci mus bt historick, tj. chpat sv pYedmty a tmata v djinnm vvoji, a jejich hlavn metodou je  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeneutika" \o "Hermeneutika" hermeneutika, tj. snaha o vrn porozumn a vklad texto a jinch doklado. Druhm velkm Diltheyovm tmatem byl  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDivot" \o "}ivot" ~ivot a ~iv, je~ se podle nho ned zcela pochopit jen experimentln metodou vd o ne~ivm. }ivot toti~ charakterizuje sil ka~dho organismu udr~et se na~ivu, rost a rozmno~ovat se, jen v oblasti ~ivho lze najt napY. svobodu a odpovdnost. }iv organismy ~ij v jistm symbize se svm prostYedm, na nm~ zvisej a na n~ tak rozn reaguj. Jsou tedy dr~div, vnmav a schopn i vzjemn komunikace. TYet velkou oblast Diltheyova zjmu byla vchova a vzdlvn. Vamal si roznch etap lidskho dtstv a dospvn a hledal pro n pYimYen zposoby vchovy. PatY tak mezi zakladatele modern  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogika" \o "Pedagogika" pedagogiky a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie_v%C3%BDchovy" \o "Filosofie vchovy" filosofie vchovy. Vliv a ddictv Krom filosofie a pedagogiky ovlivnil Dilthey tak sociologii, zejmna prostYednictvm svho kolegy a pYtele  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Simmel" \o "Georg Simmel" G. Simmela, a to svm dorazem na chpn a rozumn. Mezi pYm Diltheyovy ~ky patYili nme t filosofov a pedagogov  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hans_Lipps&action=editredlink" \o "Hans Lipps (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Hans Lipps,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Herman_Nohl&action=editredlink" \o "Herman Nohl (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Herman Nohl,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theodor_Litt&action=editredlink" \o "Theodor Litt (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Theodor Litt,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Spranger" \o "Eduard Spranger" Eduard Spranger,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Georg_Misch&action=editredlink" \o "Georg Misch (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Georg Misch a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erich_Rothacker&action=editredlink" \o "Erich Rothacker (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Erich Rothacker. Na Diltheye polemicky navzal  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" \o "Martin Heidegger" Martin Heidegger a vlastnm pojetm hermeneutiky  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" \o "Hans-Georg Gadamer" Hans-Georg Gadamer, oba vaak od nho pYevzali mnoho impulso a myalenek (napY. myalenku  hermeneutickho kruhu ). Ditheyovy myalenky a dlo ovlivnily celou Yadu dalach  hlavn nmeckch  filosofo, jako byl  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" \o "Theodor W. Adorno" Theodor W. Adorno,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" \o "Ernst Cassirer" Ernst Cassirer,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karl-Otto_Apel&action=editredlink" \o "Karl-Otto Apel (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Karl-Otto Apel nebo  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" \o "Jrgen Habermas" Jrgen Habermas. U ns se jm zabval  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Pato%C4%8Dka" \o "Jan Pato ka" Jan Pato ka a Yada pedagogo. PYnos psychologii W. Dilthey zalo~il a rozvinul psychologii "popisnou" (beschreibende) a "rozumjc" (verstehende). Pokusil se o nov zdovodnn duchovdy z hlediska metodologickho. Vychzel pYitom z intuitivnho pro~vn a pochopen duaevna, co~ stavl do protikladu k vysvtlujcm postupom pYrodnch vd. Za zkladn vdu pova~oval psychologii "rozumjc", kter postihuje duchovn podstatu jevo v psychice jednotlivco i vtach lidskch skupin a jejich souvislost se svtem kulturn historickch hodnot. Pomoc popisu a intuitivnho pochopen duchovnch z~itko se sna~il porozumt zkladom historickch, spole ensko-kulturnch jevo. Dilthey se pokouael Yeait problematiku ~ivota z individualistickch a idealistickch pozic, odmtal mo~nost objektivnho pY innho objasnn. Je ozna ovn jako zkladatel tzv. "filozofie ~ivota". Tato linie nmeck filosofie ovlivnila nejen dobov nsledovnky, ale i novja existencialismus. Proslul jeho spor s  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hermann_Ebbinghaus&action=editredlink" \o "Hermann Ebbinghaus (dosud nevytvoYeno)" H. Ebbinghausem, reprezentujcm smr pYrodovdn, analyzujc a kauzln  vysvtlujc . Obdobn diskuse pokra uje jeat v druh polovin 20. stolet, napY. mezi behavioristou  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burrhus_Frederic_Skinner" \o "Burrhus Frederic Skinner" B.F.Skinnerem a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Rogers" \o "Carl Rogers" C. Rogersem., pYedstavitelem humanistick psychologie. Odkazy Na internetu  HYPERLINK "http://www.bautz.de/bbkl/d/dilthey_w.shtml" \o "http://www.bautz.de/bbkl/d/dilthey_w.shtml" Heslo Dilthey v BBKL - de  HYPERLINK "http://www.jp.philo.at/texte/EhrenmuellerJ1.pdf" \o "http://www.jp.philo.at/texte/EhrenmuellerJ1.pdf" J. Ehrenmller: Wilhelm Diltheys Philosophie der Philosophie - de Literatura W. Dilthey: Uveden do vdy duchov. Praha, Rozhledy a Vaehrd, 1901 W. Dilthey: }ivot a dejinn vedomie (vbor z dla). Bratislava, Pravda, 1980 N. Pelcov: Wilhelm Dilthey: zklady filosofie pro~itku. Praha 2000 N. Pelcov: Vzorce lidstv: filosofie o lovku a vchov. Praha 2001 Franz Anton Mesmer 1734-1815 German physician whose theories and practices led to modern-day hypnotism. The word "mesmerize" means to hold one's attention as though that person were in a trance. Such was the popularity of Franz Mesmer, whose unorthodox methods of treating illness were highly popular with his patients. Those methods were criticized and ultimately dismissed by his contemporaries, and he lived out his days in obscurity. Yet his initial fame was the result of his successes with patients. Mesmer did not know the concept of psychosomatic illness, but he did recognize the role the mind played in disease. His practices evolved into hypnosis, which today is recognized by many as a valid and highly effective means of treating certain conditions. The son of a forester, Mesmer was born on May 23, 1734, in Iznang, in the German province of Swabia. He did not begin college until he was 25, and when he first enrolled at the University of Vienna he planned to study law. He soon changed his mind and instead worked toward a medical degree, which he received in 1766. It was in his doctoral dissertation that he described his theory of "animal gravitation," in which health in humans is affected by the gravitational pull of the various planets. Mesmer also believed that there was a specific though unidentifiable fluid-like substance occurring in nature that channeled this gravity. Begins "animal magnetism" studies Mesmer concluded that people did not need to rely on planetary gravitational pull; rather, they could manipulate their health through the use of any magnetic force. Today, some advocates of alternative medicine make use of magnets, which, worn or passed over the body, are said to restore balance or harmony and thus thwart disease. Most scientists consider this to be nothing more than quackery, and eighteenth-century Austrians were equally skeptical. Nonetheless, Mesmer attracted a considerable following and his practice became quite lucrative. By 1775, Mesmer had revised his animal gravitation theory, renaming it "animal magnetism." He believed that magnets were not necessary after all; the passing of hands over the body were enough to create the necessary magnetic forces. Other physicians were especially harsh toward Mesmer and his practices, and they actually tried to bring him up on charges of fraud. In addition, while there were patients who had been "cured" by Mesmer, there were many who had not been, and with the encouragement of the established medical profession they began to threaten legal action. Mesmer finally left Vienna in 1778, settling in Paris. There he found many French patients who were willing to engage in "Mesmerism." In addition to the magnetic forces, Mesmer also developed techniques to put people in trancelike states he called "crises." Mesmer believed that these crises, whose side effects included convulsion, actually acted as a means of forcing the body fluid back to its proper flow. Methods challenged in France Mesmer remained popular in France for several years, but the medical establishment there was no more welcoming than the Austrian doctors had been. The controversy eventually reached King Louis XVI, who in 1784 appointed a group of scientists to examine Mesmer's methods and present their conclusions. The commission included some of the leading scientific minds of the day, including Antoine Lavoisier and Dr. Joseph Guillotin. Also on the commission was an American, Benjamin Franklin. The commission, perhaps not surprisingly, concluded that Mesmer's techniques could not be backed up with scientific evidence. Mesmer's following dropped off quickly after that pronouncement, and he left Paris in 1785. He stayed briefly in Versailles, then went to Switzerland, and finally returned to his native Germany. It is interesting to note that although other scientists and physicians found fault with Mesmer's methods and theories, they did not discount the idea of mind-over matter treatment of illness. Franklin, in particular, believed that some diseases were more in the mind than in the body; he acknowledged that in those cases the power of suggestion could be enough to "cure" the disease. Also, Mesmer truly believed in his treatment, and his earnestness was no doubt the reason it took so much to discredit him. A common quack would have been discovered years earlier. Mesmer spent his remaining years quietly. He died in Meersburg, Germany on March 5, 1815. John Watson John Broadus Watson ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/9._leden" \o "9. leden" 9. ledna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1878" \o "1878" 1878  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/25._srpen" \o "25. srpen" 25. srpna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1958" \o "1958" 1958) byl  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spojen%C3%A9_st%C3%A1ty_americk%C3%A9" \o "Spojen stty americk" americk  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholog" \o "Psycholog" psycholog, zakladatel  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorismus" \o "Behaviorismus" behaviorismu. Narodil se a vyrostl v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Greenville&action=edit" \o "Greenville" Greenville v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ji%C5%BEn%C3%AD_Karol%C3%ADna" \o "Ji~n Karolna" Ji~n Karoln, navatvoval Furmanovu Universitu (byl vborn student, magistersk titul zskal v 21 letech). Proslavil se nsledujcm vrokem:  Dejte mi na vchovu tucet zdravch dt a j vm zaru m, ~e z ka~dho z nich vychovm specialistu, jakho nhodn zvolm  lkaYe, prvnka, umlce, obchodnka, ale i ~ebrka, zlodje bez ohledu na jeho talent, sklony i bez ohledu na vlastnosti jeho pYedko . Zkoumal podnty z okol, reakce na n a odmny a tresty, kter nsleduj. - Stimul a nsledn reakce. Albert Bandura Albert Bandura (born  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_4" \o "December 4" December 4,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1925" \o "1925" 1925 in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mundare%2C_Alberta" \o "Mundare, Alberta" Mundare,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta" \o "Alberta" Alberta,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada" \o "Canada" Canada) is a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada" \o "Canada" Canadian  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist" \o "Psychologist" psychologist specializing in social cognitive theory and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-efficacy" \o "Self-efficacy" self-efficacy. Education Bandura graduated with a B.A. from the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_British_Columbia" \o "University of British Columbia" University of British Columbia with the Bolocan Award in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology" \o "Psychology" psychology, and then obtained his M.A. in 1951 and Ph.D. in 1952 from the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Iowa" \o "University of Iowa" University of Iowa. Upon graduation, he participated in a clinical internship with the Wichita Kansas Guidance Center. The following year, he accepted a teaching position at Stanford, the same position he holds today. Academic career Bandura joined the faculty of the Department of Psychology at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University" \o "Stanford University" Stanford University in 1953, where he has remained to pursue his career. In 1974 the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" \o "American Psychological Association" American Psychological Association elected him to its presidency. Research Bandura was initially influenced by Robert Sears' work on familial antecedents of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_behavior" \o "Social behavior" social behavior and identificatory learning, Bandura directed his initial research to the role of social  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modeling_%28psychology%29" \o "Modeling (psychology)" modeling in human  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation" \o "Motivation" motivation, thought, and action. In collaboration with Richard Walters, his first doctoral student, Bandura engaged in studies of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_learning" \o "Social learning" social learning and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aggression" \o "Aggression" aggression. Their joint efforts illustrated the critical role of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modeling" \o "Modeling" modeling in human behavior and led to a program of research into the determinants and mechanisms of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_learning" \o "Observational learning" observational learning (part of which has become known in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology" \o "History of psychology" history of psychology as the " HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobo_doll_experiment" \o "Bobo doll experiment" Bobo doll experiment"). The program also led to Bandura's first book, Adolescent Aggression in 1959, and to a subsequent book, Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis in 1973. In 1963 Bandura published his second book, Social Learning and Personality Development. In 1974  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University" \o "Stanford University" Stanford University awarded him an endowed chair and he became David Starr Jordan Professor of Social Science in Psychology. In 1977, Bandura published the ambitious  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_learning_theory" \o "Social learning theory" Social Learning Theory, a book that altered the direction psychology took in the 1980s.[ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" \o "Wikipedia:Citation needed" citation needed] In the course of investigating the processes by which modeling alleviates  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phobia" \o "Phobia" phobic disorders in snake-phobics, Bandura found that  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-efficacy" \o "Self-efficacy" self-efficacy beliefs (which the phobic individuals had in their own capabilities to alleviate their  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phobia" \o "Phobia" phobia) mediated changes in behavior and in fear-arousal. He then launched a major program of research examining the influential role of self-referent thought in psychological functioning. Although he continued to explore and write on theoretical problems relating to myriad topics, from the late 1970s he devoted much attention to exploring the role that self-efficacy beliefs play in human functioning. In 1986 Bandura published Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory, a book in which he offered a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_cognitive_theory" \o "Social cognitive theory" social cognitive theory of human functioning that accords a central role to cognitive, vicarious, self-regulatory and self-reflective processes in human adaptation and change. This social cognitive theory has its roots in an agentic perspective that views people as self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting and self-regulating, not just as reactive organisms shaped by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environment" \o "Natural environment" environmental forces or driven by inner impulses. In his 1997 book, Self Efficacy: The Exercise of Control, Bandura set forth the tenets of his theory of self-efficacy and its applications to fields as diverse as life-course development, education, health,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychopathology" \o "Psychopathology" psychopathology, athletics,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business" \o "Business" business, and international affairs. Bandura has lectured and written on topics such as escaping  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homelessness" \o "Homelessness" homelessness, deceleration of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_growth" \o "Population growth" population growth, transgressive behavior,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_communication" \o "Mass communication" mass communication,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substance_abuse" \o "Substance abuse" substance abuse, and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrorism" \o "Terrorism" terrorism. He has explored the manner in which people morally disengage when they perpetrate  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_against_humanity" \o "Crime against humanity" inhumanities, and he has traced the psychosocial tactics by which individuals and societies selectively disengage moral self-sanctions from inhumane conduct. He desires and works for a civilized life with humane standards buttressed "by safeguards built into social systems that uphold compassionate behavior and renounce cruelty". A 2002 survey ranked Bandura as the fifth most-frequently cited psychologist of all time, behind  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Sigmund Freud,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \o "Jean Piaget" Jean Piaget,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" \o "Hans Eysenck" Hans Eysenck, and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \o "B. F. Skinner" B. F. Skinner, and the most cited living one. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Bandura" \l "cite_note-0#cite_note-0" \o "" [1] References  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Bandura" \l "cite_ref-0#cite_ref-0" \o "" ^ Haggbloom S.J. (2002). The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century, Review of General Psychology, 6 (2). 139-152. External Links  HYPERLINK "http://des.emory.edu/mfp/Bandura/" \o "http://des.emory.edu/mfp/Bandura/" Albert Bandura Web Site  HYPERLINK "http://des.emory.edu/mfp/self-efficacy.html" \o "http://des.emory.edu/mfp/self-efficacy.html" Self-Efficacy Web Site: A Community of Scholars Bibliography Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/013815614X" ISBN 013815614X Bandura, A. (1989). Social cognitive theory. In R. Vasta (Ed.), Annals of Child Development, 6. Six theories of child development (pp. 1-60). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0716726262" ISBN 0716726262 Bandura, A. (1999). Moral disengagement in the perpetration of inhumanities. Personality & Social Psychology Review, 3, 193-209. Bandura, A., & Walters. Richard H. (1959). Adolescent aggression; a study of the influence of child-training practices and family interrelationships. New York: Ronald Press. Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1963). Social learning and personality development. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. Evans, R. I. (1989). Albert Bandura: The man and his ideas: A dialogue. New York: Praeger. Haggbloom, S. J., Warnick, R., et al. (2002). The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century. Review of General Psychology, 6(2), 139-152. Zimmerman, Barry J., & Schunk, Dale H. (Eds.)(2003). Educational psychology: A century of contributions. Mahwah, NJ, US: Erlbaum.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0805836810" ISBN 0805836810 [ HYPERLINK "javascript:collapseTable(0);" hide]  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Psychology_navigation" \o "Template:Psychology navigation" v HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Psychology_navigation" \o "Template talk:Psychology navigation" d HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Psychology_navigation&action=edit" \o "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Psychology_navigation&action=edit" e  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology" \o "Psychology" Psychology  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Psychology" \o "Portal:Psychology" Portal  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology" \o "History of psychology" History  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist" \o "Psychologist" Psychologist Research  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion" \o "Emotion" Affective  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"Feminist therapy" Feminist  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_therapy" \o "Gestalt therapy" Gestalt  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology" \o "Humanistic psychology" Humanistic  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalysis" \o "Psychoanalysis" Psychoanalysis  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_psychology" \o "Analytical psychology" Analytical  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychodynamic_psychotherapy" \o "Psychodynamic psychotherapy" Psychodynamic  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transpersonal_psychology" \o "Transpersonal psychology" Transpersonal Seminal writers  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \o "B. F. Skinner" B.F.Skinner  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \o "Jean Piaget" Jean Piaget  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Sigmund Freud  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Rank" \o "Otto Rank" Otto Rank Albert Bandura  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Festinger" \o "Leon Festinger" Leon Festinger  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Rogers" \o "Carl Rogers" Carl Rogers  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Schachter" \o "Stanley Schachter" Stanley Schachter  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neal_E._Miller" \o "Neal E. Miller" Neal E. Miller  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Thorndike" \o "Edward Thorndike" Edward Thorndike  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Maslow" \o "Abraham Maslow" Abraham Maslow  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Allport" \o "Gordon Allport" Gordon Allport  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erik_Erikson" \o "Erik Erikson" Erik Erikson  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" \o "Hans Eysenck" Hans Eysenck  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_James" \o "William James" William James  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_McClelland" \o "David McClelland" David McClelland  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Cattell" \o "Raymond Cattell" Raymond Cattell  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_B._Watson" \o "John B. Watson" John B. Watson  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Lewin" \o "Kurt Lewin" Kurt Lewin  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Olding_Hebb" \o "Donald Olding Hebb" Donald O. Hebb  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Armitage_Miller" \o "George Armitage Miller" George A. Miller  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark_L._Hull" \o "Clark L. Hull" Clark L. Hull  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome_Kagan" \o "Jerome Kagan" Jerome Kagan  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Jung" \o "Carl Jung" Carl Jung  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" \o "Ivan Pavlov" Ivan Pavlov Lists  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychology_topics" \o "List of psychology topics" Topics  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_counseling_topics" \o "List of counseling topics" Counseling  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychology_disciplines" \o "List of psychology disciplines" Disciplines  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychiatric_drugs_by_condition_treated" \o "List of psychiatric drugs by condition treated" Psychiatric drugs  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neurological_disorders" \o "List of neurological disorders" Neurological disorders  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychology_organizations" \o "List of psychology organizations" Organizations  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychologists" \o "List of psychologists" Psychologists  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychotherapies" \o "List of psychotherapies" Psychotherapies  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_psychology" \o "List of publications in psychology" Publications  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychological_research_methods" \o "List of psychological research methods" Research methods  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychological_schools" \o "List of psychological schools" Schools of theory  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology" \o "Timeline of psychology" Timeline  Hans Eysenck Hans Jrgen Eysenck ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_4" \o "March 4" March 4,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1916" \o "1916" 1916 in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin" \o "Berlin" Berlin, Germany -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_4" \o "September 4" September 4,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997" \o "1997" 1997 in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London" \o "London" London,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK" \o "UK" UK) was a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist" \o "Psychologist" psychologist best remembered for his work on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_%28trait%29" \o "Intelligence (trait)" intelligence and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_psychology" \o "Personality psychology" personality, though he worked in a wide range of areas. At the time of his death, Eysenck was the living psychologist most frequently cited in science journals. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" \l "cite_note-haggbloom-0#cite_note-haggbloom-0" \o "" [1] Hans Eysenck was born in Germany, but moved to England as a young man in the 1930s because of his opposition to the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazism" \o "Nazism" Nazi party. Eysenck was the founding editor of the journal  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_and_Individual_Differences" \o "Personality and Individual Differences" Personality and Individual Differences, and authored over 50 books and over 900 academic articles. He aroused intense debate with his controversial dealing with variation in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IQ" \o "IQ" IQ among  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_%28classification_of_human_beings%29" \o "Race (classification of human beings)" racial groups (see  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence" \o "Race and intelligence" race and intelligence). Life and work Eysenck was Professor of Psychology at the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Psychiatry" \o "Institute of Psychiatry" Institute of Psychiatry (IoP) from 1955 to 1983. He received his PhD from the Department of Psychology at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_College_London" \o "University College London" University College London (UCL) under the supervision of Professor Sir  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyril_Burt" \o "Cyril Burt" Cyril Burt with whom he had tumultuous professional relationship throughout his working life. He was a major contributor to the modern scientific theory of personality and a brilliant teacher who also played a crucial role in the establishment of behavioural treatments for mental disorders. Eysenck's work was often controversial. Publications in which Eysenck's views have roused controversy include (chronologically): A paper in the 1950s  HYPERLINK "http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Eysenck/psychotherapy.htm" \o "http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Eysenck/psychotherapy.htm" [1] concluding that available data "fail to support the hypothesis that psychotherapy facilitates recovery from neurotic disorder". A chapter in Uses and Abuses of Psychology (1953) entitled "What is wrong with psychoanalysis". Race, Intelligence and Education (1971) (in the US: The IQ Argument) Sex, Violence and the Media (1978). Astrology - Science or Superstition? (1982) Smoking, Personality and Stress (1991) Eysenck was also criticised for accepting funding from the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_Fund" \o "Pioneer Fund" Pioneer Fund, a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenics" \o "Eugenics" eugenics organization that has been controversial. By far the most acrimonious of the debates has been that over the role of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" \o "Genetics" genetics in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IQ" \o "IQ" IQ differences (See  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_quotient" \l "Genetics_vs_environment" \o "Intelligence quotient" Genetics vs. environment), which led to Eysenck famously being punched on the nose during a talk at the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" \o "London School of Economics" London School of Economics. Eysenck's attitude is summarised in his autobiography Rebel with a Cause (Transaction Publishers (1997),  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1560009381" ISBN 1-56000-938-1): "I always felt that a scientist owes the world only one thing, and that is the truth as he sees it. If the truth contradicts deeply held beliefs, that is too bad. Tact and diplomacy are fine in international relations, in politics, perhaps even in business; in science only one thing matters, and that is the facts." Eysenck's model of personality (P-E-N) Eysenck was one of the first psychologists to study personality with the method of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factor_analysis" \o "Factor analysis" factor analysis, a statistical technique introduced by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Spearman" \o "Charles Spearman" Charles Spearman. Eysenck's results suggested two main personality factors. The first factor was the tendency to experience negative emotions, and Eysenck referred to it as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroticism" \o "Neuroticism" Neuroticism. The second factor was the tendency to enjoy positive events, especially social events, and Eysenck named it  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraversion_vs_Introversion" \o "Extraversion vs Introversion" Extraversion. The two personality dimensions were described in his 1947 book Dimensions of Personality. It is common practice in personality psychology to refer to the dimensions by the first letters, E and N. E and N provided a 2-dimensional space to describe individual differences in behaviour. An analogy can be made to how latitude and longitude describe a point on the face of the earth. Also, Eysenck noted how these two dimensions were similar to the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Temperaments" \o "Four Temperaments" four personality types first proposed by the Greek physician  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrates" \o "Hippocrates" Hippocrates. High N and High E = Choleric type High N and Low E = Melancholic type Low N and High E = Sanguine type Low N and Low E = Phlegmatic type The third dimension,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoticism" \o "Psychoticism" psychoticism, was added to the model in the late 1970s, based upon collaborations between Eysenck and his wife, Sybil B. G. Eysenck, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" \l "cite_note-1#cite_note-1" \o "" [2] who is the current editor of Personality and Individual Differences. The major strength of Eysenck's model was to provide detailed theory of the causes of personality. For example, Eysenck proposed that extraversion was caused by variability in cortical arousal: "introverts are characterized by higher levels of activity than extraverts and so are chronically more cortically aroused than extraverts". HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" \l "cite_note-2#cite_note-2" \o "" [3] While it seems counterintuitive to suppose that introverts are more aroused than extraverts, the putative effect this has on behaviour is such that the introvert seeks lower levels of stimulation. Conversely, the extravert seeks to heighten his or her arousal to a more optimal level (as predicted by the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yerkes-Dodson_Law" \o "Yerkes-Dodson Law" Yerkes-Dodson Law) by increased activity, social engagement and other stimulation-seeking behaviours. Comparison with other theories The major alternative to Eysenck's three factor model of personality is a model that makes use of five broad traits, often called the Big Five model (see  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_five_personality_traits" \o "Big five personality traits" big five personality traits). The traits in the Big Five are as follows: Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism Extraversion and Neuroticism in the Big Five are similar to Eysenck's traits of the same name. However, what Eysenck calls the trait of Psychoticism corresponds to two traits in the Big Five model: Conscientiousness and Agreeableness. Eysenck's personality system did not address Openness to experience. He argued that his approach was a better description of personality (Eysenck, 1992a; 1992b). Another important model of personality is that of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey_Alan_Gray" \o "Jeffrey Alan Gray" Jeffrey Alan Gray, a former student of his. Eysenck always insisted that his use of the term "extraversion" does not correspond to the usage adopted by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Jung" \o "Carl Jung" Carl Jung, and has also challenged the popular belief that Jung coined the term. Psychometric scales relevant to Eysenck's theory Eysenck's theory of personality is closely linked with the scales that he and his co-workers developed. These include the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maudsley_Medical_Questionnaire&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Maudsley Medical Questionnaire (page does not exist)" Maudsley Medical Questionnaire,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eysenck_Personality_Inventory&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Eysenck Personality Inventory (page does not exist)" Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI),  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eysenck_Personality_Questionnaire" \o "Eysenck Personality Questionnaire" Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sensation_Seeking_Scale&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Sensation Seeking Scale (page does not exist)" Sensation Seeking Scale (developed in conjunction with Marvin Zuckerman). The Eysenck Personality Profiler (EPP) breaks down different facets of each trait considered in the model. There has been some debate about whether these facets should include impulsivity as a facet of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraversion" \o "Extraversion" extraversion as Eysenck declared in his early work; or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoticism" \o "Psychoticism" psychoticism. Eysenck declared for the latter, in later work. Eysenck's later work In 1994 he was one of 52 signatories on " HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainstream_Science_on_Intelligence" \o "Mainstream Science on Intelligence" Mainstream Science on Intelligence," an editorial written by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linda_Gottfredson" \o "Linda Gottfredson" Linda Gottfredson and published in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall_Street_Journal" \o "Wall Street Journal" Wall Street Journal, which defended the findings on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence" \o "Race and intelligence" race and intelligence in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bell_Curve" \o "The Bell Curve" The Bell Curve. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" \l "cite_note-gottfredson-3#cite_note-gottfredson-3" \o "" [4] Eysenck made early contributions to fields such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_psychology" \o "Personality psychology" personality by express and explicit commitment to a very rigorous adherence to scientific methodology, as Eysenck believed that scientific methodology was required for progress in personality psychology. He used, for example,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factor_analysis" \o "Factor analysis" factor analysis, a rigorous statistical method, to support his personality model. His early work showed Eysenck to be an especially strong critic of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalysis" \o "Psychoanalysis" psychoanalysis as a form of therapy, preferring  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviour_therapy" \o "Behaviour therapy" behaviour therapy. Despite this strongly scientific interest, Eysenck was not shy, in later work, of giving attention to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parapsychology" \o "Parapsychology" parapsychology and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology" \o "Astrology" astrology. Indeed, he believed that empirical evidence supported the existence of paranormal abilities. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" \l "cite_note-SenseAndNonsense-4#cite_note-SenseAndNonsense-4" \o "" [5] Selected works Dimensions of Personality (1947) The Scientific Study of Personality (1952) The Structure of Human Personality (1952) and later editions Uses and Abuses of Psychology (1953) The Psychology of Politics (1954) Psychology and the Foundations of Psychiatry (1955) Sense and Nonsense in Psychology (1956) The Dynamics of Anxiety and Hysteria (1957) Perceptual Processes and Mental Illnesses (1957) with G. Granger and J. C. Brengelmann Manual of the Maudsley Personality Inventory (1959) Handbook of Abnormal Psychology (1960) editor, later editions Experiments in Personality (1960) two volumes, editor Behaviour Therapy and Neuroses (1960) editor Know Your Own I.Q. (1962) Experiments with Drugs (1963) editor Experiments in Motivation (1964) editor Crime and Personality (1964) and later editions Manual of the Eysenck Personality Inventory (1964) with S. B. G. Eysenck The Causes and Cures of Neuroses (1965) with S. Rachman Fact and Fiction in Psychology (1965) Smoking, Health and Personality (1965) Check Your Own I.Q. (1966) The Effects of Psychotherapy (1966) The Biological Basis of Personality (1967) Eysenck, H.J. & Eysenck, S.B.G. (1969). Personality Structure and Measurement. London: Routledge. Readings in Extraversion/Introversion (1971) three volumes Race, Intelligence and Education (1971) in US as The IQ Argument Psychology is about People (1972) Lexicon de Psychologie (1972) three volumes, with W. Arnold and R. Meili The Inequality of Man (1973) Eysenck on Extraversion (1973) editor The Measurement of Intelligence (1973) editor The Experimental Study of Freudian theories (1973) with G. D. Wilson Case Histories in Behaviour Therapy (1974) editor Know Your Own Personality (1975) with G. D. Wilson Manual of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (1975) with S. B. G. Eysenck A Textbook of Human Psychology (1976) with G. D. Wilson Sex and Personality (1976) The Measurement of Personality (1976) editor Eysenck, H.J. & Eysenck, S.B.G. (1976). Psychoticism as a Dimension of Personality. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Reminiscence, Motivation and Personality (1977) with C. D. Frith You and Neurosis (1977) Die Zukunft der Psychologie (1977) The Psychological Basis of Ideology (1978) editor, with G. D. Wilson Sex Violence and the Media (1978) with D. Nias The Structure and Measurement of Intelligence (1979) The Psychology of Sex (1979) with G. D. Wilson The Causes and Effects of Smoking (1980) A Model for Personality (1981) editor Mindwatching (1981) with M. W. Eysenck, and later editions The Battle for the Mind (1981) with  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L._J._Kamin" \o "L. J. Kamin" L. J. Kamin, in US as The Intelligence Controversy Personality, Genetics and Behaviour (1982) Explaining the Unexplained (1982) with Carl Sargent H.J. Eysenck & D.K.B. Nias, Astrology: Science or Superstition? Penguin Books (1982)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0140223975" ISBN 0-14-022397-5 A Model for Intelligence (1982) editor Know Your Own Psi-Q (1983) with Carl Sargent 'I Do'. Your Happy Guide to Marriage (1983) with B. N. Kelly Personality and Individual Differences: A Natural Science Approach (1985) with M. W. Eysenck Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire (1985) Rauchen und Gesundheit (1987) Personality Dimensions and Arousal (1987) editor, with J. Strelau Theoretical Foundations of Behaviour Therapy (1988) editor, with I. Martin The Causes and Cures of Criminality (1989) with G. H. Gudjonsson Genes, Culture and Personality: An Empirical Approach (1989) with L. Eaves and N. Martin Suggestion and Suggestibility (1989) editor, with V. A. Gheorghiu, P. Netter, and R. Rosenthal Intelligence: A New Look (1998) Eysenck, H.J. (1992). A reply to Costa and McCrae. P or A and C - the role of theory. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 867-868. Eysenck, H.J. (1992). Four ways five factors are not basic. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 667-673. References  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" \l "cite_ref-haggbloom_0-0#cite_ref-haggbloom_0-0" \o "" ^ Haggbloom, S.J. (2002). The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century. Review of General Psychology, 6, 139-152.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" \l "cite_ref-1#cite_ref-1" \o "" ^ e.g., Eysenck & Eysenck, 1969; 1976  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" \l "cite_ref-2#cite_ref-2" \o "" ^ (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1985)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" \l "cite_ref-gottfredson_3-0#cite_ref-gottfredson_3-0" \o "" ^ Gottfredson, Linda (December 13, 1994).  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainstream_Science_on_Intelligence" \o "Mainstream Science on Intelligence" Mainstream Science on Intelligence.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall_Street_Journal" \o "Wall Street Journal" Wall Street Journal, p A18.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Eysenck" \l "cite_ref-SenseAndNonsense_4-0#cite_ref-SenseAndNonsense_4-0" \o "" ^ Eysenck, H.J. (1957),  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sense_and_Nonsense_in_Psychology&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Sense and Nonsense in Psychology (page does not exist)" Sense and Nonsense in Psychology, p.131. Charles Spearman Charles Edward Spearman ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_10" \o "September 10" September 10,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1863" \o "1863" 1863 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_17" \o "September 17" September 17,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1945" \o "1945" 1945) was an  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England" \o "England" English  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist" \o "Psychologist" psychologist known for work in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics" \o "Statistics" statistics, as a pioneer of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factor_analysis" \o "Factor analysis" factor analysis, and for  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spearman%27s_rank_correlation_coefficient" \o "Spearman's rank correlation coefficient" Spearman's rank correlation coefficient. He also did seminal work on models for  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_%28trait%29" \o "Intelligence (trait)" human intelligence, including his theory that disparate cognitive test scores reflect a single  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_intelligence_factor" \o "General intelligence factor" general factor and coining the term g factor. Spearman had an unusual background for a psychologist. After 15 years as an officer in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Army" \o "British Army" British Army he resigned to study for a PhD in experimental psychology. In Britain psychology was generally seen as a branch of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy" \o "Philosophy" philosophy and Spearman chose to study in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Leipzig" \o "University of Leipzig" Leipzig under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt" \o "Wilhelm Wundt" Wilhelm Wundt, because Spearman had no conventional qualifications and Leipzig had liberal entrance requirements. He started in 1897, and after some interruption (he was recalled to the army during the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_African_War" \o "South African War" South African War) he obtained his degree in 1906. He had already published his seminal paper on the factor analysis of intelligence (1904). Spearman met and impressed the psychologist  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_McDougall_%28psychologist%29" \o "William McDougall (psychologist)" William McDougall who arranged for Spearman to replace him when he left his position at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_College_London" \o "University College London" University College London. Spearman stayed at University College until he retired in 1931. Initially he was  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lecturer" \l "United_Kingdom" \o "Lecturer" Reader and head of the small psychological laboratory. In 1911 he was promoted to the Grote professorship of the Philosophy of Mind and Logic. His title changed to Professor of Psychology in 1928 when a separate Department of Psychology was created. When Spearman was elected to the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society" \o "Royal Society" Royal Society in 1924 the citation read "Dr. Spearman has made many researches in experimental psychology. His many published papers cover a wide field, but he is especially distinguished by his pioneer work in the application of mathematical methods to the analysis of the human mind, and his original studies of correlation in this sphere. He has inspired and directed research work by many pupils." Spearman was strongly influenced by the work of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Galton" \o "Francis Galton" Francis Galton. Galton did pioneering work in psychology and developed  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correlation" \o "Correlation" correlation, the main statistical tool used by Spearman. Spearman developed  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spearman%27s_rank_correlation_coefficient" \o "Spearman's rank correlation coefficient" rank correlation (1904) and the widely used  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correction_for_attenuation" \o "Correction for attenuation" correction for attenuation (1907). His statistical work was not appreciated by his University College colleague  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Pearson" \o "Karl Pearson" Karl Pearson and there was a long feud between them. Although Spearman achieved most recognition for his statistical work, he regarded this work as subordinate to his quest for the fundamental laws of psychology. Bibliography The following are works by Spearman: "General Intelligence," objectively determined and measured. "American Journal of Psychology"  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1904" \o "1904" 1904 Proof and measurement of association between two things. "American Journal of Psychology"  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1904" \o "1904" 1904 Demonstration of Formulae for True Measurement of Correlation. "American Journal of Psychology"  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1907" \o "1907" 1907 The abilities of man, their nature and measurement.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1927" \o "1927" 1927 Biographies of Spearman Lovie, P and Lovie A. D. (1996) Charles Edward Spearman F.R.S. (1863-1945) Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London, 50, 1-14. Lovie, P (1997) Spearman, Charles Edward pp. 342-3 in Leading Personalities in Statistical Sciences from the Seventeenth Century to the Present, (ed. N. L. Johnson and S. Kotz) 1997. New York: Wiley. Originally published in Encyclopedia of Statistical Science. Alfred Adler Alfred Adler ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/7._%C3%BAnor" \o "7. nor" 7. nora  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1870" \o "1870" 1870,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%ADde%C5%88" \o "VdeH" VdeH   HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/28._kv%C4%9Bten" \o "28. kvten" 28. kvtna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1937" \o "1937" 1937,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_%28Skotsko%29" \o "Aberdeen (Skotsko)" Aberdeen) byl  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakousko" \o "Rakousko" rakousk  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9ka%C5%99" \o "LkaY" lkaY a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholog" \o "Psycholog" psycholog Na po tku  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/20._stolet%C3%AD" \o "20. stolet" 20. stolet vyvinul svou psychologickou teorii, zalo~enou na orgnov mncennosti. Od roku  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1902" \o "1902" 1902 byl Adler nkolik let lenem  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Freudovy psychoanalytick skupiny a v tto dob se vnoval psychickm djom s obzvlat intenzvnm zjem. Pomrn brzy vaak za al nachzet rozdly mezi svmi a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Freudovmi nzory na lidskou  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychika&action=edit" \o "Psychika" psychiku. V roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1911" \o "1911" 1911 opustil  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Freudovu skupinu a v letech  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1911" \o "1911" 1911  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1914" \o "1914" 1914 pracoval na vytvoYen vlastn akoly, kterou nazval  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Individu%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_psychologie&action=edit" \o "Individuln psychologie" individuln psychologie. Tuto svou akolu dle rozvjel a rozaiYoval a~ do sv smrti v roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1937" \o "1937" 1937. Nzvem  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Individu%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_psychologie&action=edit" \o "Individuln psychologie" individuln psychologie chtl Adler vyjdYit to, ~e ka~d lovk je nedliteln jednota,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osoba" \o "Osoba" individuum, kter funguje jako celistv bytost. Z dneanho pohledu nen ji~ tak zYeteln potYeba zdorazHovat prv tento aspekt, byla to vaak tak reakce na tehdeja nzorov spektrum a zYejm pYedevam na  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Freudovu  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanal%C3%BDza" \o "Psychoanalza" psychoanalzu, kter lovka rozdlovala na rozn oblasti, oddlen vaelijakmi pYep~kami. Proto  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adleri%C3%A1ni&action=edit" \o "Adlerini" adlerini ozna uj svou psychologii jako  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holismus" \o "Holismus" holistickou. Dorazem na  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osoba" \o "Osoba" individuum naprosto nen odsouvn vznam jedince jako bytosti sociln. Naopak, zkladnm clem  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osoba" \o "Osoba" jedince je jeho zaYazen do  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spole%C4%8Dnost" \o "Spole nost" spole nosti. Tento cl, tj. zposob, jakm se jedinec zaYazuje a chce zaYazovat do spole nosti (a prostYed vobec), je v adlerinsk psychologii ozna ovn jako ~ivotn styl, co~ je dala ze zkladnch pojmo Adlerovy teorie. Jedinec je tedy podle Adlera charakterizovn a determinovn svm clem nebo elem (kter ovaem zdaleka nemus bt vdom a vdom zmrn). Proto je Adlerova  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Individu%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_psychologie&action=edit" \o "Individuln psychologie" individuln psychologie ozna ovna jako teleologick. Tm je mnno, ~e veaker lidsk chovn je eln - orientovan na individuln cl. Smyslu chovn lovka mo~eme porozumt jen na zklad pochopen jeho clo. Na rozdl od  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Freudovy psychoanalzy tedy  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Individu%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_psychologie&action=edit" \o "Individuln psychologie" individuln psychologie klade vta doraz na budoucnost a na mo~nou zmnu clo. Adler uznv vliv dtstv, podobn jako  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Freud, ale nepova~uje jej za tak determinujc. Adler zashl i do teori o psychosomatice. Mluvil o Ye i, dialektu orgno - symptom je tak vyjdYenm toho, co se jinak projevit nemohlo, napY. njak psychick frustrace i nedostatku. Vznam pYi vzniku nemoc pYikldal i sociln interakci Karen Horneyov Karen Horneyov v roce 1938 Karen Horneyov ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/16._z%C3%A1%C5%99%C3%AD" \o "16. zY" 16. zY  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1885" \o "1885" 1885  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburk" \o "Hamburk" Hamburk,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C4%9Bmecko" \o "Nmecko" Nmecko -  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/4._prosinec" \o "4. prosinec" 4. prosince  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1952" \o "1952" 1952  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York" \o "New York" New York,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_%28st%C3%A1t%29" \o "New York (stt)" stt New York) byla  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spojen%C3%A9_st%C3%A1ty_americk%C3%A9" \o "Spojen stty americk" americk  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholog" \o "Psycholog" psycholo~ka a psychiatri ka  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C4%9Bmecko" \o "Nmecko" nmeckho povodu. Je spolu s  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erich_Fromm" \o "Erich Fromm" Erichem Frommem a H. S. Sullivanem pYedstavitelkou  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neopsychoanal%C3%BDza&action=edit" \o "Neopsychoanalza" neopsychoanalzy, konkrtn  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturn%C3%AD_psychoanal%C3%BDza" \o "Kulturn psychoanalza" kulturn psychoanalzy, vzdalujc se od biologickho  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinismus" \o "Determinismus" determinismu klasickho  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanal%C3%BDza" \o "Psychoanalza" psychoanalzy. Podle  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturn%C3%AD_psychoanal%C3%BDza" \o "Kulturn psychoanalza" kulturn psychoanalzy nemaj na lidsk chovn nejzsadnja vliv pudov tendence lovka, ale sociln faktory prostYed. Spoluzalo~ila  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Americk%C3%BD_institut_psychoanal%C3%BDzy&action=edit" \o "Americk institut psychoanalzy" Americk institut psychoanalzy. Karen Horneyov vystudovala v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C4%9Bmecko" \o "Nmecko" Nmecku  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medic%C3%ADna" \o "Medicna" medicnu, ale v roce 1932 emigrovala do  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spojen%C3%A9_st%C3%A1ty_americk%C3%A9" \o "Spojen stty americk" USA. Vstoupila do Psychoanalytickho institutu, ale proto~e se m dl vc odklnla od klasick psychoanalzy, dostvala se do sporu s kolegy. V roce 1941 z Institutu Horneyov odeala a zalo~ila Asociaci pro rozvoj psychoanalzy, jejmi~ leny byli tak  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erich_Fromm" \o "Erich Fromm" Erich Fromm a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Sullivan" \o "Harry Sullivan" H. S. Sullivan. S klasickou  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanal%C3%BDza" \o "Psychoanalza" psychoanalzou souhlasila pouze v tom, ~e rozhodujc lohu ve vvoji osobnosti maj z~itky z dtstv. Podle Horneyov se dt rod do svta plnho problmo. Je-li dt v rodin asto vystaveno vlivom  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neur%C3%B3za" \o "Neurza" neurotickch problmo leno rodiny; jsou-li rodi e panova n, pYehnan opatrujc, nadr~uj  li sourozencom, ct se nejist a zraniteln  pYemh ho tzv. zkladn zkost  pocit osamocenosti a bezmocnosti v nepYtelskm svt. Dt si proti tto zkladn zkosti vytvY obranu ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Obrann%C3%A9_mechanismy&action=edit" \o "Obrann mechanismy" obrann mechanismy), kter m podobu ur itho pYstupu k okolnmu svtu a k ostatnm lidem. Tato pYstup pYetrvv a~ do dosplosti. Jako o  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neur%C3%B3za" \o "Neurza" neurotickm postoji o nm mluvme ve chvli, kdy jeden z tzv. pohybo ve vztahu k lidem vrazn pYeva~uje, stv se strnulm a rigidnm. Existuj 3 typy  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neur%C3%B3za" \o "Neurza" neurotickho postoje neboli pohybo: Pohyb k lidem  vznik z pYedpokladu, ~e druz poskytnou lovku pomoc a ochranu, kdy~ se jim podrob. Neurotik tohoto typu se sna~ pYiYadit k nejsilnjamu jedinci.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A1ska" \o "Lska" Lsku si sna~ zaslou~it oddanm slou~enm partnerovi. Toto mnohdy vede a~ k sebeobtovn nebo sebezni en. Pohyb proti lidem  pYedpoklad, ~e mocnmu se nikdo neodv~ ubli~ovat. PY inou tohoto postoje nen sla, ale  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Azkost" \o "zkost" zkost a strach. Takov neurotik si mysl, ~e svt je jen nepYtelsk a podle toho se musme chovat. Neurotik se obv, ~e bude oklamn nebo vykoYiseovn, na druhou stranu mu posob potaen init toto druhm, proto~e moc a majetek jsou podle nj cestou k tomu, jak se ubrnit svtu. Pohyb od lid  neurotik vyhledv fyzickou i duaevn samotu. Chce zostat stranou, proto~e lid jsou podle nj pY ina vaech problmo. Vnuje se knihm,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Um%C4%9Bn%C3%AD" \o "Umn" umn a nezapojuje se do socilnho ~ivota. Rezignuje na mezilidsk vztahy, proto~e jsou pro nho nebezpe n a ohro~ujc. Horneyov ostYe kritizovala  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud" \o "Freud" Freudovy nzory na vvoj dv ete a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie" \o "Psychologie" psychologii  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDena" \o "}ena" ~eny. Tm se stala jednou ze zakladatelek  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminismus" \o "Feminismus" feministick  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie" \o "Psychologie" psychologie. Odmtala  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud" \o "Freud" Freudova tvrzen: ~e kritickm momentem ve vvoji dvek je zjiatn, ~e nemaj penis ~e mateYstv je pouhou kompenzac za  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Z%C3%A1vid%C4%9Bn%C3%AD_penisu&action=edit" \o "Zvidn penisu" zvidn penisu (tvrdila, ~e mateYstv mo~e bt znak biologick nadYazenosti ~en nad mu~i) Napsala esej Problmy v man~elstv. Alfred Charles Kinsey Alfred Charles KinseyVznam:NarozenDatum: HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/23._%C4%8Derven" \o "23. erven" 23. erven HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1894" \o "1894" 1894Msto: HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hoboken&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Hoboken (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Hoboken,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jersey" \o "New Jersey" New Jersey,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spojen%C3%A9_st%C3%A1ty_americk%C3%A9" \o "Spojen stty americk" USAmrtDatum: HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/25._srpen" \o "25. srpen" 25. srpen HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1956" \o "1956" 1956Msto: HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bloomington&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Bloomington (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Bloomington,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiana" \o "Indiana" Indiana,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spojen%C3%A9_st%C3%A1ty_americk%C3%A9" \o "Spojen stty americk" USADr. Alfred Charles Kinsey (*  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/23._%C4%8Derven" \o "23. erven" 23. ervna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1894" \o "1894" 1894,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/25._srpen" \o "25. srpen" 25. srpna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1956" \o "1956" 1956) byl profesorem  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entomologie" \o "Entomologie" entomologie a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoologie" \o "Zoologie" zoologie, promoval t~ z  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie" \o "Psychologie" psychologie. Zna nou st ~ivota vnoval vzkumu  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C5%BDlabatka&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "}labatka (dosud nevytvoYeno)" ~labatek. Pozdji se proslavil svou prokopnickou innost na poli  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sexuologie&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Sexuologie (dosud nevytvoYeno)" sexuologie a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologie" \o "Sociologie" sociologie. Roku  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1947" \o "1947" 1947 zalo~il stav pro vzkum pohlav a reprodukce (Institute for Research in Sex, Gender and Reproduction) na  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indiana_University_Bloomington&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Indiana University Bloomington (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Indiana University Bloomington, pozdji pYejmenovan na  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kinsey_Institut&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Kinsey Institut (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Kinsey Institut (Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender and Reproduction). Byl hlavnm spoluautorem historicky vznamnch Kinseyovch zprv (Kinsey reports), t. j. studie  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexu%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_chov%C3%A1n%C3%AD_mu%C5%BEe" \o "Sexuln chovn mu~e" Sexuln chovn mu~e (1948) i nsledujc mn znm publikace  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexu%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_chov%C3%A1n%C3%AD_%C5%BEeny" \o "Sexuln chovn ~eny" Sexuln chovn ~eny (1953). Kinseyho prce zsadn ovlivnily  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sexu%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_revoluce&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Sexuln revoluce (dosud nevytvoYeno)" sexuln revoluci aedestch let dvactho stolet, zejmna v USA. daj Kinsey Reportu o 4% mu~o s trvale  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexualita" \o "Homosexualita" homosexulnm chovnm, tYeba~e byl od t doby mnohokrt oponovn a korigovn, se stal a dodnes zostal jednm ze zkladnch symbolo homosexuln menainy a homosexulnho hnut. Kinsey byl tak vznamnm aktivistou prv vznikajcho skautskho hnut a ml zna n hudebn nadn. V roce 2004 byl v USA nato en film  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kinsey_%28film%29&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Kinsey (film) (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Kinsey, jeho~ obsahem je stylizovan popis Kinseyho ~ivota a posoben. Film vyvolal novou vlnu zjmu o Alfreda Kinseyho a vrazn zvail obecn povdom o nm. Dtstv a mld Alfred Kinsey se narodil 23. ervna 1894 ve mst  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hoboken&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Hoboken (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Hoboken (stt  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jersey" \o "New Jersey" New Jersey,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spojen%C3%A9_st%C3%A1ty_americk%C3%A9" \o "Spojen stty americk" USA) jako nejstara ze tY dt v nepYlia zmo~n rodin. Otec Alfred Seguine Kinsey byl profesorem na  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stevens_Institute_of_Technology&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Stevens Institute of Technology (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Stevens Institute of Technology. Matka Sarah Ann Charles vyaa formln vzdln nemla. Oba rodi e byli extrmn konzervativnmi kYeseany. Otec byl jednm z nejaktivnjach leno mstn  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metodistick%C3%A1_c%C3%ADrkev&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Metodistick crkev (dosud nevytvoYeno)" metodistick crkve. Alfred byl vychovvn v duchu pYsn zbo~nosti, tabuizace sexulnho povdom, v mimoYdn restriktivnch postojch vo i vztahom k dvkm,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masturbace" \o "Masturbace" masturbaci i emukoliv sexulnmu. Pozdji se distancoval od metodistickho nbo~enstv a stal se z nbo~enskho hlediska  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnosticismus" \o "Agnosticismus" agnostikem. Kinsey v dtstv trpl roznmi nemocemi, napYklad  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%99ivice" \o "KYivice" kYivic ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachitis" \o "Rachitis" rachitidou) a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Revma&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Revma (dosud nevytvoYeno)" revmatickmi a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyfus" \o "Tyfus" tyfovmi  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hore%C4%8Dka" \o "Hore ka" hore kami. Finan n situace rodiny neumo~Hovala optimln l bu. Mrn zkYiven zad, trval nsledek kYivice, jej v roce 1917 uchrnilo pYed odvedenm do  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prvn%C3%AD_sv%C4%9Btov%C3%A1_v%C3%A1lka" \o "Prvn svtov vlka" Prvn svtov vlky. Zamlada Kinsey naael zlibu v pYrod, tbornictv a prci s chlapeckou mlde~. innost v kYeseansk mlde~nick organizaci  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/YMCA" \o "YMCA" YMCA jej zaujala natolik, ~e povodn zamalel se j po dokon en svch studi vnovat profesionln. Tento zjem se pozdji odrazil i v jeho studentsk prci, v psychologick disertaci o  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skupinov%C3%A1_dynamika" \o "Skupinov dynamika" skupinov dynamice chlapco. Zapojil se i do innosti tehdy vznikajc americk  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skauting" \o "Skauting" skautsk organizace  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Boy_Scouts_of_America&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Boy Scouts of America (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Boy Scouts of America (BSA). Rodi e jej v tchto aktivitch siln podporovali, proto~e v t dob byl skauting zce spjat s kYeseanskmi principy. Kinsey byl natolik aktivn, ~e nejvyaa skautsk hodnosti, Orlho Ydu, doshl ji~ po dvou letech, zatmco obvykle jej zskn trvalo pt a~ aest let. Intenzivn kontakt s pYrodou v ranm mld byl jednou z pY in Kinseyho zjmu o biologii a zvlae o  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entomologie" \o "Entomologie" entomologii (vdu o  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hmyz" \o "Hmyz" hmyzu), kter vnoval prvn polovinu sv vdeck kariry. A koliv jeho srdce bylo oslabeno nemocemi v dtstv, absolvoval s vdeckm zaujetm celou Yadu nro nch expedic. Skautsk anga~ovanost byla zYejm mocnm podntem i pro druhou, proslavenja polovinu jeho vdeckho ~ivota. `koln studia Na stYedn akole (Columbia High School,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maplewood&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Maplewood (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Maplewood, New Jersey) byl Kinsey introvertnm, ale mimoYdn pracovitm studentem. Mimo tbornictv se nevnoval sportu a zd se, ~e bhem studia stYedn (high) i vysok (college) akoly nepro~il ani ~dn hluba osobn vztahy. SoustYedil sv sil do akademick prce a zpo tku i do hry na klavr. Njakou dobu si dokonce pYl bt koncertnm pianistou, ale nakonec se rozhodl vnovat ~ivot vd. Schopnost plnho vdeckho zaujet si brzy zskal uznn. Bhem studia se zajmal o  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanika" \o "Botanika" botaniku i  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoologie" \o "Zoologie" zoologii. Pozdji prohlsil, ~e jeho stYedoakolsk u itelka biologie Natalie Roeth byla nejdole~itjam vlivem, kter ho pYiml k rozhodnut stt se vdcem. Po stYedn akole chtl Kinsey studovat botaniku. Otec se vaak rozhodl jej dt na technick studia na Stevens Institute of Technology, kde byl profesorem. Kinsey byl v tto akole neaeastn a pozdji poznamenal, ~e to bylo jedno z nejhorach obdob jeho ~ivota. Po dvou letech se rozhodl otci vzepYt a prosazoval svoj mysl studovat biologii na  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bowdoin_College&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Bowdoin College (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Bowdoin College v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maine" \o "Maine" Maine. Otec tomuto pYn siln odporoval, ale nakonec svolil. Kinseyho vztah s otcem vaak zna n utrpl. V roce 1914 Kinsey do tto akoly nastoupil. Vzkumem hmyzu se zabval pod vedenm  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manton_Copeland&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Manton Copeland (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Mantona Copelanda. Po dvou letech byl pYijat do presti~n studentsk vdeck spole nosti  F Beta Kappa , tto pocty se dostv jen pYibli~n 1% studento.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promoce" \o "Promoce" Promoval s vyznamennm, v biologii a psychologii (psychologick diserta n prce se zabvala skupinovou dynamikou chlapco). Ve studich pokra oval na  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University" \o "Harvard University" Harvardov univerzit. V  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bossey_Institute&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Bossey Institute (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Bossey Institute, kter mla jeden z nejoceHovanjach biologickch programo ve Spojench sttech, v aplikovan biologii posobil  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Morton_Wheeler&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "William Morton Wheeler (dosud nevytvoYeno)" William Morton Wheeler, vznamn entomolog. Kinsey pod jeho vedenm pracoval pYev~n samostatn, co~ obma vdcom vyhovovalo. Pro doktorskou prci si Kinsey zvolil vzkum  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C5%BDlabatka&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "}labatka (dosud nevytvoYeno)" ~labatek ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cynipidae&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Cynipidae (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Cynipidae). Sbru vzorko se Kinsey vnoval s nadaenou posedlost. Cestoval a provdl 26 detailnch mYen u statisco ~labatek. Jeho metodika pYedstavuje vznamn pYnos entomologii. V roce 1919 Kinsey zskal na Harvardov univerzit titul  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sc.D.&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Sc.D. (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Sc.D. V roce 1920 publikoval pod zatitou Americkho muzea pYrodn historie (American Museum of Natural History) v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York" \o "New York" New Yorku nkolik prac o  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fylogeneze" \o "Fylogeneze" fylogenezi ~labatek. Man~elstv a rodina V roce 1921 se Kinsey o~enil. Jeho ~enou byla  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Clara_Bracken_McMillen&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Clara Bracken McMillen (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Clara Bracken McMillen, kter dovrn Ykal  Mac ( ti anglicky). Mli tyYi dti. Prvorozen Don zemYel v roce 1927, tsn pYed svmi ptmi narozeninami, na  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus" \o "Diabetes mellitus" cukrovku. Dcera Anne se narodila roku 1924, syn Joan roku 1925 a syn Bruce roku 1928. Sexuln ~ivot Kinseyho Ob Kinseyovy zprvy i jeho soukrom ~ivot vyvolaly ji~ od po tku zva~n debaty o dopadu na sexuln  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mor%C3%A1lka" \o "Morlka" morlku a polarizovaly americkou spole nost. Mnoz pYznivci konzervativn-kYeseanskho pohledu pova~ovali Kinseyho a jeho stoupence za zpustl  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Libertin&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Libertin (dosud nevytvoYeno)" libertiny a Kinseyho vzkumy za naruaovn morlky. Dodnes u vtainy z nich Kinseyovo jmno vyvolv odmtav reakce. Kinsey byl pYedmtem povst o svch neobvyklch sexulnch praktikch. James H. Jones v ~ivotopisn knize Alfred C. Kinsey: A Public/Private Life popisuje Kinseyho jako bisexulnho  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Masochista&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Masochista (dosud nevytvoYeno)" masochistu. dajn se astnil skupinovho sexu se svmi postgradulnmi studenty, man~elkou a absolventy. Je tak znmo, ~e Kinsey v rmci vzkumu nat el v podkrov svho domu sexuln akty. }ivotopisec  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jonathan_Gathorne-Hardy&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Jonathan Gathorne-Hardy (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Jonathan Gathorne-Hardy vysvtlil, ~e Kinseov dom byl pro takov filmovn pou~vn z dovodo utajen, proto~e by bylo skandln, kdyby se o nm veYejn vdlo. Vyskytly se i nzory, ~e Kinseyovy filmy nebyly ve skute nosti vdeck, ale  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pornografie" \o "Pornografie" pornografick. Jones uvd, ~e Kinseyova ~ena mla sex i s dalami mu~i, ale pYesto vztah vydr~el po celch 35 let man~elstv. }dn z tchto povst o Kinseyov vlastnm sexulnm ~ivot nebyly potvrzeny oficilnm sdlenm Kinseyova institutu. A koliv nkter z nich, jako napYklad o Kinseyov bisexualit, byly potvrzeny z nezvislch zdrojo, o jinch tvrzench byly vedeny spory.  HYPERLINK "http://www.indiana.edu/~kinsey/publications/column2.html" \o "http://www.indiana.edu/~kinsey/publications/column2.html" [1]  HYPERLINK "http://www.indiana.edu/~kinsey/publications/duberman.html" \o "http://www.indiana.edu/~kinsey/publications/duberman.html" [2] Osobn nzory PYi vdeck prci Kinsey zaujmal roli nezaujatho pozorovatele. PYi svch osvtovch pYednakch i v soukromch rozhovorech vaak vyjadYoval pYesvd en, ~e spole ensk normy by mly bt ve vtam souladu se skute nm chovnm lid. V t dob napYklad byl v nkterch americkch sttech trestn orln-genitln styk. Hlsal toleranci pro rozn formy sexulnho chovn, od masturbace a~ po pedofiln kontakty (za ur itch okolnost). Pr prohlsil:  Jsou pouze tYi formy sexulnch abnormalit. Abstinence, celibt a pozdn man~elstv. VyjadYoval se v tom smyslu, ~e m vce sexu a s vce partnery, tm lpe. Vdeck drha Entomologie Po slo~en doktortu Kinsey nastoupil v roce 1920 jako odborn asistent do zoologickho oddlen na  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indiana_University_Bloomington&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Indiana University Bloomington (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Indiana University Bloomington. Jeho ~ena a kolegov mu Ykali Prok (profesor Kinsey). Nsledujcch 16 let pokra oval ve sbru a tYdn ~labatek. Zajmal se zejmna o evolu n historii tohoto drobnho hmyzu, v roce 1930 vydal monografii The Gall Wasp Genus Cynips: A Study in the Origin of Species vnovanou povodu druho ~labatek, a v roce 1935 The Origin of Higher Categories in Cynips, specializovanou na jejich vyaa vvojov stdia. U ebnice biologie Kinsey vydal v Yjnu 1926 stYedoakolskou u ebnici An Introduction to Biology (vod do biologie). Kniha se hls k myalence evoluce a sjednocuje na spole nch principech zoologii a botaniku, kter do t doby byly asto vnmny jako samostatn, oddlen obory. Revidovan vydn vyala i v letech 1933 a 1938. Lidsk sexuln chovn a  Kinseyho zprvy Kinsey je obecn pova~ovn za zakladatele sociologick sexuologie, systematickho a vdeckho zkoumn lidsk sexuality. Nejprve se, po intenzivnch diskusch s kolegou  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Kroc&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Robert Kroc (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Robertem Krocem, kolem roku 1933 za al zajmat o rozn formy sexulnch praktik. Pravdpodobn roznost zposobo pYen ~labatek jej pYivedla k divu nad tm, jak rozmanit jsou sexuln praktiky i mezi lidmi. V roce 1935 Kinsey pYspl do fakultn diskusn skupiny na Indiana University pYednakou, kter byla jeho prvnm veYejnm vystoupenm k tmatu. Zato il v n na rozshlou obecnou neznalost anatomie i fyziologie sexuality a vyjdYil svoji tezi, ~e opo~dn sHatky (pozdn sexuln zkuaenosti) jsou psychicky akodliv. Od roku 1938 provdl na pod univerzity osvtov pYednaky o sexualit. Kinsey obdr~el od Rockefellerovy nadace (Rockefeller Foundation) vzkumnou dotaci, kter mu umo~nila zkoumat lidsk sexuln chovn prostYednictvm  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rozhovor&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Rozhovor (dosud nevytvoYeno)" rozhovoro s tisci  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Respondent&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Respondent (dosud nevytvoYeno)" respondento. V roce 1948 vydal vzkumn kolektiv publikaci Sexuln chovn mu~e (Sexual Behavior in the Human Male), v roce 1953 Sexuln chovn ~eny (Sexual Behavior in the Human Female). Tyto takzvan  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinseyovy_zpr%C3%A1vy" \o "Kinseyovy zprvy" Kinseyovy zprvy (Kinsey Reports) se staly  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bestseler&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Bestseler (dosud nevytvoYeno)" bestselery. lnky o Kinseyovi se za aly objevovat v presti~nch i populrnch magaznech a vyvolaly bouYliv diskuse a polemiky. Prezident Indiana University  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Herman_B._Wells&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Herman B. Wells (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Herman B. Wells hjil Kinseyovy vzkumy, kter se staly testem akademick svobody. Vlna odporu po vydn druh Kinseyho zprvy v roce 1953 byla natolik siln, ~e Rockefellerova nadace ukon ila financovn projektu. Jeho innost odsoudil znm kazatel  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Graham" \o "Billy Graham" Billy Graham. Kinsey byl vyslchn pYed  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongres" \o "Kongres" Kongresem, obvinn z  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Obsc%C3%A9nnost&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Obscnnost (dosud nevytvoYeno)" obscnnosti, vyaetYovn  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/FBI" \o "FBI" FBI. Byl ozna en za  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komunista" \o "Komunista" komunistu, kter pYiael, aby zni il americkou rodinu. Zbytek ~ivota strvil v permanentnm  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stres" \o "Stres" stresu a hlubok  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deprese_%28psychologie%29" \o "Deprese (psychologie)" depresi. Vznamn publikace Nov druhy a synonymnost americkch ~labatek (New Species and Synonymy of American Cynipidae), Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 1920 Po tky americkch ~labatek (Life Histories of American Cynipidae), Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 1920 Fylogeneze druho ~labatek a biologick charakteristiky (Phylogeny of Cynipid Genera and Biological Characteristics), Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 1920 vod do biologie (An Introduction to Biology), 1926 }labatky rodu Cynips: Studie o povodu druho (The Gall Wasp Genus Cynips: A Study in the Origin of Species), 1930 Nov vod do biologie (New Introduction to Biology), 1933, revidovan vydn 1938 Povod vyaach kategori rodu Cynips (The Origin of Higher Categories in Cynips), 1935  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexu%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_chov%C3%A1n%C3%AD_mu%C5%BEe" \o "Sexuln chovn mu~e" Sexuln chovn mu~e (Sexual Behavior in the Human Male), 1948, reprint 1998  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexu%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_chov%C3%A1n%C3%AD_%C5%BEeny" \o "Sexuln chovn ~eny" Sexuln chovn ~eny (Sexual Behavior in the Human Female), 1953, reprint 1998 V eatin nebyla vydna ~dn z Kinseyho publikac. mrt Kinsey zemYel 25. srpna 1956 ve vku 62 let ve stavu v~n deprese na srde n selhn a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1pal_plic" \o "Zpal plic" zpal plic. Kinsey v umn a mdich V roce 2003 ml v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago" \o "Chicago" Chicagu prmiru muzikl o ~ivot Kinseyho s nzvem Dr. Sex (winning seven Jeff Awards). Americk spisovatel  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Coraghessan_Boyle&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Thomas Coraghessan Boyle (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Thomas Coraghessan Boyle v roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004" \o "2004" 2004 napsal novelu The Inner Circle (zk kruh, v nm in vyala pod nzvem Dr. Sex) V roce [2004] v USA nato il re~isr  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bill_Condon&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Bill Condon (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Bill Condon film  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kinsey_%28film%29&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Kinsey (film) (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Kinsey, jeho~ obsahem je stylizovan popis Kinseyho ~ivota a posoben. Kinseyho hrl  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liam_Neeson" \o "Liam Neeson" Liam Neeson a jeho ~enu  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laura_Linney&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Laura Linney (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Laura Linney. Film byl distribuovn i v eskch kinech. PBS (Public Broadcasting Service, americk televizn se) v roce 2005 pYinesla filmov dokument, v nm~ Kinseyho institut seznamuje veYejnost s mnoha z Kinseyovch spiso. Reference Cornelia Christenson, Kinsey: A Biography, Indiana University Press, 1971 Wardell Pomeroy, Dr. Kinsey and the Institute for Sex Research, Harper & Row, 1972 James H. Jones, Alfred C. Kinsey: A Public/Private Life, Norton, 1997 Jonathan Gathorne-Hardy, Alfred C. Kinsey: Sex the Measure of All Things, London: Chatto & Windus, 1998 Souvisejc lnky  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinseyovy_zpr%C3%A1vy" \o "Kinseyovy zprvy" Kinseyovy zprvy  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lidsk%C3%A9_sexu%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_chov%C3%A1n%C3%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Lidsk sexuln chovn (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Lidsk sexuln chovn  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexualita" \o "Homosexualita" Homosexualita  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kinsey_%28film%29&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Kinsey (film) (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Kinsey (film) Bruno Bettelheim Bruno Bettelheim ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/25._srpen" \o "25. srpen" 25. srpna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1903" \o "1903" 1903,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%ADde%C5%88" \o "VdeH" VdeH -  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/13._b%C5%99ezen" \o "13. bYezen" 13. bYezna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990" \o "1990" 1990,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Silver_Spring&action=edit" \o "Silver Spring" Silver Spring) byl  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spojen%C3%A9_st%C3%A1ty_americk%C3%A9" \o "Spojen stty americk" americk  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholog" \o "Psycholog" psycholog a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychoanalytik&action=edit" \o "Psychoanalytik" psychoanalytik  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakousko" \o "Rakousko" rakouskho povodu. PYispl zejmna k problematice dtsk psychologie. Vystudoval psychologii na vdeHsk univerzit. Za druh svtov vlky byl vznn v koncentra nch tborech  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Koncentra%C4%8Dn%C3%AD_t%C3%A1bor_Dachau&action=edit" \o "Koncentra n tbor Dachau" Dachau a HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Koncentra%C4%8Dn%C3%AD_t%C3%A1bor_Buchenwald&action=edit" \o "Koncentra n tbor Bauchenwald"Buchenwald; sv z~itky z tchto let velmi posobiv vyl il v knize The Informed Heart. Po vlce pYesdlil do  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spojen%C3%A9_st%C3%A1ty_americk%C3%A9" \o "Spojen stty americk" USA a stal se profesorem psychologie a psychiatrie na univerzit v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago" \o "Chicago" Chicagu. Z dla: The Children of the Dream, The Childs Fascination with Meaning, The Uses of Enchantment, Freud and Mans Soul. Bruno Bettelheim ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_28" \o "August 28" August 28,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1903" \o "1903" 1903  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_13" \o "March 13" March 13,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990" \o "1990" 1990) was a Jewish native of Austria who escaped as a refugee to the US before it entered World War II. There he continued his career as a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_psychology" \o "Child psychology" child psychologist and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writer" \o "Writer" writer. He was an internationally known figure, prominent for his studies of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism" \o "Autism" autism and success in treating emotionally disturbed children. Although he was widely respected for his work, changing understanding of the biological basis of autism and some mental illnesses has meant less attachment to some of Bettelheim's theories. Bettelheim subscribed to the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refrigerator_mother" \o "Refrigerator mother" refrigerator mother theory of autism, which enjoyed considerable influence into the 1960s and 1970s in the US, although there were suggestions he was changing his thinking. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bettelheim%2C_Bruno" \l "cite_note-0#cite_note-0" \o "" [1] It was in keeping with psychological theories that blamed most emotional illnesses on the parents, especially the mother. Since research has provided greater understanding of the biological bases of autism and other illnesses, the theory is accorded little merit now. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bettelheim%2C_Bruno" \l "cite_note-1#cite_note-1" \o "" [2] Bruno Bettelheim was the author of The Uses of Enchantment, published in 1976, among numerous other works. In it he analyzed  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairy_tale" \o "Fairy tale" fairy tales in terms of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud" \o "Freud" Freudian psychology. The book was awarded the U.S. Critic's Choice Prize for criticism in 1976 and the National Book Award in the category of Contemporary Thought in 1977. Bettelheim discussed the emotional and symbolic importance of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairy_tale" \o "Fairy tale" fairy tales for children, including traditional tales at one time considered too dark, such as those collected and published by the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brothers_Grimm" \o "Brothers Grimm" Brothers Grimm. Background When his father died, Bettelheim left his university studies to care for his family's lumber business. Bettelheim and his first wife Gina took care of Patsy, an American child whom he later described as autistic. Patsy lived in the Bettelheim home in Vienna for seven years. Bettelheim returned to his education, earning a degree in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy" \o "Philosophy" philosophy and producing a dissertation on the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_art" \o "History of art" history of art. Having discharged his obligations to his family's business, Bettelheim returned as a mature student in his 30s to the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Vienna" \o "University of Vienna" University of Vienna. He never completed a Ph.D. He embellished his resume. In the Austrian academic culture of Bettelheim's time, one could not study the history of art without mastering aspects of psychology. The formal study of the role of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archetypes" \l "Jungian_archetypes" \o "Archetypes" Jungian archetypes in art, and art as an expression of the Freudian subconscious, were prerequisites for a Doctoral dissertation in the History of Art in 1938 at Vienna University. Bettelheim was Jewish by birth, although his family was secular. When the Germans occupied Austria, he was deported with other Austrian Jews to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dachau_concentration_camp" \o "Dachau concentration camp" Dachau and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buchenwald" \o "Buchenwald" Buchenwald  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentration_camp" \o "Concentration camp" concentration camps from  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1938" \o "1938" 1938 to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1939" \o "1939" 1939. As a result of an amnesty Hitler declared on his birthday, April 20, 1939, Bettelheim and hundreds of other prisoners were released, which saved his life. He may also have used bribery to get released. Bettelheim drew on the experience in the concentration camps in his later work. Life and career in the US Bettelheim arrived by ship as a refugee in New York in the fall of 1939 to join his wife Gina who had already immigrated. They divorced because she had gotten involved with someone else during their separation. He soon moved to Chicago and became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 1944. He married again in the US. Bettelheim was appointed a professor of psychology and taught at the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago" \o "University of Chicago" University of Chicago from  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1944" \o "1944" 1944 until his retirement in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973" \o "1973" 1973. He was trained in philosophy, but stated he had also been analyzed by the Viennese psychoanalyst  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Richard_Sterba&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Richard Sterba (page does not exist)" Richard Sterba. Bettelheim also served as Director of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago" \o "University of Chicago" University of Chicago's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonia_Shankman_Orthogenic_School" \o "Sonia Shankman Orthogenic School" Sonia Shankman Orthogenic School, a home that treated emotionally disturbed children. He changed it and created an environment for milieu therapy, in which children could form strong attachments with adults within a structured but caring environment. His work led to considerable success in treating some of the emotionally disturbed children. He wrote books on both normal and abnormal  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_psychology" \o "Child psychology" child psychology and was a major influence in the field, widely respected during his lifetime. In The Uses of Enchantment, Bettelheim suggested that traditional fairy tales, with the darkness of abandonment, death, witches, and injuries, allowed children to grapple with their fears. If they could read and interpret these fairy tales in their own way, he believed they would get a greater sense of meaning and purpose. Bettelheim thought that by engaging with the stories, children would go through emotional growth that would better prepare them for their own lives. He believed that the tales had an organic quality because of having evolved in societies, and that they allowed children to grapple with their darkest fears in symbolic terms. His writings covered a wide range, beginning shortly after he arrived in the US with an essay on concentration camps and their dynamics. He was long considered an authority on these. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bettelheim%2C_Bruno" \l "cite_note-2#cite_note-2" \o "" [3] At the end of his life, Bettelheim suffered from  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_depression" \o "Clinical depression" depression and appeared to have had difficulties with it much of his life. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bettelheim%2C_Bruno" \l "cite_note-3#cite_note-3" \o "" [4] In  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990" \o "1990" 1990, widowed and in failing health, he committed  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide" \o "Suicide" suicide. Controversies Theoretical controversy When he started, Bettelheim believed that  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism" \o "Autism" autism did not have an organic basis, but was the result of mothers who withheld appropriate affection from their children and failed to make a good connection. The most extreme point of view was that mothers literally did not want their children to exist. Absent or weak fathers were also blamed. One of his most famous books,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Empty_Fortress&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "The Empty Fortress (page does not exist)" The Empty Fortress, contains a complex and detailed explanation of this dynamic in psychoanalytical and psychological terms. He derived his thinking from the qualitative investigation of clinical cases. He also related autistic children to conditions in concentration camps. In A Good Enough Parent, published in 1987, he had come to the view that children were quite resilient and most parents could be "good enough" to help their children make a good start. Other  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freudian" \o "Freudian" Freudian analysts, as well as scientists and doctors, followed Bettelheim's lead. They often confused and over-simplified issues with emotionally disturbed or autistic children and their families. Personal controversy In addition to reassessment of Bettelheim's psychological theories, controversy has arisen related to his history and personality. He had a prominent reputation as a compassionate man who had made a career of healing others and was considered an expert on the dynamics of the concentration camps. After Bettelheim's suicide in 1990, detractors claimed that Bettelheim had a dark side. He was said to have exploded in screaming anger at students, and to have gone beyond firm treatment to corporal punishment or abuse. Three former patients questioned his work and characterized him as a cruel tyrant. Other former patients wrote or spoke publicly to tell how much Bettelheim had helped them, so there seemed no consensus. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bettelheim%2C_Bruno" \l "cite_note-4#cite_note-4" \o "" [5]. Two well-researched biographies published in the US in 1997 revealed evidence that Bettelheim had lied or exaggerated many parts of his background. These included wartime experiences, family life, academic credentials and the use of corporal punishment at the Orthogenic School. While Richard Pollak's biography was strongly negative, that by Nina Sutton offered a different interpretation of some of the material. There were huge gaps between the public reputation Bettelheim had established in the US and some of the facts revealed during this controversy, but there also seemed to be charges that related to the size of his personality.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bettelheim%2C_Bruno" \l "cite_note-5#cite_note-5" \o "" [6] HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bettelheim%2C_Bruno" \l "cite_note-6#cite_note-6" \o "" [7]  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bettelheim%2C_Bruno" \l "cite_note-7#cite_note-7" \o "" [8] The resulting discussions and controversy called into question whether the University of Chicago had screened Bettelheim closely enough, although appointments to administrative positions such as director of the school do not require an academic appointment. Many parents who had children at the school claimed that their children had been helped by his treatment and continued to consider him a compassionate man. Popular culture In 1974, a four-part series featuring Bruno Bettelheim and directed by Daniel Carlin appeared on French TV - Portrait de Bruno Bettelheim.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woody_Allen" \o "Woody Allen" Woody Allen's included Bettelheim as himself in a cameo in the film  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zelig" \o "Zelig" Zelig ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983" \o "1983" 1983). Two former patients wrote about their experiences at the school, one in a novel and one in a memoir. Tom Lyons' novel The Pelican and After was published in 1983. Stephen Eliot's memoir, Not the Thing I Was: Thirteen Years at Bruno Bettelheim's Orthogenics School, was published in 2003. Bettelheim and the controversy that arose after his death appeared to influence the character of Dr. Andres de Bosch in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Kellerman" \o "Jonathan Kellerman" Jonathan Kellerman's mystery Bad Love. De Bosch is portrayed as a child psychiatrist who espouses great humanitarian ideals, while practicing bigotry, class prejudice and cruelty. In his life he is lionized for the man he seems to be, but after his death he is exposed as a tyrant and a fraud. Citations  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bettelheim%2C_Bruno" \l "cite_ref-0#cite_ref-0" \o "" ^  HYPERLINK "http://www.nybooks.com/articles/16083" \o "http://www.nybooks.com/articles/16083" Robert Gottlieb, "The Strange Case of Dr. B.", The New York Review of Books, 27 Feb 2003, accessed 15 Apr 2008  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bettelheim%2C_Bruno" \l "cite_ref-1#cite_ref-1" \o "" ^ Feinstein, Adam.  HYPERLINK "http://autismconnect.org/news.asp?section=00010001&itemtype=adam&page=9&id=4540" \o "http://autismconnect.org/news.asp?section=00010001&itemtype=adam&page=9&id=4540" 'Refrigerator mother' tosh must go into cold storage. autismconnect. Retrieved on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" \o "2007" 2007- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_29" \o "July 29" 07-29.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bettelheim%2C_Bruno" \l "cite_ref-2#cite_ref-2" \o "" ^  HYPERLINK "http://www.nybooks.com/articles/16083" \o "http://www.nybooks.com/articles/16083" Robert Gottlieb, "The Strange Case of Dr. B.", The New York Review of Books, 27 Feb 2003, accessed 15 Apr 2008  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bettelheim%2C_Bruno" \l "cite_ref-3#cite_ref-3" \o "" ^  HYPERLINK "http://www.nybooks.com/articles/16083" \o "http://www.nybooks.com/articles/16083" Robert Gottlieb, "The Strange Case of Dr. B.", The New York Review of Books, 27 Feb 2003, accessed 15 Apr 2008  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bettelheim%2C_Bruno" \l "cite_ref-4#cite_ref-4" \o "" ^  HYPERLINK "http://www.leaderu.com/ftissues/ft9706/articles/finn.html" \o "http://www.leaderu.com/ftissues/ft9706/articles/finn.html" Molly Finn, "In the Case of Bruno Bettelheim", First Things, Vol. 74 (June/July 1997), accessed 15 Apr 2008  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bettelheim%2C_Bruno" \l "cite_ref-5#cite_ref-5" \o "" ^  HYPERLINK "http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/01/26/reviews/970126.boxer.html" \o "http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/01/26/reviews/970126.boxer.html" Sarah Boxer, "The Man He Always Wanted to Be", The New York Times, 26 Jan 1997, accessed 15 Apr 2008  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bettelheim%2C_Bruno" \l "cite_ref-6#cite_ref-6" \o "" ^  HYPERLINK "http://www.leaderu.com/ftissues/ft9706/articles/finn.html" \o "http://www.leaderu.com/ftissues/ft9706/articles/finn.html" Molly Finn, "In the Case of Bruno Bettelheim", First Things, Vol. 74 (June/July 1997), accessed 15 Apr 2008  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bettelheim%2C_Bruno" \l "cite_ref-7#cite_ref-7" \o "" ^  HYPERLINK "http://www.nybooks.com/articles/16083" \o "http://www.nybooks.com/articles/16083" Robert Gottlieb, "The Strange Case of Dr. B.", The New York Review of Books, 27 Feb 2003, accessed 15 Apr 2008 Bibliography Major works  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1943" \o "1943" 1943 "Individual and Mass Behavior in Extreme Situations", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 38: 417-452.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1950" \o "1950" 1950 Love Is Not Enough: The Treatment of Emotionally Disturbed Children, Free Press, Glencoe, Ill.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1954" \o "1954" 1954 Symbolic Wounds; Puberty Rites and the Envious Male, Free Press, Glencoe, Ill.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1955" \o "1955" 1955 Truants From Life; The Rehabilitation of Emotionally Disturbed Children, Free Press, Glencoe, Ill.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1959" \o "1959" 1959 "Joey: A 'Mechanical Boy'", Scientific American, 200, March 1959: 117-126. (About a boy who believes himself to be a robot.)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960" \o "1960" 1960 The Informed Heart: Autonomy in a Mass Age, The Free Press, Glencoe, Ill.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1962" \o "1962" 1962 Dialogues with Mothers, The Free Press, Glencoe, Ill.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967" \o "1967" 1967 The Empty Fortress: Infantile Autism and the Birth of the Self, The Free Press, New York  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1969" \o "1969" 1969 The Children of the Dream, Macmillan, London & New York (About the raising of children in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibbutz" \o "Kibbutz" kibbutz.)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974" \o "1974" 1974 A Home for the Heart, Knopf, New York. (About Bettelheim's Orthogenic School at the University of Chicago for schizophrenic and autistic children.)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976" \o "1976" 1976 The Uses of Enchantment: The Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales, Knopf, New York  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979" \o "1979" 1979 Surviving and Other Essays, Knopf, New York (Includes the essay "The Ignored Lesson of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Frank" \o "Anne Frank" Anne Frank".)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982" \o "1982" 1982 On Learning to Read: The Child's Fascination with Meaning (with Karen Zelan), Knopf, New York  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982" \o "1982" 1982  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud" \o "Freud" Freud and Man's Soul, Knopf, 1983,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0394524810" ISBN 0394524810  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987" \o "1987" 1987 A Good Enough Parent: A Book on Child-Rearing, Knopf, New York  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990" \o "1990" 1990 Freud's Vienna and Other Essays, Knopf, New York  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994" \o "1994" 1994 Bettelheim, Bruno & Ekstein, Rudolf: Grenzgnge zwischen den Kulturen. Das letzte Gesprch zwischen Bruno Bettelheim und Rudolf Ekstein. In: Kaufhold, Roland (ed.) (1994): Annherung an Bruno Bettelheim. Mainz (Grnewald): 4960. William James William James, ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/11._leden" \o "11. leden" 11. ledna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1842" \o "1842" 1842  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York" \o "New York" New York  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/26._srpen" \o "26. srpen" 26. srpna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1910" \o "1910" 1910 Chocorua, New Hampshire) byl americk psycholog, jeden ze zakladatelo vdeck a empirick  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie" \o "Psychologie" psychologie, autor vlivnch knih o mystice, o  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie_n%C3%A1bo%C5%BEenstv%C3%AD" \o "Psychologie nbo~enstv" psychologii nbo~enstv a filosofii vchovy a vznamn pYedstavitel pragmatick  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" \o "Filosofie" filosofie. }ivotopis William James se narodil v bohat newyorsk rodin, jeho otec se zajmal o literaturu, o  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Swedenborg&action=edit" \o "Swedenborg" Swedenborgovu teologii a ml bohat styky s americkou i evropskou intelektuln elitou t doby: s  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ralph_Waldo_Emerson&action=edit" \o "Ralph Waldo Emerson" Emersonem,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Peirce" \o "Charles Peirce" C. S. Peircem,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Mach" \o "Ernst Mach" E. Machem,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dewey" \o "John Dewey" Johnem Dewey,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Twain" \o "Mark Twain" Markem Twainem,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Frazer" \o "James Frazer" J. Frazerem,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson" \o "Henri Bergson" Henri Bergsonem,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_George_Wells" \o "Herbert George Wells" H. G. Wellsem,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Keith_Chesterton" \o "Gilbert Keith Chesterton" G. K. Chestertonem,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" S. Freudem,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Jung" \o "Carl Gustav Jung" C. G. Jungem. Mlad James  stejn jako jeho pt velmi nadanch sourozenco - dostal vynikajc vzdln, nkolikrt navatvil Evropu a nau il se Yadu jazyko. Jeho bratr  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_James" \o "Henry James" Henry James se stal velmi spanm spisovatelem. William James studoval od roku  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1864" \o "1864" 1864 medicinu na Harvardov univerzit, kde pak tak posobil a~ do smrti (1910). V roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1867" \o "1867" 1867   HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1868" \o "1868" 1868, kdy~ se l il z depres v Nmecku, objevil psychologii Hermanna Helmholtze a Freudova u itele  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pierre_Janet&action=edit" \o "Pierre Janet" Pierre Janeta. Po promoci ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1869" \o "1869" 1869) se stal asistentem lkaYstv na Harvardov univerzit, ale od roku  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1876" \o "1876" 1876 se u~ vnoval pouze psychologii (profesorem  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1885" \o "1885" 1885) a od roku  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1897" \o "1897" 1897 se stal tamt~ profesorem filosofie. Dlo James nebyl myslitel akademick u enosti, nbr~ stle se sna~il, aby jeho myalen studentom i tenYom pomhalo lpe ~t. V psychologii kritizoval dogmatick akoly, kter podle nho k ni emu nevedou. Proti mechanistickm vkladom myalenkovch proceso (napY. jako asociac) zdorazHoval, ~e lovk v~dycky sleduje njak cle, hled, vol a jedn. Slavn je Jamesov vklad emoc: nen to tak, ~e by lovk vidl medvda, dostal strach a proto utekl, nbr~ tak, ~e ute e, jak spatY medvda, a teprve potom dostane strach.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emoce" \o "Emoce" Emoce jsou tedy cosi prvotnho a bezprostYednho, vyvolanho pYmo vjemy nebo podnty.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pravda" \o "Pravda" Pravda je podle Jamese to, co se lidem dlouhodob osvd ilo a osvd uje, druh dobra, kter jim umo~Huje lpe ~t. To je jdro jeho  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatismus" \o "Pragmatismus" pragmatismu. James je tak  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirismus" \o "Empirismus" empirista, ovaem zvlatnho, radiklnho druhu. Zkuaenost nen nco, co by se dalo rozdlit a fixovat jako jednotliv, naprosto objektivn  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fakt" \o "Fakt" fakta, nbr~ je pYedevam celkov, promnliv a poznamenan vnmajcm lovkem. lovka nelze od jeho zkuaenosti oddlit. Tak Jamesova filosofie nbo~enstv zdorazHuje na jedn stran bezprostYedn povahu nbo~ensk zkuaenosti, kter nen pojmov ani teoretick, nbr~ celkov a ~it. Nbo~ensk zkuaenost je zvlat zajmavm pYedmtem psychologickho zkoumn, proto~e se v n jako pod mikroskopem ukazuje, jak funguje naae mysl. Na druh stran trval pYtomnost nbo~enstv v lidskch spole nostech podle Jamese dokazuje, ~e bylo lidem u~ite n a pomhalo jim ~t a jednat ve spletitm svt. Proto m lovk , jak Yk James,  voli vYit (the will to believe). Spisy  HYPERLINK "http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/James/Principles/" \o "http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/James/Principles/" The Principles of Psychology (1890) Psychology (Briefer Course) (1892)  HYPERLINK "http://www.philosophyarchive.com/text.php?era=1800-1899&author=William%20James&text=The%20Will%20to%20Believe" \o "http://www.philosophyarchive.com/text.php?era=1800-1899&author=William%20James&text=The%20Will%20to%20Believe" The Will to Believe (1897) Human Immortality: Two Supposed Objections to the Doctrine (1897)  HYPERLINK "http://des.emory.edu/mfp/ttpreface.html" \o "http://des.emory.edu/mfp/ttpreface.html" Talks to Teachers on Psychology: and to Students on Some of Life's Ideals (1899)  HYPERLINK "http://xroads.virginia.edu/%7EHYPER/WJAMES/toc.html" \o "http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/WJAMES/toc.html" The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902) Pragmatism: A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking (1907) A Pluralistic Universe (1909) The Meaning of Truth: A Sequel to Pragmatism (1909) Some Problems of Philosophy: A Beginning of an Introduction to Philosophy (1911)  HYPERLINK "http://spartan.ac.brocku.ca/%7Elward/James/James_1912/James_1912_toc.html" \o "http://spartan.ac.brocku.ca/~lward/James/James_1912/James_1912_toc.html" Essays in Radical Empiricism (1912) esky vyalo  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druhy_n%C3%A1bo%C5%BEensk%C3%A9_zku%C5%A1enosti" \o "Druhy nbo~ensk zkuaenosti" Druhy nbo~ensk zkuaenosti, Praha 1930 Pragmatism: nov jmno pro star zposoby myalen. Brno 2003 vod do religionistiky. FF UK Praha 2004 Citty & objektivn pravda, v n~ funkce uspokojovn lidskch pYn vobec nehraje ~dnou lohu, neexistuje & nezvisl pravda & pYedstavuje pouze mrtv srdce przdnho stromu. (z dla Pragmatismus) Mnoho lid se domnv, ~e mysl, a  jenom nov Yad sv pYedsudky. Granville Stanley Hall Granville Stanley Hall, circa 1910. Granville Stanley Hall ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_1" \o "February 1" February 1,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1844" \o "1844" 1844 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_24" \o "April 24" April 24,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1924" \o "1924" 1924) was a pioneering  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" American  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist" \o "Psychologist" psychologist and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educator" \o "Educator" educator. His interests focused on childhood development and evolutionary theory. Hall was the first president of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" \o "American Psychological Association" American Psychological Association and the first president of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark_University" \o "Clark University" Clark University. Born in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashfield,_Massachusetts" \o "Ashfield, Massachusetts" Ashfield,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts" \o "Massachusetts" Massachusetts, Hall graduated from  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williams_College" \o "Williams College" Williams College in 1867, then studied at the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Theological_Seminary_in_the_City_of_New_York" \o "Union Theological Seminary in the City of New York" Union Theological Seminary. Inspired by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt" \o "Wilhelm Wundt" Wilhelm Wundt's Principles of Physiological Psychology, he earned his doctorate in psychology under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_James" \o "William James" William James at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University" \o "Harvard University" Harvard University, after which he spent time at Wundt's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leipzig" \o "Leipzig" Leipzig laboratory. He began his career by teaching  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language" \o "English language" English and philosophy at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioch_College" \o "Antioch College" Antioch College in Yellow Springs, Ohio. In 1882 (until 1888), he was appointed as a Professor of Psychology and Pedagogics at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University" \o "Johns Hopkins University" Johns Hopkins University, and began what is considered to be the first American psychology laboratory. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._Stanley_Hall" \l "cite_note-bio1-0#cite_note-bio1-0" \o "" [1] There, Hall objected vehemently to the emphasis on teaching traditional subjects, e.g., Latin, mathematics, science and history, in high school, arguing instead that high school should focus more on the education of adolescents than on preparing students for college. In 1887, he founded the American Journal of Psychology and in 1892 was appointed as the first president of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" \o "American Psychological Association" American Psychological Association. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._Stanley_Hall" \l "cite_note-bio1-0#cite_note-bio1-0" \o "" [1] In 1899, he was named the first President of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark_University" \o "Clark University" Clark University, a post he filled until 1920. During his 31 years as President, Hall remained intellectually active. He was instrumental in the development of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychology" \o "Educational psychology" educational psychology, and attempted to determine the effect  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolescence" \o "Adolescence" adolescence has on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education" \o "Education" education. He was also responsible for inviting  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Sigmund Freud and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Jung" \o "Carl Jung" Carl Jung to visit and deliver lectures in 1909.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark_1909.jpg" \o "Enlarge"  Group photo 1909 in front of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark_University" \o "Clark University" Clark University. Front row:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Sigmund Freud, Granville Stanley Hall,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C.G.Jung" \o "C.G.Jung" C.G.Jung; back row:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_A._Brill" \o "Abraham A. Brill" Abraham A. Brill,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Jones" \o "Ernest Jones" Ernest Jones,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandor_Ferenczi" \o "Sandor Ferenczi" Sandor Ferenczi.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Freud_at_Clark_Statue.JPG" \o "Enlarge"  Statue at the center of campus of Sigmund Freud, commemorating his 1909 visit to the University by invitation of G.S. Hall  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin" \o "Charles Darwin" Darwin's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" \o "Evolution" theory of evolution and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" \o "Ernst Haeckel" Ernst Haeckel's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recapitulation_theory" \o "Recapitulation theory" recapitulation theory were large influences on Hall's career. These ideas prompted Hall to examine aspects of childhood development in order to learn about the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" \o "Genetics" inheritance of behavior. The  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjectivity" \o "Subjectivity" subjective character of these studies made their validation impossible. His work also delved into controversial portrayals of the differences between women and men, as well as the concept of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_(classification_of_human_beings)" \o "Race (classification of human beings)" racial  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenics" \o "Eugenics" eugenics. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._Stanley_Hall" \l "cite_note-bio1-0#cite_note-bio1-0" \o "" [1] Hall coined the phrase "Storm and Stress" with reference to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolescence" \o "Adolescence" adolescence, taken from the German  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sturm_und_Drang" \o "Sturm und Drang" Sturm und Drang-movement. Its three key aspects are: conflict with parents, mood disruptions, and risky behavior. As was later the case with the work of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" \o "Lev Vygotsky" Lev Vygotsky and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \o "Jean Piaget" Jean Piaget, public interest in this phrase and Hall's originating role, faded. Recent research has led to some reconsideration of the phrase and its denotation. In its three aspects, recent evidence supports storm-and-stress, but modified to take into account individual differences and cultural variations. Currently, pyschologists do not accept storm-and-stress as universal, but do acknowledge the possibility in brief passing. Not all adolescents experience storm-and-stress, but storm-and-stress is more likely during adolescence than at other ages. Hall's major books were Adolescence (1904) and Aspects of Child Life and Education (1921). Hall also coined the technical words describing types of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tickling" \o "Tickling" tickling;  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knismesis" \o "Knismesis" knismesis or feather-like tickling, and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gargalesis" \o "Gargalesis" gargalesis for the harder, laughter inducing type. Literary activities An important contributor to educational literature, and a leading authority in that field, he founded and was editor of the American Journal of Psychology and edited also the Pedagogical Seminary (after 1892), the American Journal of Religious Psychology and Education (after 1904), and the Journal of Race Development (after 1910). Among his books are: Aspects of German Culture (1881) Hints toward a Select and Descriptive Bibliography of Education (1886), with John M. Mansfield The Contents of Children's Minds on Entering School (1894) Adolescence (two volumes, 1904) Youth: Its Education and Regimen (1906) Educational Problems (two volumes, 1911) References and external links ^  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._Stanley_Hall" \l "cite_ref-bio1_0-0#cite_ref-bio1_0-0" \o "" a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._Stanley_Hall" \l "cite_ref-bio1_0-1#cite_ref-bio1_0-1" \o "" b  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._Stanley_Hall" \l "cite_ref-bio1_0-2#cite_ref-bio1_0-2" \o "" c  HYPERLINK "http://www.ithaca.edu/beins/gsh/gsh_bio.htm" \o "http://www.ithaca.edu/beins/gsh/gsh_bio.htm" A Brief Biographical Sketch of G. Stanley Hall  HYPERLINK "http://www.gutenberg.org/author/G.+Stanley+Hall" \o "http://www.gutenberg.org/author/G.+Stanley+Hall" Works by G. Stanley Hall at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" \o "Project Gutenberg" Project Gutenberg  HYPERLINK "http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/people/data?id=per297" \o "http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/people/data?id=per297" Biography and bibliography in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Laboratory" \o "Virtual Laboratory" Virtual Laboratory of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_for_the_History_of_Science" \o "Max Planck Institute for the History of Science" Max Planck Institute for the History of Science Abraham Maslow Abraham Harold Maslow ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1._duben" \o "1. duben" 1. dubna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1908" \o "1908" 1908  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/8._%C4%8Derven" \o "8. erven" 8. ervna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970" \o "1970" 1970) byl  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spojen%C3%A9_st%C3%A1ty_americk%C3%A9" \o "Spojen stty americk" americk  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholog" \o "Psycholog" psycholog, jeden ze zakladatelo  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Humanistick%C3%A1_psychologie&action=edit" \o "Humanistick psychologie" humanistickho proudu v psychologii. Nej astji bv uvdn jako autor  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hierarchie_lidsk%C3%BDch_pot%C5%99eb&action=edit" \o "Hierarchie lidskch potYeb" hierarchie lidskch potYeb. Maslow je povodem polsk jmno a proto se te polsky a ne americky. Maslowova pyramida lidskch potYeb K nejvznamnjam pYspvkom Abrahama Maslowa v psychologii patY hierarchie  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Clov%C4%9Bk" \o " lovk" lidskch  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pot%C5%99eba" \o "PotYeba" potYeb, kterou obvykle zobrazoval jako pyramidu:  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soubor:Maslow-pyramida_potreb.gif" \o "Schma Maslowovy hierarchie lidskch potYeb:1. fyziologick2. bezpe , jistoty3. lsky, sounle~itosti4. uznn, cty5. seberealizace"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/cs/6/6e/Maslow-pyramida_potreb.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET  fyziologick potYeby potYeba bezpe , jistoty potYeba lsky, sounle~itosti potYeba uznn, cty potYeba seberealizace potYeby estetick Prvn tyYi kategorie Maslow ozna uje jako potYeby nedostatkov (potYeby deficience), ptou kategorii pak jako potYeby rostov. Obecn plat, ~e n~e polo~en potYeby jsou vznamnja a jejich alespoH ste n uspokojen je podmnkou pro vznik mn nalhavch a vvojov vyaach potYeb. Toto vaak nelze Yci zcela bezvhradn a je dolo~eno, ~e uspokojovn vyaach potYeb (estetickch, duchovnch) mo~e napomoci v meznch situacch lidskho ~ivota, ve kterch je mo~nost uspokojovn ni~ach potYeb omezena (napY. v prostYed  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koncentra%C4%8Dn%C3%AD_t%C3%A1bor" \o "Koncentra n tbor" koncentra nch tboro, o em~ referovali mj.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Frankl" \o "Viktor Frankl" Viktor Frankl nebo  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" \o "Konrad Lorenz" Konrad Lorenz). Za nejvyaa pova~uje Maslow potYebu  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seberealizace&action=edit" \o "Seberealizace" seberealizace, j~ ozna uje lidskou snahu naplnit sv  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schopnosti" \o "Schopnosti" schopnosti a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Z%C3%A1m%C4%9Bry&action=edit" \o "Zmry" zmry. Eugen Bleuler Eugen Bleuler INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Bleuler.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Bleuler.png" \o "Bleuler.png" Born HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_30" \o "April 30" April 30,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1857" \o "1857" 1857  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zollikon" \o "Zollikon" Zollikon,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland" \o "Switzerland" SwitzerlandDied HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_15" \o "July 15" July 15,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1939" \o "1939" 1939  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich" \o "Zrich" Zurich, SwitzerlandResidenceZurichCitizenship HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_people" \o "Swiss people" SwissEthnicity HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germans" \o "Germans" GermanFields HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatry" \o "Psychiatry" PsychiatryInstitutions HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheinau%2C_Switzerland" \o "Rheinau, Switzerland" Rheinau- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zurich" \o "Zurich" Zurich clinic  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgh%C3%B6lzli" \o "Burghlzli" Burghlzli clinic  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Zurich" \o "University of Zurich" Univ. of Zurich HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alma_mater" \o "Alma mater" Alma materUniv. of Zurich HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctorate" \o "Doctorate" Doctoral advisor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Martin_Charcot" \o "Jean-Martin Charcot" Jean-Martin Charcot  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_von_Gudden" \o "Bernhard von Gudden" Bernhard von GuddenDoctoral studentsManfred BleulerKnownfor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophrenia" \o "Schizophrenia" Schizophrenia  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism" \o "Autism" AutismInfluences HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Forel" \o "August Forel" August Forel  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Sigmund FreudInfluenced HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Jung" \o "Carl Jung" Carl Jung"Bleuler" redirects here. For other people with the surname "Bleuler", see  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleuler_%28surname%29" \o "Bleuler (surname)" Bleuler (surname). Paul Eugen Bleuler ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_30" \o "April 30" April 30,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1857" \o "1857" 1857  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_15" \o "July 15" July 15,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1939" \o "1939" 1939 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Bleuler" \l "cite_note-0#cite_note-0" \o "" [1]) was a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss" \o "Swiss" Swiss  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatry" \o "Psychiatry" psychiatrist most notable for his contributions to the understanding of mental illness and coining the term  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophrenia" \o "Schizophrenia" schizophrenia. Bleuler was born in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zollikon" \o "Zollikon" Zollikon, a small town near  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zurich" \o "Zurich" Zurich in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland" \o "Switzerland" Switzerland, to Johann Rudolf Bleuler, a wealthy farmer, and Pauline Bleuler-Bleuler. He studied  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine" \o "Medicine" medicine in Zurich, and later studied in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris" \o "Paris" Paris,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London" \o "London" London and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munich" \o "Munich" Munich after which he returned to Zurich to take a post as an intern at the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgh%C3%B6lzli" \o "Burghlzli" Burghlzli, a university hospital. In  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1886" \o "1886" 1886 Bleuler became the director of a psychiatric clinic at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheinau%2C_Switzerland" \o "Rheinau, Switzerland" Rheinau, a hospital located in an old monastery on an island in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhine" \o "Rhine" Rhine. Rheinau was noted at the time for being backward, and Bleuler set about improving conditions for the patients resident there. Bleuler returned to the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgh%C3%B6lzli" \o "Burghlzli" Burghlzli in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1898" \o "1898" 1898 where he was appointed director. In the 1890s Bleuler became interested in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Sigmund Freud's work, favorably reviewing  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Breuer" \o "Joseph Breuer" Joseph Breuer and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Sigmund Freud's Studies on Hysteria. Like Freud, Bleuler believed that complex mental processes could be unconscious. He encouraged his staff at the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgh%C3%B6lzli" \o "Burghlzli" Burghlzli to study unconscious and psychotic mental phenomena. Influenced by Bleuler,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Jung" \o "Carl Jung" Carl Jung and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Riklin" \o "Franz Riklin" Franz Riklin used word association tests to integrate Freud's theory of repression with empirical psychological findings. For a time Bleuler even consulted Freud about his own self-analysis. As the leader of a major teaching and research hospital, Bleuler's support for Freud was very important to the early growth of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalysis" \o "Psychoanalysis" psychoanalysis. By 1911, however, Bleuler withdrew his support for  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalysis" \o "Psychoanalysis" psychoanalysis. Bleuler is particularly notable for naming  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophrenia" \o "Schizophrenia" schizophrenia, a disorder which was previously known as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dementia_praecox" \o "Dementia praecox" dementia praecox. Bleuler realized the condition was neither a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dementia" \o "Dementia" dementia, nor did it always occur in young people (praecox meaning early) and so gave the condition the purportedly less stigmatising but still controversial name from the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek" \o "Ancient Greek" Greek roots schizein (, "to split") and phrn, phren- (, -, " HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind" \o "Mind" mind"). Bleuler treated celebrated  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russians" \o "Russians" Russian  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballet" \o "Ballet" ballet dancer  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaslav_Nijinsky" \o "Vaslav Nijinsky" Vaslav Nijinsky after his breakdown in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1919" \o "1919" 1919. Bleuler coined the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Latin" \o "New Latin" New Latin word autismus (English translation  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism" \o "Autism" autism) in 1910 as he was defining symptoms of schizophrenia, deriving it from the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language" \o "Greek language" Greek word autos (P, meaning self). HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Bleuler" \l "cite_note-1#cite_note-1" \o "" [2] According to the Critical Dictionary of Psychoanalysis by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Rycroft" \o "Charles Rycroft" Charles Rycroft, it was Bleuler who introduced the term  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambivalence" \o "Ambivalence" ambivalence (in 1911). Bleuler is also recognized today for having a different neurological disorder called  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synesthesia" \o "Synesthesia" Synesthesia, in which the main senses of the human mind (touch, taste, smell, sight, hear, pain, color, graphemes, etc.) are 'mixed up'. Adolf Meyer 1866-1950 Swiss-born American psychiatrist who developed the concept of psychobiology. Adolph Meyer was born in Niederweningen, Switzerland, and received an extensive medical education in neurology in Zurich, obtaining his M.D. in 1892. He emigrated to the United States in the same year. Beginning in 1893, Meyer worked for several hospitals, including a state hospital in Kankakee, Illinois, as a pathologist, and the New York State Hospital Service Pathological Institute, where he was involved with the training of psychiatrists. Meyer later joined the faculty of Cornell Medical College in New York City, where he served as professor of psychiatry. In 1909 G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924), a prominent psychologist and former student of William James, invited Meyer to Clark College in Worcester, Massachusetts, on the occasion of the college's twentieth anniversary, where he met with Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung. In following year Meyer was appointed professor of psychiatry at Johns Hopkins University and director of its Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, which became an internationally renowned training center for psychiatrists. Meyer became so influential in his adopted country that he was known as "the dean of American psychiatry," and his work has had a wide influence on psychiatric theory and practice. In Meyer's view, the diagnosis and treatment of a mental disorder must include a thorough understanding of the patient as a whole person. This approach, which would today be termed "holistic," involved studying the patient from various perspectives medical, biographical, educational, and even artistic. It was this goal that led him to introduce the use of the individual case history, bringing together in one place information about a patient's physical condition, past history, family life, work situation, and other facts that could be relevant to treatment. Meyer also pioneered in promoting visits to the patient's family in order for the psychiatrist to understand the environment in which the patient lived, and to which he or she would return when treatment was completed. Meyer believed that the constituent elements of human existence are actively interrelated, from the lowestPage427 |  HYPERLINK "http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retrieve.do?sgHitCountType=None&isETOC=true&inPS=true&prodId=GVRL&userGroupName=masaryk&resultListType=RELATED_DOCUMENT&contentSegment=9780787677459&docId=GALE|CX3406000425" \l "contentcontainer#contentcontainer" Top of Article biochemical level to the highest cognitive level. Arguing that psychological factors may be as important as neuropathology in causing mental illness, Meyer advocated integrating the studies of human psychology and biology into a single system that he called psychobiology. The goal of psychobiological therapy was the successful integration of different aspects of the patient's personality. Steps involved in this psychotherapy included analyzing the psychological, sociological, and biological factors relevant to the patient's illness; working with the patient on a conscious level, staying close to the original complaint; and utilizing a combination of treatment methods satisfactory to both psychiatrist and patient. Through therapy that addressed both short-term and long-term problems, Meyer's goal was to help the patient adjust as well as possible to life and change. Part of the therapy process consisted of aiding the patient in modifying unhealthy adjustments to his or her situation through guidance, suggestion, and reeducation, which Meyer called "habit training." His emphasis on habits extended to include schizophrenia, which he viewed as caused by harmful habits acquired over a long period of time, in combination with biological factors, including heredity. Neurosis, Meyer believed, differed from psychosis in that only a part of the personality was involved. He viewed neurotic patients as suffering from unrealistic expectations and the inability to accept themselves as they were. Meyer, together with Clifford Beers, was also a founder of the mental hygiene movement (and the one who suggested its name). The goal of this movement was to educate the public about mental illness and achieve more humane treatment of institutionalized patients. Meyer contributed significantly to the medical literature on psychiatry. His papers were collected and published in Collected Papers (1950-1952). Henry Alexander Murray Jr. 1893-1988 American biochemist, physician, and clinical and experimental psychologist who developed an integrated theory of personality. Henry Alexander Murray, Jr. developed "personology," the integrated study of the individual from physiological, psychoanalytical, and social viewpoints. His background in medicine, biology, Freudian and Jungian psychoanalysis, and clinical and experimental psychology, as well as his work in anthropology, sociology, and literature, enabled him to develop an interdisciplinary approach to psychology. His concepts of motivation, particularly the need to achieve, had a major influence on theories of psychology. In 1961, Murray earned the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award of the American Psychological Association, followed by the Gold Medal Award of the American Psychological Foundation in 1969. Murray, born in New York City in 1893, was the second of three children of Henry Alexander Murray, Sr., and Fannie Morris Babcock. His father was a poor Scottish immigrant who became a wealthy investor. His mother, a New York socialite, was the daughter of the founder of the Guaranty Trust Company. Murray was educated at the Craegie School and, later, at Groton Academy. He entered Harvard University in 1911. Becomes a physician and researcher Although Murray's Harvard major was history, he entered the Columbia College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York in 1915, earning his M.D. in 1919. In 1916, he married Josephine Rantoul, the daughter of a prominent Boston family and herself a graduate of Radcliffe College. The Murrays had one daughter. At Columbia, George Draper stimulated Murray's interests in psychological factors affecting illness, and he stayed on at Columbia to earn an M.A. in biology in 1920. Returning to Harvard, Murray went to work with L.J. Henderson, applying the Henderson-Hasselbach equation to the acidity of the blood. Between 1919 and 1923, Murray published 10 papers on his physiological research. Following two years as a surgical intern at Presbyterian Hospital in New York, Murray was awarded a research fellowship at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research in New York. He studied the development of chicken embryos, publishing 10 papers in that field, while simultaneously working towards his Ph.D. in bio-chemistry from Cambridge University in England. Discovers psychoanalysis and "depth psychology" In 1925, Murray first met the Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, and the two became lifelong friends. With his discovery of the writings of Herman Melville, the author of Moby Dick, Murray began to develop his theory of personality, using Melville as a case study. Although never published, Murray's biography of Melville had a major influence on the scholarship of the day, and Murray's published articles and book chapters introduced the application of Jung's "depth psychology" to literary criticism. At about this time, Murray began his relationship with Christiana Morgan, who remained his lover and coworker until her suicide in 1967. After earning his Ph.D. in 1927, Murray became an instructor at Harvard under Morton Prince, a psychopathologist who had founded the Harvard Psychological Clinic. Following Prince's death in 1929, Murray became director of the clinic, despite the fact that he had never taken a psychology course. Together with the neuropsychiatrist Stanley Cobb, Murray moved the focus of the clinic from experimental research in hypnosis and multiple personality to Freudian and Jungian psychoanalysis. He also introduced these subjects into the Harvard curriculum. Murray pursued his study of personality or "personology." At a time when American experimental psychologists studied rat behavior, Murray and his interdisciplinary research team studied single individuals on a variety of levels. With his staff, Murray published Explorations in Personality: A Clinical Study of Fifty Men of College Age in 1938. For decades, this remained the principle text for personality theory. With Morgan, Murray developed the Thematic Apperception Test, in which the subject is asked to tell stories about a series of pictures. This test remains an important tool in clinical psychology. Murray became an assistant professor at Harvard in 1929, associate professor in 1937, and professor of clinical psychology in 1948. Murray served in the Army from 1943 until 1948, selecting personnel for the Office of Strategic Services (which later became the Central Intelligence Agency) and training agents in the United States and abroad. He was awarded the Legion of Merit by the War Department in 1946. Further develops his theory of "personology" After his discharge from the Army as a lieutenant colonel, Murray joined Gordon Allport in the new Department of Social Relations at Harvard. There his research interests broadened further. With Clyde Kluckhohn, he began studying personality in society and investigated personality from the viewpoint of the dyadic interactionthe idea that a relationship between two people could be viewed as a single system with equal input from both partners. He also studied the role of mythology in personality and in society. Murray was best known, however, for his development of a human motivational system of social needs. He described behavior as a function of the interaction of individual needs, such as a need for achievement or a need for affiliation, and the "press" of the environment. Interestingly, Ted Kaczynski, the serial bomber who killed and injured several people with mail bombs, was a participant in one of Murray's psychological experiments when he was a Harvard undergraduate. The study had to do with identifying men who would not break under pressure. Murray held numerous honorary doctorates and was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He retired in 1962 as a professor emeritus, the same year that his wife died. In 1969 he married Caroline Chandler Fish and became step-father to her five children. Murray died in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1988, at the age of 95. In his memory, Radcliffe College established the Henry A. Murray Research Center for the Study of Lives. Stanley Milgram 1933-1984 American experimental social psychologist known for his innovative experimental techniques. Stanley Milgram carried out influential and controversial experiments that demonstrated that blind obedience to authority could override moral conscience. His early studies on conformity were the first experiments to compare behavioral differences between people from different parts of the world. Milgram also examined the effects of television violence, studied whether New York City subway riders would give up their seats if asked to do so, and made award-winning documentary films. Milgram, born in 1933 in the Bronx, New York, was the son of Eastern European Jewish immigrants, Samuel Milgram, a baker, and Adele Israel. Growing up in the Bronx, with an older sister and a younger brother, Milgram attended James Monroe High School and graduated from Queens College in 1954. He had a majored in political science and planned to enter the School of International Affairs at Columbia University to prepare for the Foreign Service. Instead, he enrolled in Harvard University's new interdisciplinary Department of Social Relations. There, Gordon Allport became his mentor and a series of fellowships enabled him to earn his Ph.D. in social psychology in 1960. At Harvard, Milgram became Solomon E. Asch's teaching assistant. Asch was applying Gestalt psychology to social relations and designing experiments to examine conformity. For his doctoral research, Milgram spent a year in Norway and a year in France, exploring the cultural differences in conformity. He found that pressure for conformity was greater for Norwegians than for the French. After returning from France, Milgram worked with Asch at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. Moving to Yale University in 1960, as an assistant professor of psychology, Milgram began his experiments on obedience, with funding from the National Science Foundation. Much to his surprise, he found that 65% of his subjects would inflict what they believed to be painful electric shocks on others, simply because they were told to do so. Milgram married Alexandra "Sasha" Menkin, a psychiatric social worker, in 1961 and the couple eventually had a daughter and a son. Returning to the Department Social Relations at Harvard in 1963 as an assistant professor of social psychology, Milgram used his "lost-letter technique" to study people's inclinations to help others when it wasn't required. These experiments examined whether subjects would re-mail lost letters. Milgram also addressed the "small-world problem," determining that any two individuals in the United States could reach each other via an average of five acquaintances. In 1967, Milgram moved to the Graduate Center of the City University of New York as professor and chairman of the social psychology program. In 1970 he published "The Experience of Living in Cities," which had a major influence on the new field of urban psychology. He also examined how residents of New York and Paris perceived the geographies of their cities. One of Milgram's most unique social experiments, designed to study the effects of television violence, involved an episode of the CBS program "Medical Center," with subjects viewing one of three endings. He found that viewers watching a violent ending were no more likely than others to commit an antisocial act when given the opportunity. He also performed experiments with "cyranoids," intermediaries who communicated with someone using words from a third person. He found, for example, that listeners never suspected that an 11-year-old cyranoid's words were actually those of a 50-year-old professor. In 1980, in the midst of these experiments, Milgram suffered the first of a series of massive heart attacks. He died of his fifth heart attack in New York City in 1984, at the age of 51. Ludwig Binswanger Ludwig Binswanger HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Replace_this_image_male.svg" \o "Ludwig Binswanger"  Born HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_13" \o "April 13" April 13,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1881" \o "1881" 1881Nationality HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss" \o "Swiss" SwissFields HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatry" \o "Psychiatry" psychiatryPobyt Pojem esk pojem pobyt vytvoYil  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Pato%C4%8Dka" \o "Jan Pato ka" Jan Pato ka jako pYeklad nmeckho termnu Dasein, kter je obt~n pYelo~it; v mnoha jinch jazycch se obvykle nepYekld. Ve slov Dasein je toti~ obsa~eno slovo sein (bt, byt) a zroveH mstn ur en da (zde); proto je nkteY pYekldali tak jako "zdebyt". Dasein je ovaem v nm in b~n slovo, tYeba v obratu  sein Dasein fristen , co~ znamen nco jako  protloukat se ~ivotem . V ka~dm pYpad Dasein navozuje vedle zkladnho vznamu  bt ,  existovat , tak pevn mstn usazen tohoto zvlatnho byt, kter je v~dycky  zde , to jest na svt, a sv byt mus samo njak vst. NepYmo je ve slov nazna ena i jeho nahodilost a kone nost. To je v eskm slov "pobyt" obsa~eno tak. Pobyt ve filosofii Jako filosofick pojem pou~il slovo pobyt (Dasein) poprv  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegel" \o "Hegel" Hegel, a to prv jako spojen a pYekonn protikladu byt a nicoty: v pobytu se oboj stv jen jeho momentem. HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pobyt" \l "cite_note-0#cite_note-0" \o "" [1] Ve filosofii  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" \o "Martin Heidegger" Martina Heideggera a zejmna v jeho hlavnm dle  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byt%C3%AD_a_%C4%8Das&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Byt a as (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Byt a as se pobyt stv stYednm pojmem. Odliauje zde byt lovka od velmi odlianho byt vc, kter se zde pouze vyskytuj, kde~to pobyt se ke svmu vlastnmu byt zvlatnm zposobem vztahuje: jednak mu v~dy ji~ njak rozum (a to zejmna Ye ), jednak mu o n jde, mus se o n starat a mus je sm vst.  Pobyt je jsoucno, jemu~ jde v jeho byt o toto byt samo.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pobyt" \l "cite_note-1#cite_note-1" \o "" [2]  Pobyt si sm v~dy rozum ze sv existence, z mo~nosti sebe sama bu sebou samm bt, anebo nebt. Pobyt charakterizuje, ~e ~ije v mo~nostech, ~e jimi sm je, a to tak, ~e se do nich jednak rozvrhuje, jednak je do nich vr~en. Krom M. Heideggera u~v pojem pobytu ve sv filosofii tak  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Jaspers" \o "Karl Jaspers" Karl Jaspers:  V pobytu je pouze volba mezi uvolnnm upadnm existence a napjatm, nikdy nekon cm uskute Hovnm tto existence v subjektivit i v objektivit.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pobyt" \l "cite_note-2#cite_note-2" \o "" [3] Pojem pak hraje vznamnou lohu v psychologickm a terapeutickm smru, kter pod nzvem  analza pobytu (Daseinsanalyse) zalo~il avcarsk psycholog  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ludwig_Binswanger&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Ludwig Binswanger (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Ludwig Binswanger. Ludwig Binswanger ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_13" \o "April 13" April 13,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1881" \o "1881" 1881  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_5" \o "February 5" February 5,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966" \o "1966" 1966) was a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss" \o "Swiss" Swiss  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatrist" \o "Psychiatrist" psychiatrist and pioneer in the field of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_psychology" \o "Existential psychology" existential psychology. His grandfather (also named Ludwig Binswanger) was the founder of the "Bellevue Sanatorium" in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreuzlingen" \o "Kreuzlingen" Kreuzlingen, and his uncle  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Binswanger" \o "Otto Binswanger" Otto Binswanger was a professor of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatry" \o "Psychiatry" psychiatry at the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Jena" \o "University of Jena" University of Jena. In 1907 Binswanger received his medical degree from the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Zurich" \o "University of Zurich" University of Zurich and as a young man worked and studied under some of the greatest psychologists of the era, such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Jung" \o "Carl Jung" Carl Jung,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Bleuler" \o "Eugen Bleuler" Eugen Bleuler and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Sigmund Freud. Although he had differences with Freud regarding psychiatric theory, Binswanger remained friends with him until Freud's death in 1939. From 1911 to 1956, Binswanger was medical director of the santatorium in Kreuzlingen. He was greatly influenced by existential  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy" \o "Philosophy" philosophy and the works of philosophers such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" \o "Martin Heidegger" Martin Heidegger,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" \o "Edmund Husserl" Edmund Husserl, and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Buber" \o "Martin Buber" Martin Buber. Binswanger is considered the first physician to combine  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychotherapy" \o "Psychotherapy" psychotherapy with  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialism" \o "Existentialism" existentialism, a theory he expounds in his 1943 book; Grundformen und Erkenntnis menschlichen Daseins. In his study of existentialism, his most famous subject was  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellen_West" \o "Ellen West" Ellen West, a deeply troubled anorexia nervosa patient. Binswanger's Dream and Existence was translated from German into French by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Foucault" \o "Michel Foucault" Michel Foucault, who added a substantial essay-introduction. References Bhler, Karl-Ernst ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004" \o "2004" 2004), " HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15106398" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15106398" Existential analysis and psychoanalysis: specific differences and personal relationship between Ludwig Binswanger and Sigmund Freud.", American journal of psychotherapy 58(1): 34-50, 2004,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID" \o "PMID" PMID:15106398, < HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15106398" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15106398" http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15106398> Reppen, Joseph ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003" \o "2003" 2003), " HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14621641" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14621641" Ludwig Binswanger and Sigmund Freud: portrait of a friendship.", Psychoanalytic review 90(3): 281-91, 2003 Jun,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID" \o "PMID" PMID:14621641, < HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14621641" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14621641" http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14621641> Wittern, Ursula & Hirschmller, Albrecht ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002" \o "2002" 2002), " HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12587404" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12587404" [Drug therapy of psychiatric patients in the middle of the 19th century: the drug armamentarium of Ludwig Binswanger sen. in his "Asyl Bellevue" ]", Gesnerus 59(3-4): 198-223, 2002,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID" \o "PMID" PMID:12587404, < HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12587404" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12587404" http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12587404> Hoffman, Klaus ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002" \o "2002" 2002), " HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12164205" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12164205" [Historical essays on Ludwig Binswanger and psychoanalysis]", Luzifer-Amor: Zeitschrift zur Geschichte der Psychoanalyse 15(29): 1-189, 2002,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID" \o "PMID" PMID:12164205, < HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12164205" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12164205" http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12164205> Ghaemi, S N ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001" \o "2001" 2001), " HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11291191" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11291191" Rediscovering existential psychotherapy: the contribution of Ludwig Binswanger.", American journal of psychotherapy 55(1): 51-64, 2001,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID" \o "PMID" PMID:11291191, < HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11291191" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11291191" http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11291191> " HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1581699" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1581699" [Sigmund Freud / Ludwig Binswanger. Correspondence]", Psyche 46(3): 221-44,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992" \o "1992" 1992, 1992 Mar,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID" \o "PMID" PMID:1581699, < HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1581699" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1581699" http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1581699> Pivnicki, D ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979" \o "1979" 1979), " HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/394913" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/394913" Paradoxes of psychotherapy. In honor and memory of Ludwig Binswanger.", Confinia psychiatrica. Borderland of psychiatry. Grenzgebiete der Psychiatrie. Les Confins de la psychiatrie 22(4): 197-203, 1979,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID" \o "PMID" PMID:394913, < HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/394913" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/394913" http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/394913> Kuhn, R ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972" \o "1972" 1972), " HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4576200" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4576200" [Current importance of the work of Ludwig Binswanger]", Zeitschrift fr klinische Psychologie und Psychotherapie 20(4): 311-21, 1972,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID" \o "PMID" PMID:4576200, < HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4576200" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4576200" http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4576200> Kuhn, R ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968" \o "1968" 1968), " HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4883993" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4883993" [Ludwig Binswanger, April 13, 1881 - February 5, 1966]", Bulletin der Schweizerischen Akademie der Medizinischen Wissenschaften: Suppl 24:99+, 1968 Nov,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID" \o "PMID" PMID:4883993, < HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4883993" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4883993" http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4883993> Vanderpool, J P ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968" \o "1968" 1968), " HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4877375" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4877375" The existential approach to psychiatry (Ludwig Binswanger), (Victor Frankl).", Tex. Rep. Biol. Med. 26(2): 163-71, 1968,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID" \o "PMID" PMID:4877375, < HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4877375" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4877375" http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4877375> Delgado, H ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967" \o "1967" 1967), " HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4881552" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4881552" [Necrology. Ludwig Binswanger]", Revista de neuro-psiquiatra 30(2): 216-7, 1967 Jun,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID" \o "PMID" PMID:4881552, < HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4881552" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4881552" http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4881552> Colpe, C ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967" \o "1967" 1967), " HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4873391" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4873391" [A physician in a dialogue. Reminiscences of Ludwig Binswanger, died on 5 February 1966]", Der Landarzt 43(6): 277-83, 1967 Feb 28,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID" \o "PMID" PMID:4873391, < HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4873391" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4873391" http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4873391> Kuhn, R ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967" \o "1967" 1967), " HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5339997" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5339997" [Ludwig Binswanger (1881-1966)]", Schweizer Archiv fr Neurologie, Neurochirurgie und Psychiatrie = Archives suisses de neurologie, neurochirurgie et de psychiatrie 99(1): 113-7, 1967,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID" \o "PMID" PMID:5339997, < HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5339997" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5339997" http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5339997> Straus, E ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966" \o "1966" 1966), " HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4861043" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4861043" [To the memory of Ludwig Binswanger 1881-1966]", Der Nervenarzt 37(12): 529-31, 1966 Dec,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID" \o "PMID" PMID:4861043, < HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4861043" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4861043" http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4861043> Cargnello, D ([[]]), " HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5329204" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5329204" [Ludwig Binswanger) 1881-1966)]", Archivio di psicologia, neurologia e psichiatria 27(2): 106-10,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID" \o "PMID" PMID:5329204, < HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5329204" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5329204" http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5329204> Holt, H ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966" \o "1966" 1966), " HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5342183" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5342183" Ludwig binswanger (1881-1966): a tribute.", Journal of existentialism 6(25): 93-6, 1966,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID" \o "PMID" PMID:5342183, < HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5342183" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5342183" http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5342183> WYRSCH, J ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1961" \o "1961" 1961), " HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13787004" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13787004" [To Ludwig BINSWANGER on his 80th birthday.]", Psychiatria et neurologia 141: 229-33, 1961 Apr,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID" \o "PMID" PMID:13787004, < HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13787004" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13787004" http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13787004> STRAUS, E W ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1951" \o "1951" 1951), " HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14863527" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14863527" [On the 70th birthday of Ludwig Binswanger.]", Der Nervenarzt 22(7): 269-70, 1951 Jul 20,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID" \o "PMID" PMID:14863527, < HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14863527" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14863527" http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14863527> " HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14865927" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14865927" [To Ludwig Binswanger on his 70th birthday.]", Schweizer Archiv fr Neurologie und Psychiatrie. Archives suisses de neurologie et de psychiatrie. Archivio svizzero di neurologia e psichiatria 67(1): 1-4,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1951" \o "1951" 1951, 1951,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID" \o "PMID" PMID:14865927, < HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14865927" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14865927" http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14865927> Medard Boss Medard Boss (October 4, 1903 - December 21, 1990) was a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss" \o "Swiss" Swiss psychoanalytic psychiatrist who developed a form of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychotherapy" \o "Psychotherapy" psychotherapy known as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Daseinsanalysis&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Daseinsanalysis (page does not exist)" Daseinsanalysis, which was largely based on the existential-phenomenological philosophy of friend and mentor,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" \o "Martin Heidegger" Martin Heidegger. During his medical studies he was strongly influenced by the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatrist" \o "Psychiatrist" psychiatrist  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Bleuler" \o "Eugen Bleuler" Eugen Bleuler. Boss believed that modern medicine and psychology, premised on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian" \o "Cartesian" Cartesian philosophy and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newtonian" \o "Newtonian" Newtonian physics, made incorrect assumptions about human beings and what it means to be human. He addressed an existential foundation for medicine and psychology in an eponymous text, Existential Foundations of Medicine and Psychology (1979). Select Bibliography  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zollikon_Seminars" \o "Zollikon Seminars" Zollikon Seminars: Protocols, Conversations, Letters (Editor; Martin Heidegger author) (2001). Tr. F. Mayr.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_University_Press" \o "Northwestern University Press" Northwestern University Press. Existential Foundations of Medicine and Psychology (1979). Tr. S. Conway and A. Cleaves. Northvale:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Aronson" \o "Jason Aronson" Jason Aronson. Psychoanalysis and Daseinsanalysis (1963). Tr. L. E. Lefebre. New York: Basic Books. A Psychiatrist Discovers India (1965). Wolff. I Dreampt Last Night (1978). With Stephen Conway. The Analysis of Dreams (1957). Jean Piaget Jean Piaget [Q pja[] ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/9._srpen" \o "9. srpen" 9. srpna,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1896" \o "1896" 1896   HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/16._z%C3%A1%C5%99%C3%AD" \o "16. zY" 16. zY,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980" \o "1980" 1980) byl  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0v%C3%BDcarsko" \o "`vcarsko" avcarsk filozof,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C5%99%C3%ADrodn%C3%AD_v%C4%9Bdy" \o "PYrodn vdy" pYrodn vdec a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=V%C3%BDvojov%C3%A1_psychologie&action=edit" \o "Vvojov psychologie" vvojov psycholog, dobYe znm pro sv studium dt a pro svou  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Teorie_kognitivn%C3%ADho_v%C3%BDvoje&action=edit" \o "Teorie kognitivnho vvoje" teorii kognitivnho vvoje. Jak Yk  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ernst_von_Glasersfeld&action=edit" \o "Ernst von Glasersfeld" Ernst von Glasersfeld, Jean Piaget je tak "velkm prokopnkem  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kostruktivismus&action=edit" \o "Kostruktivismus" konstruktivistick teorie znalost" HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \l "_note-0" \o "" [1]. Obsah  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \l ".C5.BDivotopis" 1 }ivotopis  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \l "St.C3.A1dia_kognitivn.C3.ADho_v.C3.BDvoje" 2 Stdia kognitivnho vvoje  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \l "Piagetova_p.C5.99edstava_o_d.C4.9Btsk.C3.A9_mysli" 3 Piagetova pYedstava o dtsk mysli  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \l "V.C3.BDvojov.C3.A9_procesy" 4 Vvojov procesy  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \l "Genetick.C3.A1_epistemologie" 5 Genetick epistemologie  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \l "Vliv" 6 Vliv  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \l "V.C3.BDvojov.C3.A1_psychologie" 6.1 Vvojov psychologie  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \l "V.C3.BDchova" 6.2 Vchova  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \l "Historick.C3.A9_studie_my.C5.A1len.C3.AD_a_pozn.C3.A1v.C3.A1n.C3.AD" 6.3 Historick studie mylen a poznvn  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \l "Evoluce_lidsk.C3.A9_inteligence" 6.4 Evoluce lidsk inteligence  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \l "Primatologie" 6.5 Primatologie  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \l "Filozofie" 6.6 Filozofie  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \l "Um.C4.9Bl.C3.A1_inteligence" 6.7 Uml inteligence  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \l "Hlavn.C3.AD_pr.C3.A1ce_a_.C3.BAsp.C4.9Bchy" 7 Hlavn prce a spchy  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \l "Hlavn.C3.AD_pr.C3.A1ce" 7.1 Hlavn prce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \l "Ostatn.C3.AD_pr.C3.A1ce" 7.2 Ostatn prce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \l "Piagetovsk.C3.A9_a_post-piagetovsk.C3.A9_stup.C5.88ov.C3.A9_teorie" 8 Piagetovsk a post-piagetovsk stupHov teorie  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \l "Citace" 9 Citace  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \l "Odkazy" 10 Odkazy  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \l "Pozn.C3.A1mky" 11 Poznmky  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \l "Reference" 12 Reference  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \l "Extern.C3.AD_odkazy" 13 Extern odkazy}ivotopis Piaget se narodil v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neuch%C3%A2tel&action=edit" \o "Neuchtel" Neuchtelu ve francouzskojazy n sti `vcarska. Jeho otec, Arthur Piaget, byl profesorem  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=St%C5%99edov%C4%9Bk%C3%A1_literatura&action=edit" \o "StYedovk literatura" stYedovk literatury na  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neuch%C3%A2telsk%C3%A1_universita&action=edit" \o "Neuchtelsk universita" Neuchtelsk universit. Piaget byl nadpromrnm dttem se zjmem v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologie" \o "Biologie" biologii a pYrod, obzvlat ho zaujali  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C4%9Bkk%C3%BD%C5%A1" \o "Mkka" mkkai, a dokonce jeat pYed ukon enm stYedn akoly publikoval nkolik prac. Svou dlouhou kariru vdeckho vzkumu za al vlastn ji~ v jedencti letech publikac krtk prce o albnskm  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vrabec&action=edit" \o "Vrabec" vrabci. V probhu svho ~ivota napsal Piaget vce ne~ aedest knih a nkolik set lnko. Piaget obdr~el  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doktor_filozofie" \o "Doktor filozofie" Ph.D v pYrodnch vdch na Neuchtelsk universit, chvli tak studoval na  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Universita_v_Zurichu&action=edit" \o "Universita v Zurichu" Universit v Zurichu. Bhem tto doby publikoval dv  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" \o "Filosofie" filozofick prce, kter zobrazuj smr jeho soudobho myalen, kter vaak pozdji zavrhl jako prci adolescenta. Jeho zjem v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanal%C3%BDza" \o "Psychoanalza" psychoanalze, prv se rozvjejcm psychologickm pYstupu, tak spad do tohoto obdob. Pot se pYesthoval ze  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0v%C3%BDcarsko" \o "`vcarsko" `vcarska do Grange-aux-Belles,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francie" \o "Francie" Francie, kde u il na chlapeck akole veden  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfr%C3%A9d_Binet" \o "Alfrd Binet" Alfrdem Binetem, tvorcem tzv. binetova  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Test_inteligence&action=edit" \o "Test inteligence" testu inteligence. PYi znmkovn nkolika takovch inteligen nch testo si povaiml, ~e mal dti opakovan chybovaly v ur itch otzkch. Piageta tolik nezajmal samotn fakt, ~e dti chybovaly, ale ~e mal dti stle inily stejn typ chyb, kter stara dti a dospl nedlali. Toto ho vedlo k vysloven teorie, ~e dtsk myalen nebo kognitivn procesy jsou podstatn rozdln od tch dosplch. Nakonec zvYejnil souhrnou teorii prohlaaujc, ~e jednotlivci prochzej nkolika stupni kvalitativn odlianch stadi kognitivnho vvoje. V roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1921" \o "1921" 1921, se Piaget vrtil do  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0v%C3%BDcarsko" \o "`vcarsko" `vcarska jeko Yeditel  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rousseau_Institut&action=edit" \o "Rousseau Institut" Rousseauova institutu v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDeneva" \o "}eneva" }enev. V roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1923" \o "1923" 1923 se o~enil se svou studentkou, Valentine Chtenay; spole n mli tYi dti, kter Piaget studoval ji~ od narozen. V roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1929" \o "1929" 1929, Jean Piaget pYijal msto Yeditele v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Bureau_of_Education&action=edit" \o "International Bureau of Education" International Bureau of Education a zostal v ele tto mezinrodn organizace a~ do roku  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968" \o "1968" 1968. Ka~d rok navrhoval  Yeditelovy proslovy pro radu IBE (IBE Council) a pro Mezinrodn konferenci pro veYejn vzdlvn (International Conference on Public Education), ve kterch vslovn vyjdYil svou pYedstavu vzdlvn. Stdia kognitivnho vvoje Piaget byl v letech  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1929" \o "1929" 1929- HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1975" \o "1975" 1975 profesorem  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie" \o "Psychologie" psychologie na  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Universita_v_%C5%BDenev%C4%9B&action=edit" \o "Universita v }enev" Universit v }enev a je stle nejvce znm pro reorganizaci teorie kognitivnho vvoje do jednotlivch stdi, m~ navzal na dYvja prci  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Mark_Baldwin&action=edit" \o "James Mark Baldwin" Jamese Marka Boldwina: tyYi etapy vvoje zhruba odpovdaj (1) narozen-2 roky, (2) 2-7 let, (3) 7-12 let, a (4) 12 a vce. Ka~d etapa je charakterizovan vaeobecnmi kognitivnmi strukturami (schmatem), kter ovlivHuj veaker myalen dtte ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strukturalismus" \o "Strukturalismus" strukturalistick pojet ovlivnn filozofem  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" \o "Immanuel Kant" Immanuelem Kantem). Ka~d stdium pYedstavuje dtsk porozumn svta bhem danho obdob a ka~d, krom toho poslednho, je nepYesnm zobrazenm reality. Vvoj z jednoho stdia do dalaho je tedy zposoben nahromadnm chyb v dtskm chpn okolnho prostYed; toto hromadn nakonec zposob tak velik nesoulad (disequilibrum), ~e mus dojt ke komplexnmu pYeorganizovn myalenkovch struktur. tyYi Piagetovy vvojov etapy jsou:  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sensorimotorick%C3%A9_st%C3%A1dium&action=edit" \o "Sensorimotorick stdium" Sensorimotorick stdium: od narozen do 2 let ~ivota (dti poznvaj svt pomoc pohybo a smyslo a zskvvaj vdom stlosti objekto)  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=P%C5%99edopera%C4%8Dn%C3%AD_st%C3%A1dium&action=edit" \o "PYedopera n stdium" PYedopera n stdium: od 2 do 7 let (pou~vn jazyka, egocentrick myalen)  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stadium_konkr%C3%A9tn%C3%ADch_operac%C3%AD&action=edit" \o "Stadium konkrtnch operac" Stadium konkrtnch operac: od 7 do 12 let (dok~e logicky pYemalet o konkrtnch udlostech, pochopen stlosti po tu, mno~stv a hmotnosti)  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stadium_form%C3%A1ln%C3%ADch_operac%C3%AD&action=edit" \o "Stadium formlnch operac" Stadium formlnch operac: 12 let a vce (dok~e logicky myslet o abstraktnch pojmech). Tato chronologick obdob jsou pouze pYibli~n a ve svtle faktu, ~e studie prokzaly velk rozdly mezi jednotlivmi dtmi, nemohou bt chpny jako ostYe stanoven normy. Dle se tyto stdia objevuj v roznch letech podle toho, jak oblast znalost je posuzovna. StY stanoven pro jednotliv stdia tedy pouze odr~, kdy jsou jednotliv stdia obvykle dominantn, a koliv jedna a tat~ osoba mo~e vykazovat pYklady dvou, tY nebo dokonce i vaech tyY stdi myalen ve stejnou dobu, pYi em~ zle~ na oblasti znalost a experimentu, ktermu je jedinec podroben. I pYesto zkladn pravidlo tvrd, ~e co se jedn oblasti znalost t e, stdia se objevuj ve stejnm chronologickm poYad. Nzor na nemnnost poYad stdi vychz z toho, ~e znalosti nejsou jednoduae zskny z okolnho prostYed, ale jsou postupn vystavny zevnitY. Tento nzor byl velice vlivn v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogika" \o "Pedagogika" pedagogice, a je vtainou nazvn konstruktivismus (viz t~ " HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Konstruktivismus_%28teorie_u%C4%8Den%C3%AD&action=edit" \o "Konstruktivismus (teorie u en" Konstruktivismus (teorie u en"). Jakmile je poznn vnitYn vystavno, je testovno na prostYed stejnm zposobem, jakm vdec zkoum platnost sv teorie. Stejn jako vdec, jednotliv ~k mo~e vyYadit, upravit nebo pYestavt poznn podle jeho u~ite nosti ve skute nm svt. Velk st tto vstavby (a pozdji pYestavby) je vykonvna podvdom. Vidme tedy, ~e Piagetovy stdia vlastn zobrazuj tyYi typy myalenkovch struktur. Chronologick poYad je nevyhnuteln, proto~e ka~d fze je potYebn k vystavn dala rovn, kter je jednoduaa, vaeobecnja a innja. Je to to sam, jako Yci, ~e nejdYve musme kov upravit na sou stky, abychom mohli postavit stroje a pot koordinovat stroje abychom mohli postavit tovrnu. Piagetova pYedstava o dtsk mysli Piaget vidl dti jako "mal filozofy", kter nazval "malinkmi myalenkovmi pytlky" a vdci stavcmi sv vlastn teorie poznn. NkteY lid pou~ili jeho nzory, aby se mohli zamYit na to, co dti nezvldnou. Piaget je ale pou~il k pochopen kognitvnho rostu a vvoje dt. Vvojov procesy Piaget nepYinesl ~dn pYesn (nebo jasn) popis vvojovch proceso jako takovch. `iroce Ye eno se sestvaly z cyklu: Dt provd operaci, kter m vliv na pYedmty nebo je uspoYdv. Dt je schopn posoudit vlastnosti akce a jejch vsledko. Pomoc opakovanch akc, mo~n s ur itmi zmnami i v rozdlnch prostYedch nebo s rozdlnmi pYedmty, je dt schopn rozliait a za lenit zkladn prvky svch ino a jejich vsledky. Toto je tzv. proces zrcadlov abstrakce (reflecting abstraction) (podrobn popsno v Piaget 2001). Ve stejn dob je dt schopn identifikovat vlastnosti objekto podle toho jak inky na n maj rozn akce. Toto je tzv. proces empirick abstrakce (empirical abstraction). Opakovnm tohoto procesu na airok akle objekto a akc dt vytvY novou roveH poznn a porozumn. Toto je proces vytvYen novho kognitivnho stdia (cognitive stage). Tento dvojit proces umo~Huje dtti vytvYet nov zposoby zachzen s pYedmty a nov poznn tchto pYedmto. Nicmn, jakmile dt vytvoYilo tyto nov druhy poznn, on/a je za ne pou~vat k vytvYen stle slo~itjach objekto a k provdn stle slo~itjach kono. Tak dt za n rozpoznvat stle slo~itja vzory a vytvYet stle slo~itja objekty. Tak za n nov stdium, kter bude ukon eno teprve tehdy, kdy vaechny aktivity a zkuaenosti dtte byly pYeorganizovny podle tto vyaa rovn. Tento proces vaak nen pln plynul. Jakmile se prok~e, ~e nov stupH organizace, poznn a chpn je inn, je rychle uplatnn i v ostatnch oblastech. To zposobuje prudk a radikln pYechod z jednoho stdia do druhho. as strven v novm stdiu je vyplnn vylepaovnm tohoto novho kognitivnho stupn. Kdy~ se znalosti zskan v jednom stdiu studia a zkuaenost vedou prudce a rapidn k novmu, vyaamu stdiu pochopen, Ykme, ~e probhl "gestalt". Kvoli dialektick form celho procesu, ve kterm je ka~d nov stdium vytvoYeno pomoc dala specifikace, integrace a syntze novch struktur ze starch, je poYad kognitivnch stdi spae nutn ne~ pouze vdecky sprvn. Ka~d nov fze se objevuje jen dky tomu, ~e dt ji~ pln ovld vsledky pYedchozch stdi a ~e jeat stle existuj dokonaleja formy poznn a innost, kter mohou bt dosa~eny. Piagetov model vvoje vysvtluje mnoh jevy lidskho poznn, kter dYve nebyly vysvtleny, a to proto, ~e pokrv jak teorii o tom, jak zskvme znalosti o pYedmtech, tak i naae vahy o vlastnch inech. NapYklad, poukazuje na to, jak dti postupn obohacuj sv porozumn vc pou~vnm dYvjach znalost a uva~ovnm o nich, tak~e jsou schopn sv znalosti organizovat v m dl tm slo~itja struktury. Tak~e, kdy~ dt dok~e dosledn a pYesn rozeznat rozn druhy zvYat, mo~e zskat schopnost je uspoYdat do vyaach celko jako tYeba "ptci", "ryby" a pod. Toto je dole~it, neboe nyn dt nco v i o zvYeti, kter dYve neznalo, jen dky tomu, ~e v, do jak skupiny patY - napY. je-li to ptk, pak klade vejce. Ve stejnou dobu, uva~ovnm o svch inech, dt zskv slo~itja vdom o "zkonech" kter ur uj roznmi zposoby, co je sprvn a co ne. Takto Piaget vysvtluje rostouc vdom dtte o pojmech jako je sprvn, prvoplatn, nutn, Ydn a pod. Jinmi slovy, dt buduje pravidla nejen o tom, co je inn a sprvn, ale tak ospravedlnn. Jedna z nejznmjach Piagetovch studi se zamYila na rozliaovac schopnosti dvou a pol a~ tyY a pol letch dt. Studii za al s dtmi roznho vku. Srovnal dv Yady se stejnm po tem M&M's, v jedn Yad byly M&M's rozestavny dl od sebe a v druh bl~ u sebe. Zjistil, ~e  Dti dti mezi 2 lety a 6 msci a 3 lety a 2 msci dokzali sprvn ur it relativn po et pYedmto v obou Yadch; mezi 3 lety a 2 msci a 4 lety a 6 msci dti udvaly, ~e dela Yada s vtami rozestupy m "vce"; po 4 letech a 6 mscch dti opt ur ovali sprvn (Cognitive Capacity of Very Young Children, str. 141). Povodn mlada dti nebyly zkoumny, neboe pokud tyYlet dt nedok~e konzervovat po et, jak by to mohlo dokzat dt mlada? Vsledky ale ukazuj, ~e dt mlada 3 let a 2 msco ovldaj konzervaci po tu, ale stara dti tuto schopnost ztrcej, a neobnov ji dokud nedoshnou tyY a pol let. Tato schopnost mo~e bt do asn ztracena kvoli pYehnanmu spolhn se na strategie vnmn, kter tvrd, ~e dela Yada sladkost tak obsahuje jejich vta mno~stv, nebo je to zposobeno neschopnost tyYletch dt situaci obrtit. Na konci tohoto experimentu bylo zjiatno nkolik skute nost. Zaprv, mlada dti maj rozliaovac schopnost, co~ ukazuje, ~e logick kapacita pro kognitivn operace se objevuje dYve, ne~ se dYve pYedpokldalo. Tato studie tak ukazuje, ~e mlad dti mohou bt vybaveny ur itmi vlastnostmi pro kognitivn operace, kter zvis na logick konstrukci kolu. Vzkum tak ukazuje, ~e ptilet dti vyvjej jednozna n pochopen, dt si M&M's spo t, aby ur ilo, v kter Yad jich je vc. A kone n, studie odhalila, ~e celkov schopnost konzervace mno~stv nen ve vrozen lidsk vbav. Genetick epistemologie Genetick epistemolige je podle svho tvorce Jeana Piageta interdisciplinrn vdou, nahrazujc  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnoseologie" \o "Gnoseologie" gnoseologii. Genetickou psychologii pokld za st realizace geneticko epistemologickho zmru. Genetick epistemologie m vlastn nahradit filozofickou teorii poznn. Je nutno ji chpat jako pokusn krok k procesu vydlovn vd z filozofie. Tento krok m vaak dv strnky. Na jedn stran je vyjdYenm objektivn mo~nosti vytvoYit vdeckou teorii poznn s oporou modern logiky, metodologie a teorii vdy. Na druh stran vytla uje na periferii nkter zkladn problmy vrazn filozofickho charakteru, kter se nutn pYi zkoumn poznn v~dy znovu objevuj jako jsou vztah poznn a skute nosti. Vliv A koliv ji~ dvno nen populrnm  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholog" \o "Psycholog" psychologem, velikost Piagetova pokra ujcho vlivu mo~e bt mYena na globlnm mYtku a aktivit  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean_Piaget_Society&action=edit" \o "Jean Piaget Society" Jean Piaget Society, kter poYd ka~doro n konference a lk mnoho astnko. Jeho  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Teorie_kognitivn%C3%ADho_v%C3%BDvoje&action=edit" \o "Teorie kognitivnho vvoje" teorie kognitivnho vvoje prokzala svoj vliv v mnoha rozli nch oblastech: Vvojov psychologie  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%BDchova" \o "Vchova" Vchova Historick studie myalen a poznvn Evoluce lidsk inteligence Primatologie Filosofie Uml inteligence (AI) Na druhou stranu, Piaget zYejm vrazn neovlivnil terapeutick metody nebo modely. Vvojov psychologie Piaget je zYejm jednm z nejvlivnjach vvojovch psychologo, ovlivnil nejen prce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lev_Vygotsk%C3%BD&action=edit" \o "Lev Vygotsk" Lva Vygotskho a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg" \o "Lawrence Kohlberg" Lawrence Kohlberga, ale cel dala generace vdco. A koliv dokladn provYovn jeho teorie vedlo k nespo etnm vylepaovnm a zkvalitHovnm jeho povodnho modelu a vzniku neo-piagetickch a post-piagetickch teori, Piagetov povodn model se prokzal jako velice siln (Loureno and Machado 1996). Vchova Behem 70tch a 80tch let  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/20._stolet%C3%AD" \o "20. stolet" 20. stolet Piagetova prce inspirovala tak reformu  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evropa" \o "Evropa" evropsk a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA" \o "USA" americk  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%BDchova" \o "Vchova" vchovy, a to jak v teorii, tak v praxi, co~ vedlo k pYstupu vce zamYenmu na dt. Historick studie myalen a poznvn Historick zmny myalen byly modelovny v piagetovskch pojmech. `iroce Ye eno, tyto modely zmapovaly zmny v moralit, intelektulnm ~ivot a kognitivnm stdiu na historickch promnch (typicky ve slo~itosti socilnch systmo). Nkter vznamn pYklady: Michael Barnesova studie ko-evoluce nbo~enskho a vdeckho myalen (Barnes 2000) Peter Damerowova teorie prehistorickho a starovkho myalen (Damerow 1995)  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kieran_Egan&action=edit" \o "Kieran Egan" Kieran Eganova stdia porozumn  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_W._Fowler&action=edit" \o "James W. Fowler" James W. Fowlerova stdia vvoje vry Suzy Gablikovy stdia historie umn (Gablik 1977) Christopher Hallpikeovy studie zmn v poznvn a morlnm sudku v prehistorickm obdob, ve starovku a v antice (Hallpike 1979, 2004)  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg" \o "Lawrence Kohlberg" Lawrence Kohlbergova  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kohlbergova_st%C3%A1dia_mor%C3%A1ln%C3%ADho_v%C3%BDvoje&action=edit" \o "Kohlbergova stdia morlnho vvoje" stdia morlnho vvoje Don Lepanova teorie povodu modernho myalen a dramatu (LePan 1989) Charles Raddingova teorie o stYedovkm intelektulnm vvoji (Radding 1985) R.J. Robinsonova stdia historie (Robinson 2004) Evoluce lidsk inteligence Povod lidsk inteligence byl tak studovn v piagetovskch pojmech. Wynn (1979, 1981) analyzoval Acheuliansk a Oldowansk nstroje v pojmech porozumn prostorovch vztaho nutnch k vytvoYen obou typo. Obecnji, Robinsonovo  HYPERLINK "http://www.prometheus.org.uk" \o "http://www.prometheus.org.uk" Birth of Reason (Zrozen rozumu; aj. odkaz)(2005) navrhuje airoce zalo~en model pro vvoj piagetovsk inteligence. Primatologie Piagetovy modely kognice byly pou~ity i mimo okruh studia lid. Existuje prospvajc komunita primatologo, kteY vyhodnocuj vvoj a schopnosti primto v pojmech Piagetova modelu. Mezi vznamn osobnosti patY Sue Taylor Parker a Francesco Antinucci. Souhrn velice rozshl literatury sepsali Parker a McKinney (1999). Filozofie Pokud vezmeme v vahu jeho neo- HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" \o "Immanuel Kant" kantovsk pYedpoklady, jeho zamYen na tmata jako logick a matematick uva~ovn, morln sudek, odporovn, jazyk, oprvnnost a podobn, je pYekvapujc, jak mlo pozornosti Piaget vyvolal u  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozof" \o "Filozof" filozofo. NkteY ale k jeho prci pYihl~eli. NapYklad  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof" \o "Filosof" filosof a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soci%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_teoretik&action=edit" \o "Sociln teoretik" sociln teoretik  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" \o "Jrgen Habermas" Jrgen Habermas ji zahrnul do sv prce, nejvce do  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Teorie_komunikativn%C3%AD_%C4%8Dinnosti&action=edit" \o "Teorie komunikativn innosti" Teorie komunikativn innosti (The Theory of Communicative Action). Filozof  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" \o "Thomas Kuhn" Thomas Kuhn dovYoval Piagetov prci k pochopen pYechodu mezi mdy myalen, kter charakterizovaly jeho teorii  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paradigmatov%C3%A9_posuny&action=edit" \o "Paradigmatov posuny" paradigmatovch posuno. Uml inteligence Piaget ml tak vznamn dopad na poli  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po%C4%8D%C3%ADta%C4%8Dov%C3%A1_v%C4%9Bda" \o "Po ta ov vda" po ta ov vdy a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Um%C4%9Bl%C3%A1_inteligence" \o "Uml inteligence" uml inteligence.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seymour_Papert&action=edit" \o "Seymour Papert" Seymour Papert pou~il Piagetovu prci pYi vytvYen  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logo_programming_language" \o "Logo programming language" Logo programming language.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Kay" \o "Alan Kay" Alan Kay pou~il Piagotovy teorie jako zklad pro  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynabook" \o "Dynabook" Dynabook programming system concept, kter byl poprv diskutovn uvnitY  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerox" \o "Xerox" Xerox  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Palo_Alto&action=edit" \o "Palo Alto" Palo Alto Research Center neboli  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xerox_PARC&action=edit" \o "Xerox PARC" Xerox PARC. Tyto diskuse vedli k vyvinut  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alto&action=edit" \o "Alto" Alto prototypu, kter jako prvn objevil zklady  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grafick%C3%A9_u%C5%BEivatelsk%C3%A9_rozhran%C3%AD" \o "Grafick u~ivatelsk rozhran" grafickho u~ivatelskho rozhran (GUI) a ovlivnil vytvoYen u~ivatelskch rozhran v 80tch letech 20. stolet a pozdji. Hlavn prce a spchy Hlavn prce Piaget, J. (1950). Introduction l pistmologie Gntique. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. Piaget, J. (1961). La psychologie de l'intelligence. Paris: Armand Colin (1961, 1967, 1991).  HYPERLINK "http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/ebind2html/psycholo" \o "http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/ebind2html/psycholo" Online version Piaget, J. (1967). Logique et Connaissance scientifique, Encyclopdie de la Pliade. Inhelder, B. and J. Piaget (1958). The Growth of Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence. New York: Basic Books. Inhelder, B. and Piaget, J. (1964). The Early Growth of Logic in the Child: Classification and Seriation. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. (1928). The Child's Conception of the World. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. (1932). The Moral Judgment of the Child. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co. Piaget, J. (1952). The Child's Conception of Number. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. (1953). The Origins of Intelligence in Children. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. (1955). The Child's Construction of Reality. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. (1971). Biology and Knowledge. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Piaget, J. (1995). Sociological Studies. London: Routledge. Piaget, J. (2001). Studies in Reflecting Abstraction. Hove, UK: Psychology Press. Ostatn prce Beth, E.W., and Piaget, J. (1966). Mathematical Epistemology and Psychology. Dordrecht: D. Reidel. Piaget, J. (1942). Les trois structures fondamentales de la vie psychique: rythme, rgulation et groupement. Rev. Suisse de Psychologie Applique, 1/2 921. Piaget, J. (1948). O va lducation? UNESCO. Piaget, J. (1951). Psychology of Intelligence. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Piaget, J. (1953). Logic and Psychology. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Piaget, J. (1962). Play, Dreams and Imitation in Childhood. New York: Norton. Piaget, J. (1966). Ncessit et signification des recherches comparatives en psychologie gntique. Journal International de Psychologie, 1 (1): 3-13. Piaget, J. (1970). Structuralism. New York: Harper & Row. Piaget, J. (1972). Psychology and Epistemology: Towards a Theory of Knowledge. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Piaget, J. (1972). Insights and Illusions of Philosophy. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. (1974). Experiments in Contradiction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Piaget, J. (1974). The Place of the Sciences of Man in the System of Sciences. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers. Piaget, J. (1975). The Origin of the Idea of Chance in Children. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. (1977). The Grasp of Consciousness. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. (1978). Success and Understanding. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. (1979). Behaviour and Evolution. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. (1980). Adaptation and Intelligence. London: University of Chicago Press. Piaget, J. (1980). Les Formes lmentaires de la Dialectique. Paris, Editions Gallimard. Piaget, J. (1981). Intelligence and Affectivity. Their Relationship during Child Development. Palo Alto: Annual Reviews. Piaget, J. (1983). Piagetova teorie. In P. Mussen (ed.). Handbook of Child Psychology. 4th edition. Vol. 1. New York: Wiley. Piaget, J. (1985). The Equilibration of Cognitive Structures: The Central Problem of Intellectual Development. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Piaget, J. (1987). Possibility and Necessity. 2 vols. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Piaget, J. (2000). KomentY na Vygotskho. New Ideas in Psychology, 18, 241-59. Piaget, J., and Garcia, R. (1989). Psychogenesis and the History of Science. New York: Columbia University Press. Piaget, J., and Garcia, R. (1991). Towards a Logic of Meanings. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Piaget, J., and Inhelder, B. (1962). The Psychology of the Child. New York:Basic Books Piaget, J., and Inhelder, B. (1967). The Child s Conception of Space. New York: W.W. Norton. Piagetovsk a post-piagetovsk stupHov teorie Michael Barnesova studie ko-evoluce nbo~enskho a vdeckho myalen (Barnes 2000) Peter Damerowova teorie prehistorickho a starovkho myalen (Damerow 1995)  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kieran_Egan&action=edit" \o "Kieran Egan" Kieran Eganova stdia porozumn  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_W._Fowler&action=edit" \o "James W. Fowler" James W. Fowlerova stdia vvoje vry Suzy Gablikovy stdia historie umn (Gablik 1977)  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christopher_Hallpike&action=edit" \o "Christopher Hallpike" Christopher Hallpikeovy studie zmn v poznvn a morlnm sudku v prehistorickm obdob, ve starovku a v antice (Hallpike 1979, 2004)  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg" \o "Lawrence Kohlberg" Lawrence Kohlbergova  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kohlbergova_st%C3%A1dia_mor%C3%A1ln%C3%ADho_v%C3%BDvoje&action=edit" \o "Kohlbergova stdia morlnho vvoje" stdia morlnho vvoje Don Lepanova teorie povodu modernho myalen a dramatu (LePan 1989) Charles Raddingova teorie o stYedovkm intelektulnm vvoji (Radding 1985) R.J. Robinsonova stdia historie (Robinson 2004)  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Kegan&action=edit" \o "Robert Kegan" Robert Keganova konstruktivne-vvojov teorie (Kegan 1982)  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Allen_Ivey&action=edit" \o "Allen Ivey" Allen Iveyovo vvojov poradenstv a terapie (DCT) (Ivey 1986) Citace Inteligence uspoYdv svt tm, ~e uspoYdv sama sebe, in  La construction du rel chez l'enfant (1937) Odkazy  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constructivistick%C3%A1_epistemologie&action=edit" \o "Constructivistick epistemologie" Constructivistick epistemologie  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=V%C3%BDvojov%C3%A1_psychologie&action=edit" \o "Vvojov psychologie" Vvojov psychologie  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=V7vojov%C3%A1_st%C3%A1dia&action=edit" \o "V7vojov stdia" V7vojov stdia  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erik_Erikson&action=edit" \o "Erik Erikson" Erik Erikson,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eriksonova_st%C3%A1dia_psychosoci%C3%A1ln%C3%ADho_v%C3%BDvoje&action=edit" \o "Eriksonova stdia psychosocilnho vvoje" Eriksonova stdia psychosocilnho vvoje  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg" \o "Lawrence Kohlberg" Lawrence Kohlberg,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kohlbergova_st%C3%A1dia_mor%C3%A1ln%C3%ADho_v%C3%BDvoje&action=edit" \o "Kohlbergova stdia morlnho vvoje" Kohlbergova stdia morlnho vvoje Poznmky  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \l "_ref-0" \o "" ! (in An Exposition of Constructivism: Why Some Like it Radical, 1990) Reference Aqueci, F. (2003). Ordine e Trasformazione. Morale, Mente, Discorso in Jean Piaget. Acireale-Roma: Bonanno Amann-Gainotti M. and Ducret J.-J. (1992). Jean Piaget, disciple of  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pierre_Janet&action=edit" \o "Pierre Janet" Pierre Janet: influence of behavior psychology and relations with psychoanalysis. Information psychiatrique vol. 68, no6, pp. 598-606 Barnes, M.H. (2000). Stages of Thought. The Co-Evolution of Religious Thought and Science. Oxford University Press: New York. Beilin, H. (1992). Piaget's enduring contribution to developmental psychology. Developmental Psychology, 28, 191-204. Bringuier, J.-C. (1980). Conversations with Piaget. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Chapman, M. (1988). Constructive Evolution: Origins and Development of Piaget's Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Damerow, P. (1995). Prehistory and cognitive development. Invited Lecture to the Twenty-Fifth Annual Symposium of the Jean Piaget Society, Berkeley, June 13, 1995. Flavell, J. (1967). The Developmental Psychology of Jean Piaget. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company. Fowler, James W. (1981). Stages of Faith, Harper & Row  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Speci%C3%A1ln%C3%AD:Booksources&isbn=0060628669" ISBN 0-06-062866-9 Gablik, S. (1977). Progress in Art. Rizzoli: New York. Gattico, E. (2001). Jean Piaget. Milano: Bruno Mondadori Hallpike, C.R. (1979). The Foundations of Primitive Thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hallpike, C.R. (2004). The Evolution of Moral Understanding. Prometheus Research Group:  HYPERLINK "http://www.prometheus.org.uk" \o "http://www.prometheus.org.uk" www.prometheus.org.uk. Kesselring, Th. (1999). Jean Piaget. Mnchen: Beck Kitchener, R. (1986). Piaget's Theory of Knowledge. New Haven: Yale University Press. LePan, D. (1989). The Cognitive Revolution in Western Culture. Vol. 1: The Birth of Expectation. Basingstoke: Macmillan. Loureno, O. and Machado, A. (1996). In defense of Piagets theory: A reply to ten common criticisms. Psychological Review, 103, 1: 143164. Parker, S.T. and McKinney, M.L. (1999). Origins of Intelligence: The Evolution of Cognitive Development in Monkeys, Apes and Humans. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Radding, C.M. (1985). A World Made by Men. Cognition and Society, 4001200. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Robinson, R.J. (2004). The History of Human Reason. Prometheus Research Group:  HYPERLINK "http://www.prometheus.org.uk" \o "http://www.prometheus.org.uk" www.prometheus.org.uk. Robinson, R.J. (2005). The Birth of Reason. Prometheus Research Group:  HYPERLINK "http://www.prometheus.org.uk" \o "http://www.prometheus.org.uk" www.prometheus.org.uk. Smith, L. (1992). Jean Piaget: Critical Assessments. 4 Vols. London: Routledge. Smith, L. (1993). Necessary Knowledge: Piagetian Perspectives on Constructivism. Hove, Lawrence Erlbaum. Smith, L. (1996). Critical Readings on Piaget. London: Routledge. Vonche, J.J. (1985). Genetic epistemology: Piaget's theory. International Encyclopedia of Education, Vol. 4. Oxford: Pergamon. Smith, L. (2001). Jean Piaget. In J. A. Palmer (ed.) 50 Modern Thinkers on Education: from Piaget to the Present. London: Routledge Vidal, F. (1994). Piaget before Piaget. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wynn, T. (1979). The intelligence of later Acheulean hominids. Man (ns), 14: 371391. Wynn, T. (1981). The intelligence of Oldowan hominids. Journal of Human Evolution, 10: 529541. Ivey, A. (1986). Developmental therapy. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Extern odkazy  HYPERLINK "http://www.piaget.org/" \o "http://www.piaget.org/" Jean Piaget Society, society for the study of knowledge and development.  HYPERLINK "http://www.unige.ch/piaget/Presentations/presentg.html" \o "http://www.unige.ch/piaget/Presentations/presentg.html" The Jean Piaget Archives, with full bibliography.  HYPERLINK "http://hubcap.clemson.edu/%7Ecampber/piaget.html" \o "http://hubcap.clemson.edu/~campber/piaget.html" Jean Piaget's Genetic Epistemology: Appreciation and Critique by Robert Campbell (2002), extensive summary of work and biography.  HYPERLINK "http://marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/fr/piaget2.htm" \o "http://marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/fr/piaget2.htm" The Construction of Reality in the Child by Jean Piaget(1955) Piaget's role in the  HYPERLINK "http://www.ibe.unesco.org/organization/director/Piaget/Dir_Piaget.htm" \o "http://www.ibe.unesco.org/organization/director/Piaget/Dir_Piaget.htm" International Bureau of Education and the  HYPERLINK "http://www.ibe.unesco.org/policy/ice.htm" \o "http://www.ibe.unesco.org/policy/ice.htm" International Conference on Education  HYPERLINK "http://marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/fr/piaget.htm" \o "http://marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/fr/piaget.htm" Genetic Epistemology by Jean Piaget(1968)  HYPERLINK "http://www.marxists.org/archive/vygotsky/works/comment/piaget.htm" \o "http://www.marxists.org/archive/vygotsky/works/comment/piaget.htm" Comments on Vygotskyby Jean Piaget(1962)  HYPERLINK "http://www.biographyshelf.com/jean_piaget_biography.html" \o "http://www.biographyshelf.com/jean_piaget_biography.html" Biography resource dedicated to Jean Piaget Carl Rogers Carl Ransdom Rogers ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/8._leden" \o "8. leden" 8. ledna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1902" \o "1902" 1902  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oak_Park&action=edit" \o "Oak Park" Oak Park,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinois" \o "Illinois" Illinois  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/4._%C3%BAnor" \o "4. nor" 4. nora  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987" \o "1987" 1987  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=La_Jolla&action=edit" \o "La Jolla" La Jolla,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifornie" \o "Kalifornie" Kalifornie) byl americk  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholog" \o "Psycholog" psycholog a psychoterapeut, profesor na univerzitch  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio" \o "Ohio" Ohiu,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago" \o "Chicago" Chicagu a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisconsin" \o "Wisconsin" Wisconsinu. Spolu s  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Maslow" \o "Abraham Maslow" Abrahamem Maslowem patYil mezi nejvznamnja pYedstavitele  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Humanistick%C3%A1_psychologie&action=edit" \o "Humanistick psychologie" humanistick psychologie. Prosazoval  na osobu zamYenou terapii , kter studuje osobnost z vnitYnho vzta~nho rmce, co~ se projevuje dorazem na pohled z klientova hlediska. UplatHoval kombinace empatie (vctn), kongruence (shody) a reflexe (porozumn, ast na pacientov svt). Rozvinul skupinov techniky psychoterapie (skupinov setkn)se zamYenm na uvolnn kulturnho napt ( rasovho, nbo~enskho, socilnho,... ) Tak je autorem teorie osobnosti soustYedc se na pojem  j . Rogers se hlsil k  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenomenologie" \o "Fenomenologie" fenomenologii, rovn~ byl ovlivnn  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existencialismus" \o "Existencialismus" existencialistickou filosofi. Naopak byl v opozici vo i klasickmu  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorismus" \o "Behaviorismus" behaviorismu, ktermu vy tal prosazovn konformity. Zastval toti~ primrn optimistick (pozdji kritizovn za nerealisti nost) pohled na pYirozen schopnosti organismu. Ten je podle nj psychofyzickm zkladem pro~vn. Dle se domnval, ~e chovn je v~dy motivovno pYtomnmi potYebami (i kdy~ minul udlosti mohou motivaci ovlivnit), pYi em~ se se projevuje tendence k tzv. sebeaktualizaci (neboli zkladn lidsk motivace, do n~ patY uspokojovn jednotlivch potYeb, napY. potYeba potravy, bezpe , seberealizace). stYedn pojem  j je podle Rogerse tvoYen pro~itky organismu, kter je jedinec ochoten  pYijmout za sv , za st sv osobnosti. DobYe pYizposobena osobnost je schopn asimilovat do svho pojet  j sv veaker pro~itky v povodn, nezkreslen podob. Tato shoda mezi pro~itm a uvdomovanm se nazv kongruence. Naopak patologick osobnost je typick inkongruenc - nzkou mrou kongruence. To znamen, ~e pro~itky bvaj vytsnny i vnmny zkreslen, m~ je zkresleno i uvdomovan  j . Clem terapie podle Rogerse je tedy nepodmnn pozitivn sebepYijet. Dle tzv.  dobr ~ivot , co~ je spae shrnut principo, obsa~ench v jeho ostatnch spisech. Mezi jeho znaky patY vzrostajc otevYenost pro~vn vzrostajc existenciln kvalita ~it (souvislost s kongruenc) vzrostajc dovra v oraganismus (viz vae) plnja fungovn (plnja ~it v prv pYtomnm okam~iku). Burrhus Frederic Skinner Burrhus Frederic Skinner ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/20._b%C5%99ezen" \o "20. bYezen" 20. bYezna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1904" \o "1904" 1904  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/18._srpen" \o "18. srpen" 18. srpna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990" \o "1990" 1990) byl  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spojen%C3%A9_st%C3%A1ty_americk%C3%A9" \o "Spojen stty americk" americk  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholog" \o "Psycholog" psycholog a autor. Provdl prokopnickou prci v experimentln psychologii a podporoval  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorizmus" \o "Behaviorizmus" behaviorizmus, kde se zabval zejmna operantnm u enm( u en na zklad spontnch reakc lovka ). Napsal Yadu kontroverzn dl(napY. Analza chovn), ve kterch navrhoval rozaYen pou~vn psychologickch technik zmny chovn, pYedevam opera n podmiHovn, za elem zlepaen spole nosti a zvaen lidskho atst; jednalo se o druh  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soci%C3%A1ln%C3%ADho_in%C5%BEen%C3%BDrstv%C3%AD&action=edit" \o "Socilnho in~enrstv" socilnho in~enrstv. Burrhus Frederic Skinner HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:B.F._Skinner_at_Harvard_circa_1950.jpg" \o "B.F. Skinner at Harvard circa 1950.jpg"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/B.F._Skinner_at_Harvard_circa_1950.jpg/225px-B.F._Skinner_at_Harvard_circa_1950.jpg" \* MERGEFORMATINET BornMarch 20, 1904(1904-03-20)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susquehanna,_Pennsylvania" \o "Susquehanna, Pennsylvania" Susquehanna, PennsylvaniaDiedAugust 18, 1990 (aged86)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" \o "Cambridge, Massachusetts" Cambridge, MassachusettsNationality HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" AmericanFields HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist" \o "Psychologist" PsychologistInstitutions HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Minnesota" \o "University of Minnesota" University of Minnesota  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiana_University" \o "Indiana University" Indiana University  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University" \o "Harvard University" Harvard University HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alma_mater" \o "Alma mater" Alma mater HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton_College" \o "Hamilton College" Hamilton College  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University" \o "Harvard University" Harvard UniversityKnownfor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavior_analysis" \o "Behavior analysis" Behavior analysis  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning" \o "Operant conditioning" Operant conditioning  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_behaviorism" \o "Radical behaviorism" Radical behaviorism  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbal_Behavior" \o "Verbal Behavior" Verbal Behavior  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning_chamber" \o "Operant conditioning chamber" Operant conditioning chamberInfluences HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin" \o "Charles Darwin" Charles Darwin  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" \o "Ivan Pavlov" Ivan Pavlov  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Mach" \o "Ernst Mach" Ernst Mach  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Loeb" \o "Jacques Loeb" Jacques LoebBurrhus Frederic Skinner ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_20" \o "March 20" March 20,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1904" \o "1904" 1904  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_18" \o "August 18" August 18,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990" \o "1990" 1990) was an influential  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" American  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist" \o "Psychologist" psychologist, author, inventor, advocate for social reform, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-W2-0#cite_note-W2-0" \o "" [1] HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-BFD-1#cite_note-BFD-1" \o "" [2]and poet. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-HP-2#cite_note-HP-2" \o "" [3] He was the Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University" \o "Harvard University" Harvard University from 1958 until his retirement in 1974. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-3#cite_note-3" \o "" [4] He invented the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning_chamber" \o "Operant conditioning chamber" operant conditioning chamber, innovated his own philosophy of science called  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_Behaviorism" \o "Radical Behaviorism" Radical Behaviorism, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-AB-4#cite_note-AB-4" \o "" [5] and founded his own school of experimental research psychologythe  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_analysis_of_behavior" \o "Experimental analysis of behavior" experimental analysis of behavior. His analysis of human behavior culminated in his work  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbal_Behavior" \o "Verbal Behavior" Verbal Behavior, which has recently seen enormous increase in interest experimentally and in applied settings. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-5#cite_note-5" \o "" [6] He discovered and advanced the rate of response as a dependent variable in psychological research. He invented the cumulative recorder to measure rate of responding as part of his highly influential work on schedules of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement" \o "Reinforcement" reinforcement. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-BO-6#cite_note-BO-6" \o "" [7]  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-SR-7#cite_note-SR-7" \o "" [8] In a recent survey, Skinner was listed as the most influential psychologist of the 20th century. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-8#cite_note-8" \o "" [9] He was a prolific author who published 21books and 180articles. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-9#cite_note-9" \o "" [10]  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-10#cite_note-10" \o "" [11] Biography B. F. Skinner was born on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_20" \o "March 20" March 20,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1904" \o "1904" 1904, in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susquehanna,_Pennsylvania" \o "Susquehanna, Pennsylvania" Susquehanna, Pennsylvania to Grace and William Skinner. His father was a lawyer. His brother Edward, two and a half years his junior, died at age sixteen of a cerebral hemorrhage. He attended  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton_College" \o "Hamilton College" Hamilton College in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York" \o "New York" New York with the intention of becoming a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writer" \o "Writer" writer. While attending, he joined  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda_Chi_Alpha" \o "Lambda Chi Alpha" Lambda Chi Alpha Fraternity. He wrote for the school paper, but as an  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atheist" \o "Atheist" atheist, he was critical of the religious school he attended. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-11#cite_note-11" \o "" [12] He received his  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" \o "Bachelor of Arts" B.A in English literature in 1926. After graduation, he spent a year at his parents' home in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scranton" \o "Scranton" Scranton, attempting to become a writer of fiction. He soon became disillusioned with his literary skills and concluded that he had little world experience and no strong personal perspective from which to write. During this time, which Skinner later called "the dark year," he chanced upon a copy of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" \o "Bertrand Russell" Bertrand Russell's recently published book An Outline of Philosophy, in which Russell discusses the behaviorist philosophy of psychologist  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_B._Watson" \o "John B. Watson" John B. Watson. At the time, Skinner had begun to take more interest in the actions and behaviors of those around him, and some of his short stories had taken a "psychological" slant. He decided to abandon literature and seek admission as a graduate student in psychology at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University" \o "Harvard University" Harvard University. While a graduate student, he invented the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning_chamber" \o "Operant conditioning chamber" operant conditioning chamber and cumulative recorder, developed the rate of response as a critical dependent variable in psychological research, and developed a powerful, inductive, data-driven method of experimental research. During this time Skinner was influenced by the physiologist Crozier. Skinner received a PhD from Harvard in 1931, and remained there as a researcher until 1936. He then taught at the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Minnesota" \o "University of Minnesota" University of Minnesota at Minneapolis and later at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiana_University_(Bloomington)" \o "Indiana University (Bloomington)" Indiana University, where he was chair of the psychology department from 19461947, before returning to Harvard as a tenured professor in 1948. He remained at Harvard for the rest of his career. In 1936 Skinner married Yvonne Blue (19111997); the couple had two daughters,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julie_Vargas" \o "Julie Vargas" Julie (m. Vargas) and Deborah (m. Buzan). He died of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leukemia" \o "Leukemia" leukemia in 1990 and is buried in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Auburn_Cemetery" \o "Mount Auburn Cemetery" Mount Auburn Cemetery,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" \o "Cambridge, Massachusetts" Cambridge, Massachusetts. Theory He conducted pioneering work in psychology and innovated his own school of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_Behaviorism" \o "Radical Behaviorism" Radical Behaviorism, which seeks to understand behavior as a function of environmental histories of reinforcing consequences. He is known as the inventor of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning_chamber" \o "Operant conditioning chamber" operant conditioning chamber (or Skinner box), a research tool used to examine the orderly relations of the behavior of organisms (such as rats, pigeons and humans) to their environment. He is the author of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walden_Two" \o "Walden Two" Walden Two,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Freedom_and_Dignity" \o "Beyond Freedom and Dignity" Beyond Freedom and Dignity,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbal_Behavior" \o "Verbal Behavior" Verbal Behavior,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Science_and_Human_Behaviour&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Science and Human Behaviour (page does not exist)" Science and Human Behaviour and numerous other books and articles. He discovered what is now called  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning" \o "Operant conditioning" operant conditioning and articulated the now widely accepted term  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement" \o "Reinforcement" reinforcement as a scientific principle of behavior. His position reflects the extension of the influence of physicist  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Mach" \o "Ernst Mach" Ernst Mach's The Science of Mechanics to the subject of psychology. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-RB-12#cite_note-RB-12" \o "" [13] Skinner's pioneering research reflected the dual influence of whole organism research in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" \o "Ivan Pavlov" Ivan Pavlov and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Loeb" \o "Jacques Loeb" Jacques Loeb. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-CL-13#cite_note-CL-13" \o "" [14] Inventions  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Skinner_teaching_machine_01.jpg" \o "The teaching machine, a mechanical invention to automate the task of programmed instruction"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Skinner_teaching_machine_01.jpg/180px-Skinner_teaching_machine_01.jpg" \* MERGEFORMATINET   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Skinner_teaching_machine_01.jpg" \o "Enlarge"  The  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching_machine" \o "Teaching machine" teaching machine, a mechanical invention to automate the task of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmed_instruction" \o "Programmed instruction" programmed instruction Air crib In an effort to help his wife cope with the day to day tasks of child rearing, Skinner a consummate inventor thought he might be able to improve upon the standard crib. He invented the 'air-crib' to meet this challenge. An 'air-crib'  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-14#cite_note-14" \o "" [15]  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-15#cite_note-15" \o "" [16](also known as a 'baby tender' or humorously as an 'heir conditioner') is an easily-cleaned, temperature and humidity-controlled box Skinner designed to assist in the raising of babies. It was one of his more controversial inventions, and was popularly mischaracterized as cruel and experimental. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-snopes-16#cite_note-snopes-16" \o "" [17] It was designed to make the early childcare more simple (by greatly reducing laundry, diaper rash, cradle cap, etc.), while encouraging the baby to be more confident, mobile, comfortable, healthy and therefore less prone to cry. Reportedly it had some success in these goals. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-snopes-16#cite_note-snopes-16" \o "" [17] Air-cribs were later commercially manufactured by several companies. Air-cribs of some fashion are still used to this day, and publications continue to dispel myths about, and tout the progressive advantages of Skinner's original.[ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" \o "Wikipedia:Citation needed" citation needed] A 2004 book by Lauren Slater  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-OB-17#cite_note-OB-17" \o "" [18] caused much controversy by mentioning claims that Skinner had used his baby daughter in some of his experiments. Although the book itself said that the claims were groundless, this nuance was missed in some responses, including a vehement and public denial of the claims by his daughter Deborah Skinner-Buzan herself. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-18#cite_note-18" \o "" [19] Cumulative recorder The cumulative recorder is an instrument used to automatically record behavior graphically. Initially, its graphing mechanism has consisted of a rotating drum of paper equipped with a marking needle. The needle would start at the bottom of the page and the drum would turn the roll of paper horizontally. Each response would result in the marking needle moving vertically along the paper one tick. This makes it possible for the rate of response to be calculated by finding the slope of the graph at a given point. For example, a regular rate of response would cause the needle to move vertically at a regular rate, resulting in a straight diagonal line rising towards the right. An accelerating or decelerating rate of response would lead to a quadratic (or similar) curve. The cumulative recorder provided a powerful analytical tool for studying  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement" \l "Schedules_of_reinforcement" \o "Reinforcement" schedules of reinforcement. Operant conditioning chamber While at Harvard, B. F. Skinner invented the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning" \o "Operant conditioning" operant conditioning chamber to measure organic responses and their orderly interactions with the environment. This device was an example of his lifelong ability to invent useful devices, which included whimsical devices in his childhood  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-PML-19#cite_note-PML-19" \o "" [20] to the cumulative recorder to measure the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rate_of_response" \o "Rate of response" rate of response of organisms in an operant chamber. Even in old age, Skinner invented a Thinking Aid to assist in writing. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-20#cite_note-20" \o "" [21] Teaching machine The teaching machine was a mechanical device whose purpose was to administer a curriculum of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmed_instruction" \o "Programmed instruction" programmed instruction. It housed a list of questions, and a mechanism through which the learner could respond to each question. Upon delivering a correct answer, the learner would be rewarded. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-21#cite_note-21" \o "" [22] Pigeon Guided Missile The US Navy required a weapon effective against the German  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_battleship_Bismarck" \o "German battleship Bismarck" Bismarck class battleships. Although missile and TV technology existed, the size of the primitive guidance systems available rendered any weapon ineffective.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Pigeon" \o "Project Pigeon" Project Pigeon HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-22#cite_note-22" \o "" [23] HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-23#cite_note-23" \o "" [24] was potentially an extremely simple and effective solution, but despite an effective demonstration it was abandoned as soon as more conventional solutions were available. The project centered around dividing the nose cone of a missile into three compartments, and encasing a pigeon in each. The compartments for each had a video image of what was in front of them, and the pigeons would peck toward the object, thereby directing the missile.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-NMAH-24#cite_note-NMAH-24" \o "" [25] Skinner complained "our problem was no one would take us seriously." HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-25#cite_note-25" \o "" [26] The point is perhaps best explained in terms of human psychology (i.e., few people would trust a pigeon to guide a missile no matter how reliable it proved). HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-26#cite_note-26" \o "" [27] Radical behaviorism Main article:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_behaviorism" \o "Radical behaviorism" Radical behaviorism Finding the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism" \o "Behaviorism" behaviorism of his time to be problematic, Skinner branched off his own version he called  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_Behaviorism" \o "Radical Behaviorism" Radical Behaviorism which unlike methodological behaviorism did not require truth by consensus so it could accept private events such as thinking, perception and emotion in its account. Also, unlike all of the other behaviorists such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_C._Tolman" \o "Edward C. Tolman" Tolman,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark_L._Hull" \o "Clark L. Hull" Hull and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_and_Mamie_Clark" \o "Kenneth and Mamie Clark" Clark, Skinner's version radically rejected mediating constructs and the hypothetico-deductive method,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-27#cite_note-27" \o "" [28] HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-RB-12#cite_note-RB-12" \o "" [13] instead offering a strongly inductive, data driven approach that has proven to be successful in dozens of areas from behavioral pharmacology to language therapy in the developmentally delayed. Verbal behavior Main article:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbal_behavior" \o "Verbal behavior" Verbal behavior Challenged by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" \o "Alfred North Whitehead" Alfred North Whitehead during a casual discussion while at Harvard to provide an account of a randomly provided piece of verbal behavior HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-28#cite_note-28" \o "" [29] Skinner set about attempting to extend his then-new functional, inductive, approach to the complexity of human verbal behavior. Developed over two decades, his work appeared as the culmination of the William James lectures in the book,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbal_Behavior" \o "Verbal Behavior" Verbal Behavior. Although Noam Chomsky was highly critical of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbal_Behavior" \o "Verbal Behavior" Verbal Behavior, he conceded that it was the "most careful and thoroughgoing presentation of such speculations"  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-RVB-29#cite_note-RVB-29" \o "" [30] as a reason for giving it "a review." After a slow reception, perhaps due to its lack of experimental evidence unlike Skinner's previous work  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-30#cite_note-30" \o "" [31] Skinner's functional analysis of verbal behavior has seen a resurgence of interest in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbal_Behavior_(book)" \o "Verbal Behavior (book)" applied settings. Influence on education Skinner influenced education as well as psychology. He was quoted as saying, "Teachers must learn how to teach... they need only to be taught more effective ways of teaching." Skinner asserted that positive reinforcement is more effective at changing and establishing behavior than punishment, with obvious implications for the then widespread practice of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rote_learning" \o "Rote learning" rote learning and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_discipline" \o "School discipline" punitive discipline in education. Skinner also suggests that the main thing people learn from being punished is how to avoid punishment. Skinner says that there are five main obstacles in learning: People have a fear of failure There is a lack of directions There is also a lack of clarity in the direction Positive reinforcement is not used enough The task is not broken down into small enough steps Skinner suggests that with all of the obstacles out of the way any age appropriate skill can be taught using his 5 principles: Have small steps Work from most simple to most complex tasks Repeat the directions as many times as possible Give immediate feedback Give positive reinforcement Skinner's views on education are extensively written about in his book the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Technology_of_teaching&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Technology of teaching (page does not exist)" Technology of teaching. It is also reflected in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_S._Keller" \o "Fred S. Keller" Fred S. Keller's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Programmed_system_of_instruction&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Programmed system of instruction (page does not exist)" Programmed System of instruction and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ogden_R._Lindsley&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Ogden R. Lindsley (page does not exist)" Ogden R. Lindsley's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precision_teaching" \o "Precision teaching" Precision Teaching. Walden Two and Beyond Freedom & Dignity Skinner is popularly known mainly for his books  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walden_Two" \o "Walden Two" Walden Two and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Freedom_and_Dignity" \o "Beyond Freedom and Dignity" Beyond Freedom and Dignity. The former describes a visit to an imaginary  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utopian" \o "Utopian" utopian  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commune_(intentional_community)" \o "Commune (intentional community)" commune in 1940s United States, where the productivity and happiness of the citizens is far in advance of that in the outside world because of their practice of scientific social planning and use of operant conditioning in the raising of children. Walden Two, like  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" \o "Henry David Thoreau" Thoreau's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walden" \o "Walden" Walden, champions a lifestyle that does not support war or foster competition and social strife. It encourages a lifestyle of minimal consumption, rich social relationships, personal happiness, satisfying work and leisure. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-31#cite_note-31" \o "" [32] In Beyond Freedom and Dignity, Skinner suggests that a technology of behavior could help to make a better society. We would, however, have to accept that an  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_agent" \o "Autonomous agent" autonomous agent was not the driving force of our actions. Skinner offers alternatives to punishment and challenges his readers to use modern technology for more than just war; science might be used, he holds, to better society. Schedules of reinforcement Main article:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement" \o "Reinforcement" Reinforcement Part of Skinner's analysis of behavior involved not only the power of a single instance of reinforcement, but the effects of particular schedules of reinforcement over time. Skinner's types of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement" \l "Schedules_of_reinforcement" \o "Reinforcement" schedules of reinforcement involved: interval (fixed or variable) and ratio (fixed or variable). Continuous reinforcement constant delivery of reinforcement for an action; every time a specific action was performed the subject instantly and always received a reinforcement. This method is prone to extinction and is very hard to enforce. Interval (fixed/variable) reinforcement (Fixed) reinforcement is set for certain times. (Variable) times between reinforcement are not set, and often differ. Ratio (fixed or variable) reinforcement (Fixed) deals with a set amount of work needed to be completed before there is reinforcement. (Variable) amount of work needed for the reinforcement differs from the last. Political views Skinner's political writings emphasized his hopes that an effective and humane science of behavioral control a technology of human behavior could help problems unsolved by earlier approaches or aggravated by advances in technology such as the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_bomb" \o "Atomic bomb" atomic bomb. One of Skinner's stated goals was to prevent humanity from destroying itself. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-32#cite_note-32" \o "" [33] He did not see the problems of political control as a battle of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domination" \o "Domination" domination versus  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_(political)" \o "Freedom (political)" freedom, but as choices between what kinds of control were used for which purposes. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-BFD-1#cite_note-BFD-1" \o "" [2] Skinner opposed the use of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coercion" \o "Coercion" coercion, punishment or fear, and supported the use of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_reinforcement" \o "Positive reinforcement" positive reinforcement. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-W2-0#cite_note-W2-0" \o "" [1] Skinner's book, Walden Two, presents a vision of a decentralized, localized society, which applies a practical, scientific approach and futuristically advanced behavioral expertise to peacefully deal with social problems. Skinner's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utopia" \o "Utopia" utopia, like every other utopia or  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dystopia" \o "Dystopia" dystopia, is both a thought experiment and a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetoric" \o "Rhetoric" rhetorical piece. In his book, Skinner answers the problem that exists in many utopian novels "What is the Good Life?" In Walden Two, the answer is a life of friendship, health, art, a healthy balance between work and leisure, a minimum of unpleasantness, and a feeling that one has made worthwhile contributions to one's society. This was to be achieved through behavioral technology, which could offer alternatives to coercion, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-W2-0#cite_note-W2-0" \o "" [1] as good science applied correctly would help society, HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-BFD-1#cite_note-BFD-1" \o "" [2] and allow all people to cooperate with each other peacefully. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-W2-0#cite_note-W2-0" \o "" [1] Skinner described his novel as "my New Atlantis", in reference to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Bacon_(philosopher)" \o "Francis Bacon (philosopher)" Bacon's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Atlantis" \o "The New Atlantis" utopia. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-33#cite_note-33" \o "" [34] He opposed corporal punishment in the school, and wrote a letter to the California Senate that helped lead it to a ban on spanking. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-34#cite_note-34" \o "" [35] When  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradise_Lost" \o "Paradise Lost" Milton's Satan falls from heaven, he ends in hell. And what does he say to reassure himself? 'Here, at least, we shall be free.' And that, I think, is the fate of the old-fashioned liberal. He's going to be free, but he's going to find himself in hell. B. F. Skinner, from William F. Buckley Jr, On the Firing Line, p.87. Superstition in the pigeon One of Skinner's experiments examined the formation of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition" \o "Superstition" superstition in one of his favorite experimental animals, the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeon" \o "Pigeon" pigeon. Skinner placed a series of hungry pigeons in a cage attached to an automatic mechanism that delivered food to the pigeon "at regular intervals with no reference whatsoever to the bird's behavior." He discovered that the pigeons associated the delivery of the food with whatever chance actions they had been performing as it was delivered, and that they subsequently continued to perform these same actions. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-35#cite_note-35" \o "" [36] One bird was conditioned to turn counter-clockwise about the cage, making two or three turns between reinforcements. Another repeatedly thrust its head into one of the upper corners of the cage. A third developed a 'tossing' response, as if placing its head beneath an invisible bar and lifting it repeatedly. Two birds developed a pendulum motion of the head and body, in which the head was extended forward and swung from right to left with a sharp movement followed by a somewhat slower return. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-superstition-36#cite_note-superstition-36" \o "" [37] HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-37#cite_note-37" \o "" [38] Skinner suggested that the pigeons behaved as if they were influencing the automatic mechanism with their "rituals" and that this experiment shed light on human behavior: The experiment might be said to demonstrate a sort of superstition. The bird behaves as if there were a causal relation between its behavior and the presentation of food, although such a relation is lacking. There are many analogies in human behavior. Rituals for changing one's fortune at cards are good examples. A few accidental connections between a ritual and favorable consequences suffice to set up and maintain the behavior in spite of many unreinforced instances. The bowler who has released a ball down the alley but continues to behave as if she were controlling it by twisting and turning her arm and shoulder is another case in point. These behaviors have, of course, no real effect upon one's luck or upon a ball half way down an alley, just as in the present case the food would appear as often if the pigeon did nothingor, more strictly speaking, did something else. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-superstition-36#cite_note-superstition-36" \o "" [37] Modern behavioral psychologists have disputed Skinner's "superstition" explanation for the behaviors he recorded. Subsequent research (for instance, by Staddon and Simmelhag in 1971) while finding similar behavior failed to find support for Skinner's "adventitious reinforcement" explanation for it. By looking at the timing of different behaviors within the interval, Staddon and Simmelhag were able to distinguish two classes of behavior: the terminal response, which occurred in anticipation of food, and interim responses, that occurred earlier in the interfood interval and were rarely contiguous with food. Terminal responses seem to reflect classical (rather than operant) conditioning, rather than adventitious reinforcement, guided by a process like that observed in 1968 by Brown and Jenkins in their "autoshaping" procedures. The causation of interim activities (such as the schedule-induced polydipsia seen in a similar situation with rats) also cannot be traced to adventitious reinforcement and its details are still obscure (Staddon, 1977).  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-38#cite_note-38" \o "" [39] Awards 1968 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" \o "National Medal of Science" National Medal of Science from President  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" \o "Lyndon B. Johnson" Lyndon B. Johnson 1971 - Gold Medal of the American Psychological Foundation HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-39#cite_note-39" \o "" [40] 1972 - Humanist of the Year Award HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-40#cite_note-40" \o "" [41] 1990 - Citation for Outstanding Lifetime Contribution to Psychology Criticism J.E.R. Staddon As understood by Skinner, ascribing dignity to individuals involves giving them credit for their actions. To say "Skinner is brilliant" means that Skinner is an originating force. If Skinner's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinism" \o "Determinism" determinist theory is right, he is merely the focus of his environment. He is not an originating force and he had no choice in saying the things he said or doing the things he did. Skinner's environment and genetics both allowed and compelled him to write his book. Similarly, the environment and genetic potentials of the advocates of freedom and dignity cause them to resist the reality that their own activities are deterministically grounded.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._E._R._Staddon" \o "J. E. R. Staddon" J. E. R. Staddon (The New Behaviorism, 2001) has argued the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compatibilism_and_incompatibilism" \o "Compatibilism and incompatibilism" compatibilist position, that Skinner's determinism is not in any way contradictory to traditional notions of reward and punishment, as he believed[ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" \o "Wikipedia:Citation needed" citation needed]. Noam Chomsky Perhaps Skinner's best known critic,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" \o "Noam Chomsky" Noam Chomsky published his review of Skinner's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbal_Behavior_(book)" \o "Verbal Behavior (book)" Verbal Behavior soon after it was published. The review (1959) became better known than the book itself. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-HP-2#cite_note-HP-2" \o "" [3] It has been credited with launching the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_science" \o "Cognitive science" cognitive movement in psychology and other disciplines. Skinner never formally replied to Chomsky's critique. However, Kenneth MacCorquodale's reply HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-KMC-41#cite_note-KMC-41" \o "" [42] which rather thoroughly refuted Chomsky's critique HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-RR-42#cite_note-RR-42" \o "" [43] was endorsed by Skinner  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-OHP-43#cite_note-OHP-43" \o "" [44]. Chomsky also reviewed Skinner's Beyond Freedom and Dignity, utilizing the same basic motifs as his Verbal Behavior review. Among Chomsky's critiques were that Skinner's laboratory work could not be extended to humans, that when it was extended to humans it represented 'scientistic' behavior attempting to emulate science but which was not scientific, that Skinner was not a scientist because he rejected the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" \o "Hypothetico-deductive model" hypothetico-deductive model of theory testing, that Skinner had no science of behavior, and that Skinner's works were highly conducive to justifying or advancing  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totalitarianism" \o "Totalitarianism" totalitarianism. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \l "cite_note-44#cite_note-44" \o "" [45] Written works The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis, 1938.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1583900071" ISBN 1-58390-007-1,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/087411487X" ISBN 0-87411-487-X.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walden_Two" \o "Walden Two" Walden Two, 1948.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/002411510X" ISBN 0-02-411510-X. Science and Human Behavior, 1953.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0029290406" ISBN 0-02-929040-6. Schedules of Reinforcement, with  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Ferster" \o "Charles Ferster" C. B. Ferster, 1957.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0137923090" ISBN 0-13-792309-0.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbal_Behavior_(book)" \o "Verbal Behavior (book)" Verbal Behavior, 1957.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1583900217" ISBN 1-58390-021-7. The Analysis of Behavior: A Program for Self Instruction, with James G. Holland, 1961. This self-instruction book is no longer in print, but the B.F. Skinner Foundation web site has an interactive version.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0070295654" ISBN 0-07-029565-4. The Technology of Teaching, 1968. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts Library of Congress Card Number 68-12340 E 81290 Contingencies of Reinforcement: A Theoretical Analysis, 1969.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0390812803" ISBN 0-390-81280-3.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Freedom_and_Dignity" \o "Beyond Freedom and Dignity" Beyond Freedom and Dignity, 1971.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0394425553" ISBN 0-394-42555-3. About Behaviorism, 1974.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0394492013" ISBN 0-394-49201-3,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0394716183" ISBN 0-394-71618-3. Particulars of My Life: Part One of an Autobiography, 1976.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0394400712" ISBN 0-394-40071-2.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflections_on_Behaviorism_and_Society" \o "Reflections on Behaviorism and Society" Reflections on Behaviorism and Society, 1978.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0137700571" ISBN 0-13-770057-1. The Shaping of a Behaviorist: Part Two of an Autobiography, 1979.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0394505816" ISBN 0-394-50581-6. Notebooks, edited by Robert Epstein, 1980.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0136241069" ISBN 0-13-624106-9. Skinner for the Classroom, edited by R. Epstein, 1982.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0878222618" ISBN 0-87822-261-8. Enjoy Old Age: A Program of Self-Management, with M. E. Vaughan, 1983. A Matter of Consequences: Part Three of an Autobiography, 1983.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0394532260" ISBN 0-394-53226-0,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0814778453" ISBN 0-8147-7845-3. Upon Further Reflection, 1987.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0139389865" ISBN 0-13-938986-5. Recent Issues in the Analysis of Behavior, 1989.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/067520674X" ISBN 0-675-20674-X. Cumulative Record: A Selection of Papers, 1959, 1961, 1972 and 1999 as Cumulative Record: Definitive Edition. This book includes a reprint of Skinner's October 1945 Ladies' Home Journal article, "Baby in a Box," Skinner's original, personal account of the much-misrepresented "Baby in a box" device.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0874119693" ISBN 0-87411-969-3 (paperback) Articles by B. F. Skinner  HYPERLINK "http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Skinner/Twotypes/twotypes.htm" \o "http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Skinner/Twotypes/twotypes.htm" Two Types of Conditioned Reflex and a Pseudo Type (1935), Journal of General Psychology, 12, 66-77.  HYPERLINK "http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Skinner/Pigeon/" \o "http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Skinner/Pigeon/" "Superstition" in the Pigeon (1947), Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 168-172.  HYPERLINK "http://psychclassics.asu.edu/Skinner/Theories/" \o "http://psychclassics.asu.edu/Skinner/Theories/" Are Theories of Learning Necessary?, Psychological Review, 57, 193-216, 1950. Edward C. Tolman Edward Chace Tolman HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Replace_this_image_male.svg" \o "Replace this image male.svg"  Edward Chace TolmanBorn HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apr_14" \o "Apr 14" 14 Apr  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1886" \o "1886" 1886  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Newton%2C_Massachusetts" \o "West Newton, Massachusetts" West Newton,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts" \o "Massachusetts" MassachusettsDied HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nov_19" \o "Nov 19" 19 Nov  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1959" \o "1959" 1959Nationality HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" AmericanFields HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology" \o "Psychology" psychologistKnownfor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_psychology" \o "Behavioral psychology" behavioral psychologyEdward Chace Tolman ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1886" \o "1886" 1886 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1959" \o "1959" 1959) was an  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" American  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology" \o "Psychology" psychologist. He was most famous for his studies on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_psychology" \o "Behavioral psychology" behavioral psychology. Born in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Newton%2C_Massachusetts" \o "West Newton, Massachusetts" West Newton,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts" \o "Massachusetts" Massachusetts, brother of CalTech physicist  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Chace_Tolman" \o "Richard Chace Tolman" Richard Chace Tolman, Edward C. Tolman studied at the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" \o "Massachusetts Institute of Technology" Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and received his  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" \o "Doctor of Philosophy" Ph.D. from  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University" \o "Harvard University" Harvard University in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1915" \o "1915" 1915. Most of his career was spent at the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Berkeley" \o "University of California, Berkeley" University of California, Berkeley (from  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1918" \o "1918" 1918 to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1954" \o "1954" 1954), where he taught psychology. Tolman is best known for his studies of learning in rats using mazes, and he published many experimental articles, of which his paper with Ritchie and Kalish in 1946 was probably the most influential. His major theoretical contributions came in his  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1932" \o "1932" 1932 book, Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men, and in a series of papers in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_Review" \o "Psychological Review" Psychological Review, "The determinants of behavior at a choice point" (1938) and "Cognitive maps in rats and men" (1948), and "Principles of performance" (1955) HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_C._Tolman" \l "cite_note-0#cite_note-0" \o "" [1] HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_C._Tolman" \l "cite_note-1#cite_note-1" \o "" [2] HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_C._Tolman" \l "cite_note-2#cite_note-2" \o "" [3] HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_C._Tolman" \l "cite_note-3#cite_note-3" \o "" [4] HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_C._Tolman" \l "cite_note-4#cite_note-4" \o "" [5] HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_C._Tolman" \l "cite_note-5#cite_note-5" \o "" [6]. Although Tolman was firmly  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism" \o "Behaviorism" behaviorist in his methodology, he was not a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_behaviorism" \o "Radical behaviorism" radical behaviorist like  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner" \o "B. F. Skinner" B. F. Skinner. As the title of his 1932 book indicates, he wanted to use behavioral methods to gain an understanding of the mental processes of humans and other animals. In his studies of learning in rats, Tolman sought to demonstrate that animals could learn facts about the world that they could subsequently use in a flexible manner, rather than simply learning automatic responses that were triggered off by environmental stimuli. In the language of the time, Tolman was an "S-S" (stimulus-stimulus), non- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement" \o "Reinforcement" reinforcement theorist: he drew on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psychology" \o "Gestalt psychology" Gestalt psychology to argue that animals could learn the connections between stimuli and did not need any explicit biologically significant event to make learning occur. The rival theory, the much more mechanistic "S-R" (stimulus-response) reinforcement-driven view, was taken up by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark_L._Hull" \o "Clark L. Hull" Clark L. Hull. A key paper by Tolman, Ritchie and Kalish in 1946 demonstrated that rats that had explored a maze that contained food while they were not hungry were able to run it correctly on the first trial when they entered it having now been made hungry. However, Hull and his followers were able to produce alternative explanations of Tolman's findings, and the debate between S-S and S-R learning theories became increasingly convoluted and sterile. Skinner's iconoclastic paper of 1950, entitled "Are theories of learning necessary?" persuaded many psychologists interested in animal learning that it was more productive to focus on the behavior itself rather than using it to make hypotheses about mental states. The influence of Tolman's ideas declined rapidly in the later  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1950s" \o "1950s" 1950s and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960s" \o "1960s" 1960s. However, his achievements had been considerable. His 1938 and 1955 papers, produced to answer Hull's charge that he left the rat "buried in thought" in the maze, unable to respond, anticipated and prepared the ground for much later work in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" \o "Cognitive psychology" cognitive psychology, as psychologists began to discover and apply  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_making" \o "Decision making" decision theory - a stream of work that was recognised by the award of a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_prize" \o "Nobel prize" Nobel prize to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Kahneman" \o "Daniel Kahneman" Daniel Kahneman in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002" \o "2002" 2002. And his 1948 paper introduced the concept of a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_map" \o "Cognitive map" cognitive map, which has found extensive application in almost every field of psychology, frequently among scientists who have no idea that they are using ideas first formulated to explain the behavior of rats in mazes. Furthermore, when in the last quarter of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twentieth_century" \o "Twentieth century" twentieth century animal psychologists took a cue from the success of human cognitive psychology, and began to renew the study of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_cognition" \o "Animal cognition" animal cognition, many of them turned to Tolman's ideas and to his maze techniques. Of the three great figures of animal psychology of the middle twentieth century, Tolman, Hull and Skinner, it can reasonably be claimed that it is Tolman's legacy that is currently the liveliest, certainly in terms of academic research. Tolman was much concerned that psychology should be applied to try and solve human problems, and in addition to his technical publications, he wrote a book called Drives Toward War. He was one of the senior professors whom the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California" \o "University of California" University of California sought to dismiss in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McCarthyism" \o "McCarthyism" McCarthyite era of the early  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1950s" \o "1950s" 1950s, because he refused to sign a loyalty oath - not because of any lack of felt loyalty to the United States but because it infringed on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_freedom" \o "Academic freedom" academic freedom. Tolman was a leader of the resistance of the oath, and when the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regents_of_the_University_of_California" \o "Regents of the University of California" Regents of the University of California sought to fire him, he sued. The resulting court case,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tolman_v._Underhill&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Tolman v. Underhill (page does not exist)" Tolman v. Underhill, led to the California  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_supreme_court" \o "State supreme court" Supreme Court in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1955" \o "1955" 1955 overturning the oath and forcing the reinstatement of all those who had refused to sign it. In  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1963" \o "1963" 1963, at the insistence of the then President of the University of California  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark_Kerr" \o "Clark Kerr" Clark Kerr, the University named its newly constructed Education and Psychology faculty building at Berkeley "Tolman Hall" in his honor; his widow was present at the dedication ceremony. His portrait hangs in the entrance hall of the building. External links  HYPERLINK "http://tip.psychology.org/tolman.html" \o "http://tip.psychology.org/tolman.html" Account of Tolman's "Sign Learning" theory from the Theory Into Practice database, compiled by Greg Kearsley  HYPERLINK "http://gse.berkeley.edu/admin/publications/tolmanhistory.html" \o "http://gse.berkeley.edu/admin/publications/tolmanhistory.html" History of Tolman Hall References  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_C._Tolman" \l "cite_ref-0#cite_ref-0" \o "" ^ Tolman, E C; Ritchie, B F & Kalish, D ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992" \o "1992" 1992), " HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1431737" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1431737" Studies in spatial learning. I. Orientation and the short-cut. 1946.", Journal of experimental psychology. General 121(4): 429-34, 1992 Dec,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID" \o "PMID" PMID:1431737, < HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1431737" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1431737" http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1431737>  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_C._Tolman" \l "cite_ref-1#cite_ref-1" \o "" ^ TOLMAN, E C ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1955" \o "1955" 1955), " HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13254969" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13254969" Principles of performance.", Psychological review 62(5): 315-26, 1955 Sep,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID" \o "PMID" PMID:13254969, < HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13254969" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13254969" http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13254969>  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_C._Tolman" \l "cite_ref-2#cite_ref-2" \o "" ^ TOLMAN, E C & POSTMAN, L ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1954" \o "1954" 1954), " HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13149127" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13149127" Learning.", Annual review of psychology 5: 27-56, 1954,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID" \o "PMID" PMID:13149127,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" \o "Digital object identifier" doi: HYPERLINK "http://dx.doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.ps.05.020154.000331" \o "http://dx.doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.ps.05.020154.000331" 10.1146/annurev.ps.05.020154.000331, < HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13149127" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13149127" http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13149127>  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_C._Tolman" \l "cite_ref-3#cite_ref-3" \o "" ^ TOLMAN, E C & GLEITMAN, H ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1949" \o "1949" 1949), " HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15398592" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15398592" Studies in learning and motivation; equal reinforcements in both end-boxes; followed by shock in one end-box.", Journal of experimental psychology 39(6): 810-9, 1949 Dec,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID" \o "PMID" PMID:15398592, < HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15398592" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15398592" http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15398592>  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_C._Tolman" \l "cite_ref-4#cite_ref-4" \o "" ^ TOLMAN, E C & GLEITMAN, H ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1949" \o "1949" 1949), " HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15391108" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15391108" Studies in spatial learning; place and response learning under different degrees of motivation.", Journal of experimental psychology 39(5): 653-9, 1949 Oct,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID" \o "PMID" PMID:15391108, < HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15391108" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15391108" http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15391108>  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_C._Tolman" \l "cite_ref-5#cite_ref-5" \o "" ^ TOLMAN, E C ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1949" \o "1949" 1949), " HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18128182" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18128182" There is more than one kind of learning.", Psychological review 56(3): 144-55, 1949 May,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID" \o "PMID" PMID:18128182, < HYPERLINK "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18128182" \o "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18128182" http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18128182> Skinner, B. F. (1950). Are theories of learning necessary? Psychological Review, 57, 193-216. Tolman, E. C. (1932). Purposive behavior in animals and men. New York: Century. Tolman, E. C. (1938). The determinants of behavior at a choice point. Psychological Review, 45, 1-41. Tolman, E. C. (1942). Drives towards war. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Tolman, E. C. (1948).  HYPERLINK "http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Tolman/Maps/maps.htm" \o "http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Tolman/Maps/maps.htm" Cognitive maps in rats and men. Psychological Review, 55, 189-208. (Retrieved on 07-02-06) Retrieved from " HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_C._Tolman" http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_C._Tolman" Wilhelm Wundt Wilhelm Wundt Wilhelm Wundt (* HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/16._srpen" \o "16. srpen" 16. srpna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1832" \o "1832" 1832  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/31._srpen" \o "31. srpen" 31. srpna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1920" \o "1920" 1920) je  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C4%9Bmecko" \o "Nmecko" nmeck  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie" \o "Psychologie" psycholog, systematik a zakladatel  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=V%C4%9Bdeck%C3%A1_psychologie&action=edit" \o "Vdeck psychologie" vdeck psychologie. Byl ovlivnn stYedovevropskou duchovn atmosfrou poloviny 19. stolet, kter navazovala na stolet pYedchoz.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" \o "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" Leibnizovo pojet apercepce a Wolffova psychologie pYipravily podu ke zvde tn psychologie. Herbartovo zdoraznn vznamu  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matematika" \o "Matematika" matematiky pro psychologii, fyziologick prce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Evangelista_Purkyn%C4%9B" \o "Jan Evangelista Purkyn" J.E. Purkyn a J. Mllera, experimentace Weberova s po itky stejn jako mnoh  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_von_Helmholtz" \o "Hermann von Helmholtz" Helmholtzovy vdeck pYspvky vedly k dob, ve kter Fechner mohl zalo~it psychofyziku. Byl to vaak Wundt v poslednch desetiletch 19. stolet, kter se stal hlavnm pYedstavitelem nov experimentln psychologie s detailnmi, logickmi, systematickmi pohledy, aktivn laboratoY a mnoha ~ky, kteY zalo~ili laboratoYe dala. Wundtov strukturalismus pYevzal vedouc msto po Brentanov, Stumpfov a G.E. Mllerov psychologii, i kdy~ vliv uveden trojice autoro pokra oval. Dimitrij Nikolajevi  Uznadze Dimitrij Nikolajevi  Uznadze ( HYPERLINK "http://encyklopedie.seznam.cz/heslo/453387-gruzinstina" gruznsky  ,  HYPERLINK "http://encyklopedie.seznam.cz/heslo/1879-2-prosinec" 2. prosince  HYPERLINK "http://encyklopedie.seznam.cz/heslo/1662-1886" 1886, Sakara   HYPERLINK "http://encyklopedie.seznam.cz/heslo/3636-9-rijen" 9. Yjna  HYPERLINK "http://encyklopedie.seznam.cz/heslo/1765-1950" 1950) byl  HYPERLINK "http://encyklopedie.seznam.cz/heslo/502391-sovetsky-svaz" sovtsk  HYPERLINK "http://encyklopedie.seznam.cz/heslo/145840-psycholog" psycholog a filozof. Uznadze byl ~kem  HYPERLINK "http://encyklopedie.seznam.cz/heslo/525200-wilhelm-wundt" W. Wundta a jednm ze zakladatelo oddlen pedagogiky katedry psychologie na univerzit  HYPERLINK "http://encyklopedie.seznam.cz/heslo/178522-tbilisi" Tbilisi a laboratoYe experimentln psychologie. Je autorem teorie zamYenosti tzv.  HYPERLINK "http://encyklopedie.seznam.cz/heslo/526172-ustanovka" Ustanovky. Sv prce publikoval v ruatin a nm in. Dlo vod do experimentln pedagogiky Zklady experimentln psychologie Obecn psychologie Zkladn teze teorie ustanovky Ivan Petrovi  Pavlov Ivan Petrovi  Pavlov ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/14._z%C3%A1%C5%99%C3%AD" \o "14. zY" 14. zY  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1849" \o "1849" 1849   HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/27._%C3%BAnor" \o "27. nor" 27. nora  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1936" \o "1936" 1936) byl  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusko" \o "Rusko" rusk  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyziolog" \o "Fyziolog" fyziolog,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholog" \o "Psycholog" psycholog a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9ka%C5%99" \o "LkaY" lkaY, kter se zabval studiem  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%C3%A1ven%C3%AD" \o "Trven" trvicch proceso a s nimi spojench  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflex" \o "Reflex" reflexo. V roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1904" \o "1904" 1904 obdr~el za sv vzkumy  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobelova_cena_za_fyziologii_a_medic%C3%ADnu" \o "Nobelova cena za fyziologii a medicnu" Nobelovu cenu za fyziologii a medicnu. I.P.Pavlov byl pro tehdeja politickou situaci v Rusku trochu nepohodlnou osobou, a tak byl trochu problm zjistit nkter daje o jeho ~ivot, proto~e v roznch publikacch se liaily a to dky tomu, ~e po jeho smrti byly daje o jeho ~ivot upraveny.Narodil se 26. zY 1849 v Rjazani v Rusku. Nejprve studoval crkevn akolu, pozdji pYestoupil na teologick seminY. Pozdji inspirovn pokrokovmi myalenkami Pisarova a Se enova opustil Pavlov crkevn kariru a zasvtil svoj ~ivot vd. V r. 1870 se zapsal na prvnickou univerzitu, odkud na povolen rektora pYestoupil na fakultu chemie a fyziky a navatvoval kurzy pYrodnch vd. Studoval fyziologii, kter se stala skute nou npln jeho ~ivota. Ji~ bhem tohoto prvnho kurzu publikoval ve spoluprci se svm spolu~kem Afanasjevem odbornou publikaci o pankreatickch nervech. Toto dlo bylo airoce uznvno a ocenno Zlatou medail. Napsal tak spolu se spolu~kem Velikm vdeckou prci o vlivu vegetativn nervov soustavy na krevn obh. V roce 1879 obdr~el lkaYsk titul s vyznamennm. V roce 1881 se o~enil se studentkou pedagogickho institutu Serafinou Vasilijevnou Kar evskou.O dva roky pozdji zskal titul docenta po obhajob sv diserta n prce O odstYedivch nervech srdce. V t dob ~ili man~el Pavlovovi v naprost chudob a zemYel jejich prvorozen syn Mir ik. V r. 1884 se jim narodil druh syn Vladimr. V roce 1887 byl Pavlov povaen na dvornho radu. V roce 1890 byl jmenovn profesorem farmakologie na Vojensk lkaYsk akademii v Petrohrad. Nsledn byl povYen mecenaem Institutu experimentln medicny princem Alexandrem Petrovi em Oldenburskm o zYzen fyziologickho oddlen, kter pak vedl a~ do sv smrti. Zde u inil vtainu svch slavnch objevo. V tomto roce tak popsal fenomn psychick sekrece u pso. Dospl k rozliaen dvou typo reflexo  vrozench a dle reflexo vyvolanch nepYmo ur it kombinace vnjach podnto (spojench s vrozenmi), kt. nazval reflexy podmnnmi. Polo~il tak zklady mechanisticky orientovan psychologie.Po odchodu prof. Tarchanova vedoucho katedru fyziologie Vojensk lkaYsk akademie se dostal na jeho msto. O dva roky pozdji publikoval sv zvry z oblasti fyziologie za~vacho traktu v prci s nzvem PYspvky k funkci hlavnch trvicch ~lz a roku 1903 vydal Experimentln psychologii a psychopatologii zvYat. Roku 1904 byl vyznamenn Nobelovou cenou za fyziologii a medicnu. Sv objevy nakonec shrnul ve sbornku Podmnn reflexy (1923). 27. nora 1936 umr v Leningrad na bronchopneumonii, co~ je znt v dosledku vniknut bakteri do plic. Clifford Beers 1876-1943 American reformer and founder of the mental hygiene movement. Clifford Whittingham Beers was born in New Haven, Connecticut, studied at Yale University, and began a professional career in the insurance industry. In 1900 he was institutionalized for a mental breakdown after a suicide attempt and diagnosed as manic-depressive. Confined to both public and private institutions over a three-year period, Beers found the treatment of mental patients inhumane and ineffective. When his efforts to complain directly to hospital administrators were ignored, Beers smuggled letters out to state officials, and his efforts met with some success. By 1903 Beers was able to return to his career, but continued to work on behalf of reforming the treatment of the mentally ill. In 1908 Beers published A Mind That Found Itself, a popular autobiographical study of his confinement and recovery, which was praised by the prominent psychologist and philosopher William James. After the publication of this work, and with the general support of the medical community, Beers became a leading figure in the movement to reform the treatment of, and attitudes toward, mental illness. In the same year his book was published, Beers founded the Connecticut Society for Mental Hygiene (a name suggested by the psychologist Adolf Meyer, another supporter of Beers's efforts). This organization lobbied for improved treatment of mental patients and heightened public awareness of mental illness. In 1909, Beers organized the National Committee for Mental Hygiene and served as its secretary until 1939. He also helped establish the American Foundation for Mental Hygiene in 1928. Beers's influence eventually spread beyond the United States. In 1918 he helped Clarence M. Hincks found a mental hygiene society in Canada, the Canadian National Committee for Mental Hygiene. Beers was active in organizing the International Congress on Mental Health in 1930, and three years later received an award for his achievements in the mental health field from the National Institute of Social Science. Beers's autobiography remained popular and influential, having gone into 26 printings by the time of his death in 1943. Max Wertheimer Max Wertheimer ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/15._duben" \o "15. duben" 15. dubna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1880" \o "1880" 1880,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praha" \o "Praha" Praha -  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/12._%C5%99%C3%ADjen" \o "12. Yjen" 12. Yjna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1943" \o "1943" 1943, New Rochelle,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York" \o "New York" New York) byl spolu s  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kurt_Koffka&action=edit" \o "Kurt Koffka" Kurtem Koffkou a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_K%C3%B6hler" \o "Wolfgang Khler" Wolfgangem Khlerem jeden ze zakladatelo  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestaltismus" \o "Gestaltismus" tvarov psychologie (Gestaltpsychologie). V roce 1910 za al Wertheimer posobit v psychologickm institutu na univerzit ve  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt" \o "Frankfurt" Frankfurtu, kde zkoumal  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fenom%C3%A9n_zd%C3%A1nliv%C3%A9ho_pohybu&action=edit" \o "Fenomn zdnlivho pohybu" fenomn zdnlivho pohybu ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fenom%C3%A9n_zd%C3%A1nliv%C3%A9ho_pohybu&action=edit" \o "Fenomn zdnlivho pohybu" f fenomn). Doael k zvru, ~e iluze nevznik na stnici oka ve stdiu po itko, ale v mysli na rovni vjemo. Podle Wertheimera vidme jednotliv podnty jako organizovan celky (Gestalt). A koli se vzkum tvarovch psychologo tkal zejmna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Smyslov%C3%A1_percepce&action=edit" \o "Smyslov percepce" smyslov percepce, Wertheimer se sna~il rozaYit teorii Gestaltu, aby vytvoYil globln psychologickou teorii. V roce 1933 odeael Wertheimer do  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA" \o "USA" USA, kde posobil v New School of Social Research v New Yorku. Stavl se negativn k tehdy dominantnmu  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorismus" \o "Behaviorismus" behaviorismu. Zkony gestalto Bylo ustanoveno mnoho  zkono gestalto , mezi nejdole~itja patY:  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Z%C3%A1kon_bl%C3%ADzkosti&action=edit" \o "Zkon blzkosti" Zkon blzkosti - tendence vnmat podobn objekty jako skupiny nebo srie  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Z%C3%A1kon_podobnosti&action=edit" \o "Zkon podobnosti" Zkon podobnosti - smaen skupiny podobnch a odlianch objekto vidme po skupinch  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Z%C3%A1kon_pokra%C4%8Dov%C3%A1n%C3%AD&action=edit" \o "Zkon pokra ovn" Zkon pokra ovn/smru - v obrazcch hledme ry s nepYeruaenm pokra ovnm  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Z%C3%A1kon_v%C3%BDsti%C5%BEnosti&action=edit" \o "Zkon vsti~nosti" Zkon vsti~nosti (Prgnanz) - tendence vidt nejjednoduaa tvar  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Z%C3%A1kon_dobr%C3%A9ho_tvaru&action=edit" \o "Zkon dobrho tvaru" Zkon dobrho tvaru - tendence doplHovat obrazce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vn%C3%ADm%C3%A1n%C3%AD_figury_a_pozad%C3%AD&action=edit" \o "Vnmn figury a pozad" Vnmn figury a pozad - schopnost mysli zmYit pozornost na smyslupln tvar a ignorovat zbytek  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Konstantnost_velikosti&action=edit" \o "Konstantnost velikosti" Konstantnost velikosti - schopnost vnmn perspektivy `kola tvarov psychologie zsadnm zposobem ovlivnila vvoj  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie" \o "Psychologie" psychologie. studoval optick klamy vam si charakteristickch ryso proceso myalen (rozbor myalenkovch proceso A.Einsteina a dalach tvoYivch lid) a)Reproduktivn myalen - opakovn myalenkovch postupo pou~itch dYve (nkdy pYnost, ob as mo~e ale bt limitujc) b)Produktivn myalen - je vsledkem hlubokho pochopen podstaty a vztaho v dan situaci - vede ke vhledu do problmu. Harry Stack Sullivan Harry Stack Sullivan ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/21._%C3%BAnor" \o "21. nor" 21. nora  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1892" \o "1892" 1892 -  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/15._leden" \o "15. leden" 15. ledna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1949" \o "1949" 1949) byl  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spojen%C3%A9_st%C3%A1ty_americk%C3%A9" \o "Spojen stty americk" americk psychiatr a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholog" \o "Psycholog" psycholog. Spolu s  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen_Horneyov%C3%A1" \o "Karen Horneyov" Karen Horneyovou pYedstavitelem  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neopsychoanal%C3%BDza&action=edit" \o "Neopsychoanalza" neopsychoanalzy v proudu tzv.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturn%C3%AD_psychoanal%C3%BDza" \o "Kulturn psychoanalza" kulturn psychoanalzy. Narodil v rodin nemajetnch  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irsko" \o "Irsko" irskch emigranto. Z univerzity, na kterou zskal stipendium, musel odejt. Spekulovalo se, ~e prodlal  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizofrenie" \o "Schizofrenie" schizofrenn epizodu, ale nen to podlo~eno. Zabval se zejm.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoterapie" \o "Psychoterapie" psychoterapeutickou problematikou z hlediska interpersonlnch vlivo na osobnost. Podle Sullivana dt pro~v neustle tenzi (= napt), jej~ intenzita se pohybuje mezi eufori a stavem hrozy. Zdroje tenze: a) nedostate n satisfakce dtskch fyziologickch potYeb b)  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Azkost" \o "zkost" zkost, kterou indikuje zkostn matka Tzv. self-systm je podle nj produktem zkuaenost s lidmi, umo~Huje vyhnout se extrmn nepYjemn zkosti. Prv negativn zkuaenosti pochzejc ze vztaho v dtstv zposobuj zkreslen vidn i vztaho v dosplosti, co~ m za nsledek dala psychick problmy. Erich Fromm Erich Fromm ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/23._b%C5%99ezen" \o "23. bYezen" 23. bYezna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1900" \o "1900" 1900  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt_nad_Mohanem" \o "Frankfurt nad Mohanem" Frankfurt nad Mohanem,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C4%9Bmecko" \o "Nmecko" Nmecko   HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/18._b%C5%99ezen" \o "18. bYezen" 18. bYezna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980" \o "1980" 1980  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Locarno&action=edit" \o "Locarno" Locarno,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0v%C3%BDcarsko" \o "`vcarsko" `vcarsko) byl  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C4%9Bmecko" \o "Nmecko" nmeck a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spojen%C3%A9_st%C3%A1ty_americk%C3%A9" \o "Spojen stty americk" americk  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholog" \o "Psycholog" psycholog a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanismus" \o "Humanismus" humanistick  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof" \o "Filosof" filosof a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolog" \o "Sociolog" sociolog. PYedstavitel neofreudismu a zpadnho  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxismus" \o "Marxismus" marxismu. Pokouael se spojit myalenky tchto dvou smro do jednoho systmu, tak~e se jeho teorie soustYed pYedevam na sociokulturn vlivy posobc na lovka. Fromm je tak jednm ze zakladatelom  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neopsychoanal%C3%BDzy&action=edit" \o "Neopsychoanalzy" neopsychoanalzy, konkrtn  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturn%C3%AD_psychoanal%C3%BDza" \o "Kulturn psychoanalza" kulturn psychoanalzy, kter  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanal%C3%BDza" \o "Psychoanalza" psychoanalzu interpretovala spae sociln a kulturn ne~ biologicky. }ivot V letech  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1929" \o "1929" 1929 HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1932" \o "1932" 1932 byl spolupracovnkem  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt_nad_Mohanem" \o "Frankfurt nad Mohanem" frankfurtskho stavu socilnch vzkumo, v roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1933" \o "1933" 1933 emigroval do  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spojen%C3%A9_st%C3%A1ty_americk%C3%A9" \o "Spojen stty americk" USA a posobil na univerzitch v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan" \o "Michigan" Michiganu a v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York" \o "New York" New Yorku. Vyu oval v Asociaci pro rozvoj psychoanalzy  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen_Horneyov%C3%A1" \o "Karen Horneyov" Karen Horneyov, ale tu v roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1943" \o "1943" 1943 z osobnch i odbornch dovodo opustil, pozdji pYesdlil do  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexiko" \o "Mexiko" Mexika a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0v%C3%BDcarsko" \o "`vcarsko" `vcarska. Frommovy teorie Fromm opustil  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Freudov biologismus a pYibl~il se  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologie" \o "Antropologie" antropologickmu psychologismu a ste n  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existencialismus" \o "Existencialismus" existencialismu. Ve snaze vytvoYit syntetickou koncepci osobnosti se vnoval hlavn mechanismom vzjemnho posoben psychologie a spole enskch initelo v procesu formovn osobnosti. Spojitost mezi psychikou jedince a sociln strukturou vyjdYil koncepc socilnho charakteru, jeho~ podstatou jsou pr zposoby, ktermi se lovk vztahuje k okolnmu svtu. Toto vztahovn probh ve dvou linich: asimilace  zskvn a osvojen vc. socializace  vytvYen vztaho k lidem a k sob sammu Poruchy asimilace se projevuj jako tyto neproduktivn charaktery: receptivn orientace: konzumn, zjmy a pYn ur ovny zvnjaku vykoYiseovatelsk orientace: egoismus, ostatn lidi vnmm jako prostYedek doshnut svho cle tr~n orientace: rozvjm sv vlastnosti, kter jsou ekonomicky vyu~iteln, sv okol i sm sebe posuzuji jen z hlediska tr~n hodnoty hromadiv orientace: obklopuji se vcmi, abych se ctil bezpe n, hromadn majetku, cito apod. Proti tmto typom charakteru stavl produktivn orientaci umo~Hujc tvor  prci, zralou lsku a rozumn myalen. lovk tohoto charakteru je kreativn, harmonicky vyu~v sv schopnosti a talent v interakci k okol. Poruchy asimilace podle Fromma vznikaj tm, ~e lovk v konfliktu mezi vldnoucmi normami a individulnmi snahami  vytsHuje emoce strachu jako neslu iteln rysy do nevdom, m~ vznikaj rozn formy  sebeodcizen lovka, kter jsou obzvlae ast v zpadn spole nosti s jej odcizenou vrobou a konzumn spole nost. Kapitalismus kritizoval jako  nemocnou iracionln spole nost , proti n~ stavl z pozic nadtYdnho humanismu projekt  zdrav spole nosti , kterou si pYedstavoval podobn jako  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Adler" \o "Alfred Adler" Adler svou vizi spole nosti jako spolupracujcho spole enstv. Navrhoval pYevchovu americkho nroda pomoc  sociln terapie . Dalam dole~itm tmatem Frommovch dl je cesta lidstva ke svobod a unikn pYed touto svobodou. Jednou z forem niku pYed svobodou jsou autoritYsk tendence  snaha o ovldn druhch lid (ve Frommov terminologii sadismus), nebo naopak podrobovn se (masochismus). Na rozdl od  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Freuda nepova~oval pud smrti za pYirozen. Nekrofilii chpe patologick fenomn, kter vznik, kdy~ je naruaen biofilie (= lska k ~ivotu). Nekrofil miluje vae, co neroste, je mechanick a ne~iv. Nekrofilie se projevuje ni enm ~ivotnho prostYed a fascinac vra~dami a neatstmi roznho druhu.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanal%C3%BDza" \o "Psychoanalza" Psychoanalzu a na n navazujc terapie chpe jako pokus pomoci pacientovi, aby zskal i obnovil schopnost milovat. Hlavn dla  HYPERLINK "http://sigma.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=nkc&ccl_term=wau=jn19990002463+or+wkw=jn19990002463" \o "http://sigma.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=nkc&ccl_term=wau=jn19990002463+or+wkw=jn19990002463" Seznam dl vdatabzi  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A1rodn%C3%AD_knihovna_%C4%8Cesk%C3%A9_republiky" \o "Nrodn knihovna esk republiky" Nrodn knihovny R, jejich~ autorem nebo tmatem je Erich Fromm  HYPERLINK "http://sigma.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=nkc&ccl_term=wau=ko2004233578+or+wkw=ko2004233578" \o "http://sigma.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=nkc&ccl_term=wau=ko2004233578+or+wkw=ko2004233578" Seznam dl vdatabzi  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A1rodn%C3%AD_knihovna_%C4%8Cesk%C3%A9_republiky" \o "Nrodn knihovna esk republiky" Nrodn knihovny R, jejich~ autorem nebo tmatem je International Erich Fromm Society  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Commons" \o "Wikimedia Commons" Wikimedia Commons nabz multimediln obsah k tmatu  HYPERLINK "http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Erich_Fromm?uselang=cs" \o "http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Erich_Fromm?uselang=cs" Erich Fromm nik pYed svobodou ( esky Strach ze svobody) lovk sm pro sebe ( esky lovk a psychoanalza) Zdrav spole nost Umn milovat Duae lovka Anatomie lidsk destruktivity Budete jako bohov Mt nebo bt? Mtus, sen a ritul Extern odkazy  HYPERLINK "http://peyraq.bloguje.cz/469775-erich-fromm-kritika-kapitalismu-aneb-mame-mince-na-ocich.php" \o "http://peyraq.bloguje.cz/469775-erich-fromm-kritika-kapitalismu-aneb-mame-mince-na-ocich.php" Erich Fromm, kritika kapitalismu aneb  Mme mince na o ch?  James Bugental James Bugental HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential-Humanistic_Therapy" \o "Existential-Humanistic Therapy" Existential-Humanistic Psychology 20th centuryFull nameJames BugentalBirth HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_25" \o "December 25" December 25,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1915" \o "1915" 1915School/tradition HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential-Humanistic_Therapy" \o "Existential-Humanistic Therapy" Existential-Humanistic TherapyNotable ideasPostulates of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_Psychology" \o "Humanistic Psychology" Humanistic PsychologyInfluenced by HYPERLINK "javascript:toggleNavigationBar(1);" [show]  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollo_May" \o "Rollo May" Rollo May ,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Rogers" \o "Carl Rogers" Carl Rogers   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Elizabeth%26JimBugental.jpg" \o "Enlarge"  Elizabeth & Jim Bugental James Bugental is one of the predominant theorists and advocates of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential-Humanistic_Therapy" \o "Existential-Humanistic Therapy" Existential-Humanistic Therapy movement. He has been a therapist, teacher and writer in for over 50 years. He received his Ph.D. from  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio_State_University" \o "Ohio State University" Ohio State University, was named a Fellow of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" \o "American Psychological Association" American Psychological Association in 1955, and was the first recipient of the APA's Division of Humanistic Psychology's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollo_May" \o "Rollo May" Rollo May Award. He has held leadership positions in a number of professional organizations, including president of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=California_State_Psychological_Association&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "California State Psychological Association (page does not exist)" California State Psychological Association. Currently, he serves as a consultant and teacher, and continues to write about existential psychotherapy. Theory In "The Search for Authenticity" (1965), Bugental summarized the postulates of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_Psychology" \o "Humanistic Psychology" Humanistic Psychology, often quoted by other theorists: Human beings cannot be reduced to components. Human beings have in them a uniquely human context. Human consciousness includes an awareness of oneself in the context of other people. Human beings have choices and responsibilities. Human beings are intentional, they seek meaning, value and creativity. Publications "The Search for Authenticity" (1965) "The Search for Existential Identity" (1976) "Psychotherapy and Process" (1978) "The Art of the Psychotherapist" (1992) "Psychotherapy Isn't What You Think" (1999) This is available free to read on  HYPERLINK "http://books.google.com/books?id=h32cdS_0aSMC&dq=bugental+psychotherapy+%22isn+t%22+what+you+think&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=zzNVOBrtzv&sig=jEdv4IpNLh0doFlrnx9b1T47994" \l "PPA43,M1" \o "http://books.google.com/books?id=h32cdS_0aSMC&dq=bugental+psychotherapy+%22isn+t%22+what+you+think&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=zzNVOBrtzv&sig=jEdv4IpNLh0doFlrnx9b1T47994#PPA43,M1" Google Books Wolfgang Khler Wolfgang Khler (21. ledna 1887, Reval (dnen  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tallinn" \o "Tallinn" Tallinn),  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonsko" \o "Estonsko" Estonsko - 11. ervna 1967,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Hampshire" \o "New Hampshire" New Hampshire) byl nmeck psycholog, jeden ze zakladatelo berlnsk akoly  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestaltismus" \o "Gestaltismus" tvarov psychologie. Spolu s  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Wertheimer" \o "Max Wertheimer" Maxem Wertheimerem a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kurt_Koffka&action=edit" \o "Kurt Koffka" Kurtem Koffkou posobili v psychologickm institutu ve  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt" \o "Frankfurt" Frankfurtu. V letech 1913 - 1920 posobil jako Yeditel stanice pro vzkum lidoopo Prusk akademie vd na ostrov  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenerife" \o "Tenerife" Tenerife, kde podnikl Yadu experimento se aimpanzy. Obzvlat znm je jeho pokus s aimpanzem Sultnem, kter dokzal spojit dv ty e, aby se dostal k bannom, umstnm mimo klec. To pYivedlo Khlera k teorii u en  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vhled&action=edit" \o "Vhled" vhledem. Roku 1922 bylo Khlerovi nabdnuto msto vedoucho Psychologickho stavu na Berlnsk univerzit. Toto pracoviat se stalo centrem tvarov psychologie. Khler napsal roku 1929 knihu Gestaltpsychologie. V roce 1935 rezignoval na svoj post a emigroval do USA, kde posobil a~ do konce ~ivota na Swarthmorsk univerzit. V roce 1956 byl zvolen prezidentem  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Americk%C3%A1_psychologick%C3%A1_asociace&action=edit" \o "Americk psychologick asociace" Americk psychologick asociace. Frantiek Koukolk  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/MUDr." \o "MUDr." MUDr. Frantiek Koukolk,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/DrSc." \o "DrSc." DrSc., (*  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/22._listopad" \o "22. listopad" 22. listopadu  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1941" \o "1941" 1941) je esk  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neuropatologie&action=edit" \o "Neuropatologie" neuropatolog, spisovatel a publicista vnujc se zejmna popularizaci svho oboru, se zna nm pYesahem do spole enskch otzek a propagace kritickho myalen a vdeckho pYstupu. LkaYsk innost Vystudoval Fakultu vaeobecnho lkaYstv  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Univerzita_Karlova" \o "Univerzita Karlova" Univerzity Karlovy v Praze, specializace  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Patologick%C3%A1_anatomie&action=edit" \o "Patologick anatomie" patologick anatomie a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neuropatologie&action=edit" \o "Neuropatologie" neuropatologie. ZamYil se na  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neurodegenerativn%C3%AD_choroby_mozku&action=edit" \o "Neurodegenerativn choroby mozku" neurodegenerativn choroby mozku. Od roku  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983" \o "1983" 1983 je  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prim%C3%A1%C5%99&action=edit" \o "PrimY" primYem  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patologie" \o "Patologie" patologie  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomayerova_nemocnice&action=edit" \o "Thomayerova nemocnice" Thomayerovy nemocnice v Praze, dle je vedouc  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=N%C3%A1rodn%C3%AD_referen%C4%8Dn%C3%AD_laborato%C5%99e_pro_Creuzfeldt-Jakobovu_nemoc&action=edit" \o "Nrodn referen n laboratoYe pro Creuzfeldt-Jakobovu nemoc" Nrodn referen n laboratoYe pro Creuzfeldt-Jakobovu nemoc, esk lkaYsk akademie. V sou asnosti pYedna na 3. lkaYsk fakult  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Univerzita_Karlova" \o "Univerzita Karlova" UK v Praze, kde je zroveH lenem vdeck rady. Publicistika Vnuje se vdeck  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esej" \o "Esej" esejistice. Vydal okolo padesti asopiseckch vdeckch publikac a Yadu monografi o vztahu poakozen  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozek" \o "Mozek" mozku a duaevnch funkc. Krom pYednaek pYispv do vysln v rozhlase (Meteor, Leonardo) a do televize (napY. seril Mozek a jeho duae, Vysl Britanica, Hdala se duae s tlem,  Jdro ), i do asopiso i novin. Zpopularizoval v R pojmy:  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deprivant" \o "Deprivant" deprivant,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mem" \o "Mem" mem aj. Ve svch knihch pou~v velk mno~stv odkazo na internetov zdroje, v etn odkazo na anglickou verzi  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedie" \o "Wikipedie" Wikipedie. Ocenn Zskal cenu  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Ceskoslovensk%C3%A1_akademie_v%C4%9Bd" \o " eskoslovensk akademie vd"  SAV za popularizaci vdy ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992" \o "1992" 1992), cenu  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nakladatelstv%C3%AD_Vy%C5%A1ehrad&action=edit" \o "Nakladatelstv Vyaehrad" nakladatelstv Vyaehrad ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994" \o "1994" 1994) a cenu rozhlasovho poYadu  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteor" \o "Meteor" Meteor za knihu  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mozek_a_jeho_du%C5%A1e&action=edit" \o "Mozek a jeho duae" Mozek a jeho duae (1995), cenu firmy Janssen za knihu: Lidsk mozek. Funk n systmy. Norma a poruchy ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001" \o "2001" 2001), cenu Vojty Nprstka  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akademie_v%C4%9Bd_%C4%8Cesk%C3%A9_republiky" \o "Akademie vd esk republiky"  esk Akademie vd za popularizaci vd o mozku ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006" \o "2006" 2006). Vondr kovu cenu esk psychiatrick spole nosti (2004) obdr~ela kniha napsan spole n s R. Jirkem Demence (Neurobiologie, klinick obraz a terapie). Dala Vondr kovu cenu obdr~ela kniha napsan spole n s L. Motlovou Citov mozek (2006)). Jmno  Koukolk obdr~ela  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koukol%C3%ADk_%28planetka%29" \o "Koukolk (planetka)" planetka 10213 1997 RK7 (objevili M.Tich a Z Moravec, Klee 1997) Knihy Frantiaek Koukolk, Jana Drtilov: Odlian dt. Vyaehrad, Praha 1994 Frantiaek Koukolk: Fyziologick zklad chovn lovka ve vazbch na trvale udr~iteln vvoj a uchovn vztaho lovk - pYroda: (sou asnost a alternativy vvoje), Praha, esk ekologick stav, 1994 Frantiaek Koukolk: Housata a svat Augustin, Praha, Vyaehrad 1994,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Speci%C3%A1ln%C3%AD:Booksources&isbn=8070211334" ISBN 80-7021-133-4 Frantiaek Koukolk: Lenochod a vesmr: o hvzdch, atomech, ~ivot a vdcch, Praha, Vyaehrad 1995 Frantiaek Koukolk (ilustroval Vladimr Ren n): Mozek a jeho duae, Praha, Makropulos 1995 (2. vydn Galn Praha 1997, 3. pYepracovan a rozaYen vydn Galn, Praha 2005) Frantiaek Koukolk: Vybran pYednaky o vztahu mozku a chovn, Praha, Karolinum 1995 Frantiaek Koukolk, Jana Drtilov (editor Lubomr Houdek, fotografie Lubomr Kotek): Vzpoura deprivanto: o apatnch lidech, skupinov hlouposti a uchvcen moci, Praha, Makropulos 1996 Frantiaek Koukolk: Mravenec a vesmr, Praha, Vyaehrad 1997 Frantiaek Koukolk, (ilustrace Miroslav Bartk): Kniha o Ev a Adamovi, Praha, Makropulos 1997,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Speci%C3%A1ln%C3%AD:Booksources&isbn=8086003140" ISBN 80-86003-14-0 Frantiaek Koukolk (ilustroval Vladimr Ren n): Mozek a jeho duae, 2. pYeprac. vydan, Praha, Makropulos 1997 Frantiaek Koukolk: O vztahu lidskho mozku a chovn: strukturln a funk n podklady nkterch neuropsychiatrickch chorob, Praha, Karolinum 1997 Frantiaek Koukolk, Pavel Koubsk: `impanz a vesmr, Praha, Vyaehrad 1998 Frantiek Koukolk, Roman Jirk: Alzheimerova nemoc a dal demence, Praha, Grada 1998,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Speci%C3%A1ln%C3%AD:Booksources&isbn=8071696153" ISBN 80-7169-615-3 Frantiek Koukolk, (ilustrace Miroslav Bartk): O nemocech a lidech, Praha, Makropulos 1998 Frantiek Koukolk, Pavel Koubsk: Sova a vesmr, Praha, Vyehrad 1999 Frantiek Koukolk, Roman Jirk: Diagnostika a l en syndromu demence, Praha, Grada 1999,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Speci%C3%A1ln%C3%AD:Booksources&isbn=8071697168" ISBN 80-7169-716-8 Frantiaek Koukolk: Machiavelinsk inteligence: eseje ze tYet kultury v roce 2000, Praha, Makropulos 1999 Frantiaek Koukolk (ilustrace Frantiaek Koukolk a Marie Tul kov): Lidsk mozek: funk n systmy, normy a poruchy, Praha, Portl 2000 (2. aktualizovan a rozaYen vydn 2002) Frantiaek Koukolk, Jana Drtilov: }ivot s deprivanty I (Zlo na ka~d den), Praha, Galn 2001 Frantiaek Koukolk, Jana Drtilov: }ivot s deprivanty II (Zklady stupidologie), Praha, Galn 2002 Frantiaek Koukolk: Josefu `vejkovi je 30 miliono let. Eseje ze tYet kultury. Praha, Galn 2002,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Speci%C3%A1ln%C3%AD:Booksources&isbn=8072621637" ISBN 80-7262-163-7 Frantiaek Koukolk: J (O vztahu mozku, vdom a sebeuvdomovn), Praha, Karolinum 2003,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Speci%C3%A1ln%C3%AD:Booksources&isbn=8024607360" ISBN 80-246-0736-0 Frantiaek Koukolk: Homo sapiens stupidus. Eseje ze tYet kultury. Praha, Galn 2003  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Speci%C3%A1ln%C3%AD:Booksources&isbn=8072622374" ISBN 80-7262-237-4 Roman Jirk, Frantiek Koukolk: Demence: neurobiologie, klinick obraz, terapie, Praha, Galn 2004,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Speci%C3%A1ln%C3%AD:Booksources&isbn=8072622684" ISBN 80-7262-268-4 Lucie Motlov, Frantiek Koukolk: Schizofrenie: neurobiologie, klinick obraz, terapie, Praha, Galn 2005 Frantiaek Koukolk, Jana Drtilov: Vzpoura deprivanto. Nov vydn. Praha, Galn 2006 Frantiaek Koukolk: Sociln mozek. Praha, Karolinum 2006 Lucie Motlov, Frantiaek Koukolk: Citov mozek. Praha, Galn 2007 Frantiaek Koukolk: Pro  se Dostojevskij mlil? O vdom, empatii, altruismu, lsce, zlu a religiozit. Galn, Praha 2007 PYeklady Francis Crick: Vda hled duai - PYekvapiv domnnka (Z anglickho originlu The Astonishing Hypothesis. The Scientific Search for the Soul, Londn 1994 pYelo~il a doslov napsal Frantiaek Koukolk), Praha, Mlad fronta, Edice Kolumbus, 1997 Pierce J. Howard: PYru ka pro u~ivatele mozku (z originlu  The owner s manual for the brain pYelo~il Frantiaek Koukolk), Praha, Portl 1998 Robert J. Sternberg: Kognitivn psychologie (z americkho originlu pYelo~il Frantiaek Koukolk & et al.) Praha, Portl 2002 Antonio Damasio: Hledn Spinozy. Radost, strast a citov mozek(z anglickho Looking for Spinoza, Joy, Sorrow, and the Feeling Brain pYelo~il MUDr. Frantiaek Koukolk DrSc), Praha, Dybbuk 2004 E.Goldberg: Jak ns mozek civilizuje (The executive brain. Frontal lobes and the civilized mind).Praha, Karolinum 2004 E.Goldberg: Paradox moudrosti (The wisdom paradox). Praha, Karolinum 2006 Extern odkazy  HYPERLINK "http://www.ftn.cz/index.php?id=interklinprof40118" \o "http://www.ftn.cz/index.php?id=interklinprof40118" Publika n innost na strnkch Thomayerovy nemocnice  HYPERLINK "http://www.ikoktejl.cz/magaziny/koktejl/MKrozhovor/rozh011115.html" \o "http://www.ikoktejl.cz/magaziny/koktejl/MKrozhovor/rozh011115.html" Rozhovor pro Koktejl  HYPERLINK "http://www.blisty.cz/2005/5/24/art23443.html" \o "http://www.blisty.cz/2005/5/24/art23443.html" Mozek a jeho due - Blisty  HYPERLINK "http://www.galen.cz/idistrik/obchod/titpre.php?titul_id=2182&typ=30" \o "http://www.galen.cz/idistrik/obchod/titpre.php?titul_id=2182&typ=30" PYedmluva k 2. vydn Mozku a jeho duae  HYPERLINK "http://www.bbc.co.uk/czech/interview/koukolik.htm" \o "http://www.bbc.co.uk/czech/interview/koukolik.htm" Rozhovor pro BBC  HYPERLINK "http://www.ikarmel.cz/kniha/Ja_KRL0031.html?PHPSESSID=5" \o "http://www.ikarmel.cz/kniha/Ja_KRL0031.html?PHPSESSID=5" J, o vztahu mozku, vdom a sebeuvdomovn - anotace  HYPERLINK "http://www.febio.cz/tvorba.php?sid=83" \o "http://www.febio.cz/tvorba.php?sid=83" Genus 99 eskch ~ivoto - portrty eskch osobnost  HYPERLINK "http://www.vesmir.cz/clanek.php3?CID=1606" \o "http://www.vesmir.cz/clanek.php3?CID=1606" upoutvka na PYru ka pro u~ivatele mozku  HYPERLINK "http://www.rozhlas.cz/radionaprani/archiv/?p_pattern=koukol%EDk" \o "http://www.rozhlas.cz/radionaprani/archiv/?p_pattern=koukol%EDk" Frantiaek Koukolk ve vysln eskho rozhlasu Leonardo Raymond Bernard Cattell 1905-1998 American psychologist who designed personality and intelligence tests and espoused controversial theories of eugenics. Raymond B. Cattell was one of psychology's most prolific scholars. In a career spanning over half a century he wrote more than 50 books and 500 research articles, and his contributions to personality and intelligence testing are widely regarded as invaluable. Yet some of his theories about natural selection, particularly as put forth in a philosophy known as Beyondism, were attacked as racist and caused a bitter controversy only months before his death. Cattell was born in Hilltop, England, on March 20,1905. He grew up in Devon, where he developed a lifelong love of sailing and the sea. He attended the University of London, where he received his undergraduate degree in chemistry in 1924 and his Ph.D. in psychology in 1929. He taught briefly and worked at a psychology clinic until 1937, when he moved to the United States to take a teaching position at Columbia University. From there he moved on to Clark University and Harvard before arriving in 1946 at the University of Illinois, where he stayed for 27 years. Innovator of personality tests During the Second World War, in addition to his teaching duties, Cattell worked in the Adjutant General's office, where he devised psychological tests for the military. Throughout his career, Cattell created a number of such tests to measure intelligence and to assess personality traits. The best known of these is the Sixteen Personality Factor questionnaire (16PF). First published in 1949, the 16PF profiles individuals using 16 different personality traits, such as emotional stability (easily upset vs. calm), impulsiveness (sober vs. enthusiastic), and conformity (expedient vs. conscientious). These are measured with what Cattell calls "second-order factors," including extroversion, anxiety, and independence. The test is still widely used by corporations and institutions to determine an individual's compatibility with different occupations and overall psychological character. Cattell retired from the University of Illinois in 1973 and after five years in Colorado moved to Hawaii. There, he accepted a part-time position at the University of Hawaii, where he continued to teach, conduct research, and write. He also took the opportunity to spend leisure time with his third wife and enjoyed visits from his five children and two stepchildren. Beyondism and a storm of controvery The publication of Beyondism: Religion from Science in 1987 dramatically altered the remainder of Cattell's life as well as his scientific legacy. Cattell intended the book to be a discussion of his theories on evolution and natural selection. He believed that natural selection among humans was governed by individual genetic and cultural selection. However, his advocacy of eugenics (the study of improving the human race), was extremely controversial, particularly because eugenics was the pseudo-scientific rationale for Nazi genocide. Cattell claimed, for example, that among the tenets of Beyondism was the idea that races as we know them today would not exist in the future. "The genetic groupings (races) of the future," he wrote, "will arise from self-conscious selection by each cultural group." The question many critics asked was whether Cattell's theories were simply his approbation for natural selection or a call for something more ominous. The fact that Cattell had acknowledged Arthur Jensen and William Shockley two scientists who had claimed that blacks were genetically less intelligent than whitesin his book only furthered people's suspicions. The issue came to a head in the summer of 1997, when Cattell was scheduled to receive a lifetime achievement award from the American Psychological Foundation (APF). Almost as soon as APF had announced its decision, there were protests, some from prominent citizens and organizations. The APF trustees postponed the award presentation so they could further investigate. Cattell, ninety-two years old and in failing health, attempted to resolve the furor by declining the award. He then wrote an open letter to the American Psychological Association (APA) defending himself and his work. He asserted that he detested racism, and that he had only ever advocated voluntary eugenics. His health declined further, and he died quietly on February 2, 1998, at home in Hawaii. James McKeen Cattell 1860-1944 American pioneer in psychological research techniques and founder of a psychological testing company. James McKeen Cattell developed an approach to psychological research that continues to dominate the field of psychology today. During psychology's early years, most research focused on the sensory responses of single individuals studied in depth because Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), the first experimental psychologist, favored this approach. As Cattell's ideas developed, his perspective diverged greatly from Wundt's, and Cattell developed techniques that allowed him to study groups of people and the individual differences among them. Cattell's career was quite varied. He traveled to the University of Gttingen to study with the philosopher Rudolf Hermann Lotze (1817-1881) and later with Wundt at Leipzig. Following that, he returned home to the United States and worked with G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924), one of America's most famous psychologists. Apparently, Cattell's relationship with Hall was less than positive, and Cattell did not complete his doctoral work at that time. When he was with Hall, however, Cattell developed an interest in studying psychological processes. Subsequently, he returned to Leipzig and earned his doctorate with Wundt, although his correspondence with his parents revealed that Cattell did not hold Wundt in high esteem as a scientist. According to some, those letters also depict Cattell as arrogant, self-confident, and disrespectful of others. While in Germany, Cattell improved on existing psychological instrumentation and invented new ways to study psychological processes. After leaving Germany, Cattell taught briefly in the United States, then traveled to England and worked with Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911). Cattell was highly impressed with Galton's use of statistics and quantification of research, and he also supported some of Galton's other ideas, such as the importance of individual differences and the application of scientific knowledge to create a eugenics movement. Ultimately, Cattell adopted the practice of testing a large number of research subjects and using statistics to understand his results. Cattell coined the term "mental test" and devoted a significant amount of time trying to develop a useful intelligence test. He recorded the results of simple tasks (e.g., the speed of a person's response to a simple sound, the ability to detect slight differences in weights of stimuli, and simple memory for letters of the alphabet), hoping to find a correlation between sensory response and academic performance, or intelligence. He was disappointed to find that, not only did sensory performance fail to relate to academic success, the different sensory measures did not even correlate with one another. As a result, he abandoned such an approach to mental testing. Even though Cattell's research on intelligence was unsuccessful, he nonetheless exerted a dramatic influence on other American psychologists. During his career at Columbia University, more students earned doctorates in psychology with him than with any other psychologist. Cattell also affected psychology in the United States in other ways. For example, he founded the journal Psychological Review with another prominent psychologist, J. Mark Baldwin (1861-1934), then resurrected the financially troubled journal Science, which he acquired from Alexander Graham Bell. Cattell also helped start the American Association for the Advancement of Science, one of the premier scientific organizations in America today. He also published Scientific Monthly and School and Society. Not surprisingly, as his editing and publishing increased, his research diminished. Cattell left the academic world in 1917 when Columbia University dismissed him because of his unpopular opposition to sending draftees into battle in the first World War. He sued the University for libel and won $40,000 in court, but he did not return to the institution. Instead, he attempted further application of psychological testing when he founded the Psychological Corporation, a company organized to promote commercial psychological tests. His entrepreneurial abilities failed him in this endeavor, however; the company earned only about $50 during its first two years. After he left, the organization began to prosper, and today, the Psychological Corporation is a flourishing business. Cattell continued his work as a spokesperson for applied psychology until his death. Arnold Allan Lazarus 1932- South African clinical psychologist who developed a comprehensive psychotherapy called multimodal therapy. As a graduate student in psychology, Arnold Lazarus first developed a therapy based on behavioral psychology. He expanded this into cognitive behavior therapy, and later into a multi-faceted psychotherapy known as multimodal therapy. In recent years, Lazarus has written popular psychology books. Lazarus has held numerous professional positions and won many honors, including the Distinguished Service Award of the American Board of Professional Psychology in 1982 and the Distinguished Psychologist Award of the Division of Psychotherapy of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1992. In 1996 he became the first recipient of the Psyche Award of the Nicholas and Dorothy Cummings Foundation. Lazarus is a professor emeritus in the Graduate School of Applied and Professional Psychology at Rutgers University in Piscataway, New Jersey and continues in private practice. Lazarus was born in Johannesburg, South Africa, in 1932, the son of Benjamin and Rachel (Mosselson) Lazarus. Educated at the University of Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, he earned his B.A. with honors in 1956, his M.A. in 1957, and his Ph.D. in clinical psychology in 1960. In 1956, he married Daphne Ann Kessel; they have a son and a daughter. Develops behavior therapy In 1958, while still a graduate student, Lazarus published a paper in the South African Medical Journal describing a new form of psychotherapy that he called behavior therapy. He began his private practice in psychotherapy in Johannesburg in 1959 and, in 1960, he became vice-president of the Transvaal Workers Educational Association. In 1963, Lazarus spent a year as a visiting assistant professor of psychology at Stanford University, and then returned to the University of Witwatersrand as a lecturer in psychiatry at the medical school. In 1966, he returned to the United States as director of the Behavior Therapy Institute in Sausalito, California. That year he published Behavior Therapy Techniques with Joseph Wolpe. The following year, he moved to Temple University Medical School in Philadelphia as professor of behavioral science. He was a visiting professor of psychology and director of clinical training at Yale University in 1970. Lazarus was the first psychologist to apply desensitization techniques for treating phobias in group therapyPage379 |  HYPERLINK "http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retrieve.do?sgHitCountType=None&isETOC=true&inPS=true&prodId=GVRL&userGroupName=masaryk&resultListType=RELATED_DOCUMENT&contentSegment=9780787677459&docId=GALE|CX3406000380" \l "contentcontainer#contentcontainer" Top of Article sessions. With Arnold Abramovitz, he was the first to use emotive imagery in treating children. He studied treatments for alcoholism and was one of the first to apply learning theory to the treatment of depression. By the 1960s, it was clear to Lazarus that the therapy movement he had initiated, utilizing the stimulus-response mechanisms of behaviorist psychology, was too limited for effective psychotherapy. His 1971 book, Behavior Therapy and Beyond, laid the foundations for what became known as cognitive-behavior therapy. Replaces behavior therapy with multimodal therapy In 1972, Lazarus received his diploma in clinical psychology from the American Board of Professional Psychology and returned to private practice in Princeton, New Jersey. He also became professor and chairman of the psychology department at Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey. He joined the Rutgers Graduate School of Applied and Professional Psychology in 1974. As Lazarus examined long-term results in patients who had undergone cognitive behavior therapy, he found some inadequacies. For patients with anxiety and panic disorders, obsessive-compulsive problems, depression, and family and marital difficulties, the relapse rate following therapy remained very high. He therefore developed a multimodal therapy, which involves examining and treating seven different but interrelated modalities, or psychological parameters. These modalities are behavior, physiology, cognition, interpersonal relationships, sensation, imagery, and affect. Thus, multimodal therapy involves a complete assessment of the individual and treatments designed specifically for that individual. Lazarus developed his approach, in part, by questioning clients about the factors that had helped them in their therapy. In 1976, Lazarus founded the Multimodal Therapy Institute in Kingston, New Jersey, and he continues to direct that Institute. He established additional Multimodal Therapy Institutes in New York, Virginia, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Texas, and Ohio. His book Multimodal Behavior Therapy was published in 1976. Joins the self-help movement In 1975, Lazarus published his first popular self-help book, I Can If I Want To, with his colleague Allen Fay. His 1977 book, In the Mind's Eye: The Power of Imagery for Personal Enrichment, described the use of mental imagery for personal growth. His recent popular psychology writings include several books written with his son, the psychologist Clifford Neil Lazarus. Their 1993 book with Allen Fay, Don't Believe It for a Minute!: Forty Toxic Ideas That Are Driving You Crazy, encouraged people to stop repeating the same mistakes. They argued that misconceptions, such as "life should be fair," lead to depression, anxiety, and feelings of guilt. During his career, Lazarus has treated thousands of clients, as individuals, couples, families, and groups. He is a diplomate of the International Academy of Behavioral Medicine, Counseling, and Psychotherapy, and he was elected to the National Academy of Practice in Psychology in 1982. Lazarus is the author or editor of fifteen books and more than 200 articles and book chapters and has made video and sound recordings. He has served on the editorial boards of numerous psychology journals. Lazarus has been a fellow of the APA since 1972 and has been on the board of Psychologists for Social Responsibility since 1982. He is a recipient of the Distinguished Career Award from the American Board of Medical Psychotherapists and a fellow of the Academy of Clinical Psychology. Further Reading Dryden, Windy. A Dialogue with Arnold Lazarus: "It Depends." Philadelphia: Open University Press, 1991. Labriola, Tony. Multimodal Therapy with Dr. Arnold Lazarus. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon, 1998. Video-recording. Lazarus, Arnold A. Marital Myths. San Luis Obispo, CA: Impact Publishers, 1985. Lazarus, Arnold A. Relaxation Exercises. Guilford, CT: Audio-Forum, 1986. Sound cassettes. Lazarus, Arnold A. Brief but Comprehensive Psychotherapy: The Multimodal Way. New York: Springer, 1997. Lazarus, Arnold A. and Clifford N. Lazarus. The 60-Second Shrink: 101 Strategies for Staying Sane in a Crazy World. San Luis Obispo, CA: Impact Publishers, 1997. Zilbergeld, Bernie and Arnold A. Lazarus. Mind Power: Getting What You Want Through Mental Training. Boston: Little, Brown, 1987. Kurt Lewin 1890-1947 American social psychologist who carried out researches that are fundamental to the study of the dynamics and the manipulation of human behavior. He is the originator of field theory. Kurt Lewin was born in Mogilno, Prussia, on September 9, 1899. He studied at the universities of Freiburg and Munich and completed his doctorate at the University of Berlin in 1914. He taught in Berlin from 1921 until the advent of Hitler to power in 1933, when he emigrated to the United States. He was visiting professor at Stanford and at Cornell before receiving an appointment as professor of child psychology in the Child Welfare Research Station of the State University of Iowa in 1935. In 1945 he left Iowa to start the Research Center for Group Dynamics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He also served as visiting professor at the University of California, Berkeley, and at Harvard. At Iowa, Lewin and his associates conducted notable research on the effect of democratic, autocratic, and laissez-faire methods of leadership upon the other members of groups. Largely on the basis of controlled experiments with groups of children, Lewin maintained that contrary to popular belief the democratic leader has no less power than the autocratic leader and that the characters and personalities of those who are led are rapidly and profoundly affected by a change in social atmosphere. In effecting such changes on human behavior patterns, Lewin argued, the democratic group that has long-range planning surpasses both the autocratic and laissez-faire groups in creative initiative and sociality. As a general rule, he contended, the more democratic the procedures are, the less resistance there is to change. The central factors to be considered if one wishes to transform a nondemocratic group into a democratic one are ideology, the character of its members, and the locus of coercive physical power within the group. Although coercive physical power is thus not the only factor to be considered, Lewin warns against the naive belief in the goodness of human nature, which overlooks the fact that ideology itself cannot be changed by teaching and moral suasion alone. It can be done only by a change in the distribution of coercive physical power. But he also warns that democratic behavior cannot be learned by autocratic methods. The members of the group must at least feel that the procedures are "democratic." Lewin was a Gestalt psychologist, and that approach materially influenced him when he originated field theory. Strictly speaking, field theory is an approach to the study of human behavior, not a theory with content which can be used for explanatory, predictive, or control purposes. His work in this area has been judged as the single most influential element in modern social psychology, leading to large amounts of research and opening new fields of inquiry. According to Lewin, field theory (which is a complex concept) is best characterized as a method, a method of analyzing causal relations and building scientific constructs. It is an approach which maintains that to represent and interpret faithfully the complexity of concrete reality requires continual crossing of the traditional boundaries of the social sciences, rather than a progressive narrowing of attention to a limited number of variables. The theory, which requires an interdisciplinary approach to the understanding of concrete reality, has also been termed dynamic theory and topological psychology. It holds that events are determined by forces acting on them in an immediate field rather than by forces acting at Kurt Lewin (The Library of Congress. Reproduced with permission.) a distance. In the last analysis, it is a theory about theory building, or a metatheory. Lewin believed that a social scientist has an obligation to use his resources to solve social problems. He helped found the Commission on Community Interrelations of the American Jewish Congress and the National Training Laboratories. Shortly after his death on February 12, 1947, the Research Center for Group Dynamics was moved to the University of Michigan, where it became one of two divisions of the Institute for Social Research and continued to exercise an important influence. Nathan Ward Ackerman 1908-1971 Psychologist and educator noted for his work as a family therapist, particularly for his ability to look beyond the traditional assessment of families and to accurately assess the way that family members relate to each other. Nathan Ward Ackerman was born in Bessarabia, Russia on November 22, 1908. His parents were pharmacist David Ackerman and Bertha (Greenberg) Ackerman. They came to the United States in 1912, and were naturalized in 1920. He was married to Gwendolyn Hill on October 10, 1937. They had two daughters, Jeanne and Deborah. Ackerman attended a public school in New York City. In 1929 he was awarded a B.A. from Columbia University, and in 1933 earned his M.D. from the same university. After a short spell (193334) as an intern at the Montefiore Hospital in New York, he interned at the Menninger Clinic and Sanitorium in Topeka, Kansas. He joined their psychiatric staff in 1935. He assumed the post of chief psychiatrist at the Menninger Child Guidance Clinic in 1937. For the next fourteen years, Ackerman was also chief psychiatrist to the Jewish Board of Guardians in New York City. During this period, he had numerous positions at a variety of institutions in New York City. Ackerman acted as psychiatrist to the Red Cross Rehabilitation Clinic during World War II, and also worked as a consultant to the department of scientific research when it was first established by Max Horkheimer in 1944. After the war, Ackerman assumed the post of clinical professor of psychiatry at Columbia University, and later lectured at the New York School of Social Work, a part of Columbia University. He also lectured (194448) at the Visiting Nurse Service and the Community Service Society. In addition to his active career in New York City, Ackerman served as visiting professor of psychiatry for a number of universities, including Tulane University and the University of North Carolina. In 1952 Ackerman served as a member of the White House Conference on Children in Washington D.C. Pioneers field of family psychology Ackerman published The Unity of the Family and Family Diagnosis: An Approach to the Preschool Child in 1938, both of which contributed to the initial promotion of the theory of family therapy. In 1950 Ackerman wrote a book on anti-Semitism in collaboration with Marie Jahoda. Sponsored by the American Jewish Committee, Anti-Semitism and Emotional Disorder, a Psychoanalytic Interpretation examines and analyzes the phenomenon and offers possible solutions. He went on to write many books during his career, including The Psychodynamics of Family Life (1958) and Treating the Troubled Family (1966). He coauthored several books, including Exploring the Base for Family Therapy and published more than 100 articles in professional journals. Ackerman is widely acknowledged as a pioneer in his field and credited with developing the concept of family psychology. In 1955 he was the first to initiate a debate on family therapy at a meeting of the American Orthopsychiatric Association, with the intention of opening lines of communication in this new branch of psychiatry. He believed that the mental or physical disposition of one family member would affect other family members, and that often the best way to treat the individual was to treat the family as a whole. In fact he was a very strong advocate of treating the whole family in order to solve the problems of the individual. He devoted most of his career to family psychotherapy. Ackerman's work was deeply appreciated by his peers, as evidenced by the number of awards bestowed upon him. He received the Rudolph Meyer award from the Association for Improvement to Mental Health in 1959. He was also the recipient of the Wilfred Hulse award for group psychotherapy in 1965. Founds institute to study the family In 1960, Ackerman opened the Institute for Family Studies and Treatment, a nonprofit organization devoted to promoting family mental health. The Institute's premise was (and is) that if the family is healthy, the individual will be healthy and ultimately produce a healthier society. Ackerman developed a program for research that greatly furthered the effectiveness of the Institute. He served as the director of this establishment up until his death, when it was renamed the Nathan W. Ackerman Institute (usually known as the Ackerman Institute) in his honor. The Institute has its own journal, Family Process, which was the first ever family therapy journal, started by Ackerman in association with Don Jackson. This journal remains a principal reference for other professionals in the field. Today the Ackerman Institute is considered perhaps the finest facility for family psychology in the world. In addition to being a fellow of the American Board of Psychiatry and the New York Academy of Medicine, Ackerman was also president (195759) of the Association of Psychoanalytic Medicine, as well as a member of the Academy of Child Psychiatry, the American Psychopathalogical Society, and the New York Council of Child Psychiatry. Ackerman died on June 12, 1971, and was buried in Westchester Hills Cemetery, Hastings on Hudson, New York. Nancy Bayley 1899-1994 American developmental psychologist known for her "Scales of Mental and Motor Development." Nancy Bayley was a pioneer in the field of human development. She devoted her life to documenting and measuring intellectual and motor development in infants, children, and adults. Her studies of the rates of physical and mental maturation have greatly influenced our understanding of developmental processes. Her "Bayley Scales of Mental and Motor Development" are used throughout the world as standardized measurements of infant development. Bayley was the recipient of numerous honors and awards throughout her career. In 1966, she became the first woman to win the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award of the American Psychological Association (APA). The third of five children of Prudence Cooper and Frederick W. Bayley, Nancy Bayley was born in The Dalles, Oregon, in 1899. She and her siblings were delivered by her aunt who had become a country physician after her husband died. Bayley's father was head of the grocery in a department store in The Dalles. Childhood illness prevented Bayley from attending school until she was eight, but she quickly made up the missed grades and completed high school in The Dalles. Defines her niche in developmental psychology Although she entered the University of Washington in Seattle with plans to become an English teacher, Bayley quickly switched to psychology after taking an introductory course with E. R. Guthrie. She earned her B.S. degree in 1922 and her M.S. degree two years later, while serving as a research assistant at the Gatzert Foundation for Child Welfare at the university. For her master's thesis under Stevenson Smith, Bayley devised performance tests for preschoolers, a subject that would occupy her for the rest of her life. A graduate fellowship then took Bayley to the State University of Iowa (now the University of Iowa) in Iowa City where she earned her doctoral degree in 1926. For her Ph.D. dissertation, Bayley used the newly invented galvanometer to measure electrical skin responses to fear in children. It was one of the first studies of its kind. In 1926, as an instructor at the University of Wyoming, Bayley published the first of her nearly 200 contributions to the literature of psychology. Two years later, Harold Jones invited her to become a research associate at the Institute of Child Welfare (now the Institute of Human Development) at the University of California at Berkeley. Bayley was to remain there for most of her career. At Berkeley she met John R. Reid, a doctoral candidate in philosophy. They married in 1929, and Reid joined Bayley at the Institute. While at Berkeley, Bayley taught a course on developmental assessment of infants and small children in the Department of Psychology and held concurrent research positions in psychology and anatomy at Stanford University. Initiates major study of infant development At the Institute, Bayley began a major study of normal and handicapped infant development. It became famous as the Berkeley Growth Study. Her 1933 publication, The California First-year Mental Scale, was followed in 1936 by The California Infant Scale of Motor Development. In these works, Bayley introduced methodologies for assessing infant development. Likewise, her 1933 publication, Mental Growth During the First Three Years, became a milestone in developmental psychology. Bayley earned the G. Stanley Hall Award of the APA's Division of Developmental Psychology in 1971. In 1954, Bayley became head of child development in the Laboratory of Psychology at the National Institute of Mental Health in Bethesda, Maryland. There she worked on the National Collaborative Perinatal Project, a study of 50,000 children from birth to age eight. The study examined neurological and psychological disorders, including cerebral palsy and mental retardation. The newly revised Bayley Mental and Motor Scales were used to assess the development of hundreds of children from one to eighteen months of age. Many surviving subjects of this study continued to participate in follow-up studies. Among her many findings, Bayley demonstrated that there were no sex-related differences in physical and mental development. She continued to work on this project after returning to Berkeley as the first head of the Harold E. Jones Child Study Center at the Institute of Human Development. She also acted as consultant on a study of infants with Down syndrome at the Sonoma State Hospital in California. Bayley's work was remarkable for its interdisciplinary nature. In 1951 she co-authored a paper with Mary Cover Jones on the relationships between physical development and behavior. Bayley also was the first scientist to correlate infant size with eventual adult size and in 1946 she published tables for predicting adult height. She was very interested in physical differences between the sexes and in androgynous characteristics that were intermediate between male and female traits. She studied the development of emotions in children and the maintenance of intellectual abilities throughout adulthood. Bayley also studied the impact of maternal behaviors on children. She argued forcefully that poor development in children was the result of poverty and other social factors, rather than psychological factors. Bayley was active in a number of professional organizations. She was a fellow of the APA and of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. From 1961 to 1963 Bayley served as president of the Society for Research in Child Development and in 1983 she earned their distinguished contribution award. She received the Gold Medal Award of the American Psychological Foundation in 1982. Bayley died of respiratory failure in Carmel, California, in 1994. Mary Ainsworth 1913-1999 American psychologist specializing in the study of infant attachment. Mary D. Satler Ainsworth graduated from the University of Toronto in 1935 and earned her Ph.D. in psychology from that same institution in 1939. She is best known for her landmark work in assessing the security of infant attachment and linking attachment security to aspects of maternal care giving. Ainsworth began her career teaching at the University of Toronto before joining the Canadian Women's Army Corp in 1942 during World War II. After a brief period of post-war government service as the superintendent of Women's Rehabilitation in the Canadian Department of Veteran's Affairs, Ainsworth returned to Toronto to teach personality psychology and conduct research in the assessment of security. She married Leonard Ainsworth in 1950. Since he was a graduate student in the same department in which she held a faculty appointment, the couple decided to move to London where he could finish his degree at University College. In England Mary Ainsworth began work at the Tavistock Clinic on a research project investigating the effects of early maternal separation on children's personality development. The project director, John Bowlby, had studied children's reactions to separations during the war years in England, and brought an evolutionary and ethological perspective to understanding the problems of attachment, separation, and loss. Her work with Bowlby brought Ainsworth's earlier interest in security into the developmental realm, and she planned to conduct a longitudinal study of mother-infant interaction in a natural setting at her earliest opportunity. That opportunity came when Ainsworth's husband accepted a position in the East African Institute of Social Research in Kampala, Uganda. It was in Uganda that Mary Ainsworth studied mothers and infants in their natural environment, observing and recording as much as possible, and analyzing and publishing the data years later after joining the faculty at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore. Based on her original observations in Uganda and subsequent studies in Baltimore, Ainsworth concluded that there are qualitatively distinct patterns of attachment that evolve between infants and their mothers over the opening years of life. Although a majority of these patterns are marked by comfort and security, some are tense or conflicted, and Ainsworth found evidence suggesting that these relationships were related to the level of responsiveness that mothers showed toward their infants from the earliest months. In one study she found mothers who responded more quickly to their infants' cries at three months were more likely to have developed secure attachments with their babies by one year. How could the security of a relationship be measured? Ainsworth and her colleagues devised a system for assessing individual differences in infants' reactions to a series of separations and reunions with their mothers. This method, the " Strange Situation," has become one of the most widely used procedures in child development research. In this scenario, an observer takes a mother and child of about one year to an unfamiliar room containing toys. There are a series of separations and reunions. For example, mother and child are alone in the room for several minutes, the observer re-enters, remains, and after a few minutes, the mother leaves and returns after a few more minutes. Both observer and mother may comfort the distressed child. Ainsworth found that key individual differences among children are revealed by the child's reaction to the mother's return. She categorized these responses into three major types: (A) Anxious/avoidantthe child may not be distressed at the mother's departure and may avoid or turn away from her on return; (B) Securely attachedthe child is distressed by mother's departure and easily soothed by her on her return; (C) Anxious/resistantthe child may stay extremely close to the mother during the first few minutes and become highly distressed at her departure, only to seek simultaneously comfort and distance from the mother on her return by such behaviors as crying and reaching to be held and then attempting to leave once picked up. The development of this procedure has spawned an enormous body of literature examining the development of mother-child attachment, the role of attachments to other caregivers, and the correlates and consequences of secure and insecure attachments. Ainsworth's work has not been without controversy. Attempts to replicate her link between response to early crying and later attachment have met with mixed success, and there is much debate about the origins of children's reactions in the Strange Situation. Still, Mary Ainsworth has made a lasting contribution to the study of children's affective growth and the role of supportive relationships in many aspects of development. Anne Anastasi 1908-2001 American psychologist instrumental in developing psychometricshow psychological traits are influenced, developed, and measured. In her long and productive career, Anne Anastasi has produced not only several classic texts in psychology but has been a major factor in the development of psychology as a quantitative behavioral science. To psychology professionals, the name Anastasi is synonymous with psychometrics, since it was she who pioneered understanding how psychological traits are influenced, developed, and measured. In 1987 she was rated by her peers as the most prominent living woman in psychology in the English-speaking world. Anne Anastasi was born December 19, 1908, in New York City, the only child of Anthony and Theresa Gaudiosi. Her father, who died when she was only one year old, worked for the New York City Board of Education. Soon after his death, her mother experienced such a deep split with her father's relatives that they would never be a part of her life. From then on, she was raised by her mother, grandmother, and great uncle. Her mother was compelled to find a job, and eventually she became office manager of one of the largest foreign newspapers in New York, Il Progresso Italo-Americano. Meanwhile, the precocious and intelligent young Anastasi was educated at home by her grandmother, and it was not until the sixth grade that she entered the public school system. After graduating from P.S. 33 in the Bronx at the top of her class, she attended Evander Childs High School, but found the entire experience dispiriting and dropped out after two months. Skips high school and discovers psychology at Barnard College The dilemma of a 13-year old girl leaving high school after only two months was solved by an insightful family friend, Ida Stadie, who suggested that she prepare to skip high school and go directly to college. Since Barnard College in New York City did not specify a high school degree as an admissions requirement, Anastasi decided she need only submit the results of her College Entrance Examination Board tests. After taking two years to prepare at the Rhodes Preparatory School in Manhattan, she took the tests and was admitted to Barnard College in 1924 at the age of 15. Mathematics had been her first love since elementary school, and at Barnard she was placed in all the advanced math classes. During her sophomore year, however, she took a course in developmental psychology with the department chairman, Harry L. Hollingworth, whose stimulating lectures made her intellectually curious about the discipline. In that course, she encountered a psychology article by Charles Spearman, whose intriguing work on correlation coefficients showed her that it was possible to combine mathematics and psychology. Convinced she had found the best of both worlds, she enrolled in the Barnard's Honors Program in psychology for her last two years, and received her B.A. in 1928 at the age of 19, having been elected to Phi Beta Kappa and having won the Caroline Duror Graduate Fellowship, "awarded to the member of the graduating class showing the greatest promise of distinction in her chosen line of work." Receives Ph.D., teaches at 21, and writes classic text at 29 Having taken graduate courses at Columbia University while still at Barnard, she applied there after graduation and was allowed to skip the master's degree and to go directly for her Ph.D. in general experimental psychology. At this time, Columbia's psychology department provided a stimulating and lively environment, made more enlightening by its summer sessions that were visited by eminent psychologists. During her second year at Columbia, Anastasi began to specialize, and it was then that she decided on the complex field of differential psychology. As the branch of psychology that deals with individual and group differences in behavior, it is a highly quantitative field of study, and therefore much to her liking. As she had planned, Anastasi received her Ph.D. from Columbia in only two years, and in 1930 returned to Barnard to begin teaching. Three years later, she married psychologist John Porter Foley Jr., a fellow Columbia Ph.D. student. In 1939 she left Barnard to become assistant professor and sole member of the newly created Psychology Department at Queens College of the City of New York. After the war, she left Queens College in 1947 to become associate professor of psychology in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences at Fordham University, and full professor in 1951. She remained there until her retirement in 1979, when she became a professor emeritus. The focus of her research, writing, and teaching has been on the nature and measurement of psychological traits. In her landmark work, Psychological Testing, Anastasi emphasizes the ways education and heredity influence trait development, and then goes on to demonstrate how the measurement of those traits is affected by such variables as training, culture, and language differences. Throughout her work, the "nature-nurture" controversy is dominant, and typically, she argues that psychologists have been incorrect seeking to explain behavior by using one or the other. She states, rather, that neither exists apart from the other, and that psychologists should be questioning how the two interact. At least two of Anastasi's other books are considered classics in the field and are found in many translations around the world. The recipient of several honorary degrees, she became in 1972 the first woman to be elected president of the American Psychological Association in 50 years. In 1987 her career achievements were recognized when she was presented the National Medal of Science by President Ronald Reagan. Anastasi's life has not been entirely trouble-free, as she had to survive a diagnosis of cervical cancer in 1934. When the successful radiation therapy left her unable to have children, she looked only at the positive aspects of her condition and stated that she was able to focus solely on her career without guilt. A well-rounded individual with an avocational interest in art, she continued her professional writing, speaking, and organizational activities long past the time when most people have fully retired. Aaron T. Beck 1921- American neurologist and father of cognitive therapy. A pragmatic approach to therapy Aaron T. Beck was born in Providence, Rhode Island, on July 18, 1921, the third son of Russian Jewish immigrants. His father was a printer by trade who seriously abided by his socialist ideals. His rather overbearing mother was known for her extreme mood swings. Beck had two siblings who died before he was born. Beck's childhood typified middle-class America, complete with his involvement in Boy Scouts and athletics. From this mediocrity rose one of America's ground-breaking psychotherapists. Beck developed what is known as cognitive therapy, which is used for cases ranging from depression and panic attacks to addictions, eating disorders, and even the most severe psychiatric illnesses. Beck's childhood strongly influenced his approach to therapy. A life-threatening staph infection at the age of eight changed his life. At this point, Beck was transformed from a very active young man to a quiet one who preferred reading to playing football. As a child, he developed a fear of hospitals, blood, and even the scent of ether, which made him feel as if he would faint. Eventually, he overcame those fears rationally. "I learned not to be concerned about the faint feeling, but just to keep active," he later recounted. Beck graduated from Brown University in 1942. In 1946 he received his Ph.D. in psychiatry from Yale University. During his residency in neurology he began to investigate psychotherapy and cognition. Beck served as Assistant Chief of Neuropsychology at Valley Forge Hospital in Pennsylvania during the Korean War (195053). Even with his doubts about Freud and psychoanalysis, Beck attended the Philadelphia Institute of Psychoanalysis, graduating in 1958. Not long into his work with patients using psychoanalysis, Beck began to alter his approach. Beck joined the faculty of the University of Pennsylvania (Penn) in 1954, where he began to search for empirical evidence supporting Freud's theories. In his research, Beck attempted to discover a correlation between depression and masochism. Beck and his colleagues failed to find this correlation. Within two years his cognitive approach to therapy had taken shape. Beck would go on to establish the Beck Institute for Cognitive Therapy and Research in Bala Cynwyd, a suburb of Philadelphia. Beck's determination was simple. For him, the unconscious does not play the role that Freud proposed. One of Beck's favorite maxims is "there's more to the surface than meets the eye." The cognitive method involves a person using rational thoughts to overcome fears rather than delving into the unconscious causes of those fears. In cognitive therapy the fears of the client are carefully examined and confronted rationally. A family affair Beck and his wife, Phyllis, a Superior Court Judge in Philadelphia, have four children and eight grandchildren. One of his children, Dr. Judith Beck, became director at the Beck Institute, working closely with her father. As a younger man he was driven by his work. As an older man he became more driven by his family. For years his main supporter was his wife, at a time when his beliefs were not popular. Throughout his career he has continued to meet his critics by encouraging them to test his theories and his results. Rather than being a boorish scientist too smug to be proven wrong, Beck welcomes any challenges in his pursuit of what is best for his patients. What was originally a method to solve depression has now evolved further. According to his daughter, Prozac and other modern anti-depressant drugs have changed the clientele they see at the Institute. More complicated problems bring people to their doors at the beginning of the twenty-first century. These are problems that might take more than the usual eight to ten sessions a relatively simple case of depression would take to resolve. Beck insists that his cognitive approach can be used to treat psychotic disorders, even those as serious as schizophrenia. Beck's research conducted with Dr. Neil A. Rector of the University of Toronto has indicated that patients suffering from schizophrenia showed greaterPage70 |  HYPERLINK "http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retrieve.do?sgHitCountType=None&isETOC=true&inPS=true&prodId=GVRL&userGroupName=masaryk&resultListType=RELATED_DOCUMENT&contentSegment=9780787677459&docId=GALE|CX3406000075" \l "contentcontainer#contentcontainer" Top of Article improvement through a combination of drug and cognitive therapies than patients receiving drug therapy alone. Beck's theories are constantly evolving through his continued research efforts. A prolific writer, Beck has authored several books and articles both on his own as well as under collaboration. His books include Prisoners of Hate (1999), Depression: Clinical, Experimental, and Theoretical (1980), Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders (1979), and Depression: Causes and Treatment (1972). The Beck Depression Inventory and Scale for Suicide Ideation are among two of the widely used tools that he developed for use by therapists. The Beck Depression Inventory II in 1996 followed his long-successful original as an assessment tool for clinicians in diagnosing depression. Noam Chomsky Noam Chomsky na  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evropsk%C3%A9_soci%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_f%C3%B3rum" \o "Evropsk sociln frum" Evropskm socilnm fru v roce 2003  HYPERLINK "http://www.videosift.com/video/A-MUST-SEE-interview-by-Noam-Chomsky%23playlists" http://www.videosift.com/video/A-MUST-SEE-interview-by-Noam-Chomsky#playlists  HYPERLINK "http://www.videosift.com/video/Noam-Chomsky-BBC-Interview-2002%23playlists" http://www.videosift.com/video/Noam-Chomsky-BBC-Interview-2002#playlists Avram Noam Chomsky (*  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/7._prosinec" \o "7. prosinec" 7. prosince  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1928" \o "1928" 1928  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filadelfie" \o "Filadelfie" Philadelphia) je  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spojen%C3%A9_st%C3%A1ty_americk%C3%A9" \o "Spojen stty americk" americk  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingvistika" \o "Lingvistika" lingvista ~idovskho povodu, tvorce tzv.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chomsk%C3%A9ho_hierarchie" \o "Chomskho hierarchie" Chomskho hierarchick klasifikace  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_jazyk" \o "Formln jazyk" formlnch jazyko,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emeritn%C3%AD_profesor&action=edit" \o "Emeritn profesor" emeritn profesor lingvistiky na  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" \o "Massachusetts Institute of Technology" Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), ale tak levicov orientovan  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktivista" \o "Aktivista" aktivista, znm svm kritickm vztahem ke  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalizace" \o "Globalizace" globalizaci a jejm dopadom, k vle nm konfliktom, k zahrani n politice  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spojen%C3%A9_st%C3%A1ty_americk%C3%A9" \o "Spojen stty americk" USA,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izrael" \o "Izrael" Izraele a dalach vld. Chomskmu vd me za vznik teorie  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generativn%C3%AD_gramatika" \o "Generativn gramatika" generativn gramatiky, kter je nkdy pova~ovna za nejvta pYnos na poli teoretick lingvistiky 20. stolet. Ovlivnil rovn~  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" \o "Filosofie" filozofii jazyka a mysli (viz  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gilbert_Harman&action=edit" \o "Gilbert Harman" Herman,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jerry_Fodor&action=edit" \o "Jerry Fodor" Fodor). Rovn~ pomohl podntit kognitivn revoluci v psychologii dky sv revizi  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burrhus_Frederic_Skinner" \o "Burrhus Frederic Skinner" Skinnerova verblnho chovn, ve kter zpochybnil  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorismus" \o "Behaviorismus" behavioristick pYstup ke studiu chovn a jazyku, pYeva~ujc v 50. letech minulho stolet. Jeho naturalistick pYstup ke studiu jazyka ovlivnil filozofii jazyka a mysli. Zaslou~il se tak o zalo~en  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chomsk%C3%A9ho_hierarchie" \o "Chomskho hierarchie" Chomskho hierarchie  klasifikaci formlnch jazyko dle jejich generativn schopnosti. Chomskho hierarchie  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soubor:Chomskeho_hierarchie.svg" \o "Chomskho hierarchie tYd jazyko"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Chomskeho_hierarchie.svg/180px-Chomskeho_hierarchie.svg.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Chomskho hierarchie tYd jazyko Chomskho hierarchie je hierarchie tYd  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_gramatika" \o "Formln gramatika" formlnch gramatik generujcch  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_jazyk" \o "Formln jazyk" formln jazyky. Byla vytvoYena  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" \o "Noam Chomsky" Noamem Chomskym v roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1956" \o "1956" 1956. Chomskho hierarchie se skld z nsledujcch tYd: Gramatiky typu 0 Zahrnuj v sob vaechny formln gramatiky, generuj prv ty jazyky, kter mohou bt rozpoznan njakm  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing%C5%AFv_stroj" \o "Turingov stroj" Turingovm strojem. Tyto jazyky se nkdy nazvaj  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekurzivn%C4%9B_spo%C4%8Detn%C3%BD_jazyk" \o "Rekurzivn spo etn jazyk" rekurzivn spo etn jazyky. Gramatiky typu 1 ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kontextov%C3%A1_gramatika" \o "Kontextov gramatika" kontextov gramatiky) Generuj  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kontextov%C3%BD_jazyk" \o "Kontextov jazyk" kontextov jazyky. Tyto gramatiky se skldaj z pravidel  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/e/5/b/e5b4080885f3db9df1732daa2dbb828a.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET , kde A je neterminl a ,  a  Yetzce terminlo a neterminlo. Xetzce  a  mohou bt przdn, ale  mus bt neprzdn. Pravidlo  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/0/4/8/04812fdcd5b6ac1b57afc7351a501f03.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET je povoleno, pokud se S nevyskytuje na prav stran ~dnho pravidla. Tyto jazyky jsou prv jazyky rozpoznateln  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line%C3%A1rn%C4%9B_ohrani%C4%8Den%C3%BD_Turing%C5%AFv_stroj" \o "Linern ohrani en Turingov stroj" linern ohrani enm Turingovm strojem. Gramatiky typu 2 ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bezkontextov%C3%A1_gramatika" \o "Bezkontextov gramatika" bezkontextov gramatiky) Generuj  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bezkontextov%C3%BD_jazyk" \o "Bezkontextov jazyk" bezkontextov jazyky. Skldaj se z pravidel  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/5/c/6/5c67b8ceeb27f488be5376974f5b033a.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET s neterminlem A a Yetzcem terminlo a neterminlo . Pravidlo  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/0/4/8/04812fdcd5b6ac1b57afc7351a501f03.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET je povoleno, pokud se S nevyskytuje na prav stran ~dnho pravidla. Tyto jazyky jsou prv jazyky rozpoznateln njakm nedeterministickm  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1sobn%C3%ADkov%C3%BD_automat" \o "Zsobnkov automat" zsobnkovm automatem. Gramatiky typu 3 ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regul%C3%A1rn%C3%AD_gramatika" \o "Regulrn gramatika" regulrn gramatiky) Generuj  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regul%C3%A1rn%C3%AD_jazyk" \o "Regulrn jazyk" regulrn jazyky. Pravidla tchto gramatik jsou omezena na jeden neterminl na lev stran. Prav strana se skld z Yetzce terminlo, kter mo~e bt nsledovn jednm neterminlem. Tyto gramatiky se tak nazvaj prav linern gramatiky. Obdobn se definuj i lev linern gramatiky, kde mo~e bt na prav stran pravidel Yetzec terminlo pYedchzen jednm neterminlem. Prav linern gramatiky a lev linern gramatiky jsou ekvivalentn. Regulrn gramatika je ve standardn form, pokud je prav strana tvoYena jednm terminlem nsledovanm jednm neterminlem nebo pokud je prav strana przdn slovo. Tyto jazyky jsou prv jazyky rozpoznateln  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kone%C4%8Dn%C3%BD_automat" \o "Kone n automat" kone nm automatem. PYi em~ plat, ~e ka~d regulrn jazyk je tak bezkontextov, ka~d bezkontextov jazyk je tak kontextov, ka~d kontextov jazyk je tak rekurzivn spo etn  jak je nazna eno na obrzku. Navc vaechny inkluze jsou oprvnn, tedy existuj rekurzivn spo etn jazyky, kter nejsou rekurzivn, rekurzivn jazyky, kter nejsou kontextov, kontextov jazyky, kter nejsou bezkontextov a bezkontextov jazyky, kter nejsou regulrn. Dle Chomskho je vvoj Ye i vymezen geneticky  doael k zvru, ~e existuje jaksi  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Univerz%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_gramatika&action=edit" \o "Univerzln gramatika" univerzln gramatika HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" \l "_note-0#_note-0" \o "" [1], kter je vrozen a nikoli nau en bhem ~ivota  lovk se rod se zkladn gramatickou aablonou, do kter snadno zapadne jakkoli svtov jazyk HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" \l "_note-1#_note-1" \o "" [2]. Dle Indexu humanitnch citac (Arts and Humanities Citation Index) z roku 1992 byl Chomsky jako pramen citovn astji ne~ jakkoliv jin ~ijc badatel mezi lety 1980-1992, a byl osm nejcitovanja vdec vobec. Od jeho kritiky  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamsk%C3%A1_v%C3%A1lka" \o "Vietnamsk vlka" vlky ve Vietnamu v 60. letech minulho stolet se stal jeat znmjam  hlavn mezinrodn  dky sv mediln kritice a politice. Obecn je pova~ovn za kl ovou intelektuln osobnost levho kYdla politiky  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spojen%C3%A9_st%C3%A1ty" \o "Spojen stty" Spojench stto. Je airoce znm pro svou politickou aktivitu a kritiku zahrani n politiky  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spojen%C3%A9_st%C3%A1ty" \o "Spojen stty" USA a jinch vld. Biografie Chomsky se narodil v East Oak Lane pobl~  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filadelfie" \o "Filadelfie" Philadelphie ve stt  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania" \o "Pennsylvania" Pennsylvania. Byl synem hebrejskho vdce a astnka prvn svtov vlky Williama Chomskho (1896-1977), kter pochzel z  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrajina" \o "Ukrajina" Ukrajiny. Chomskho matka, Elsie Chomsky (rozen Simonofska), pochzela z nynjaho  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C4%9Blorusko" \o "Blorusko" Bloruska, ale na rozdl od svho mu~e vyrostla ve  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spojen%C3%A9_st%C3%A1ty" \o "Spojen stty" Spojench sttech a mluvila  b~nou New Yorskou angli tinou . Jejich mateYskm jazykem byla  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jidi%C5%A1" \o "Jidia" jidia, ale jak Chomsky tvrdil, v jejich rodin se tmto jazykem nehovoYilo. Popisuje svou rodinu jako ~ijc v jakmsi  ~idovskm ghettu , rozdlenmu mezi jidia a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrej%C5%A1tina" \o "Hebrejatina" hebrejskou stranu, pYi em~ se jeho rodina pYiklnla spae k t  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrej%C5%A1tina" \o "Hebrejatina" hebrejsk. Tvrd, ~e byl vychovvn v hebrejsk kultuYe a literatuYe. Chomsky sm popisuje napt, kter sm za~il s irskmi  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katol%C3%ADk" \o "Katolk" katolky a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisemitismus" \o "Antisemitismus" antisemitisty v tYictch letech takto:  Nerad to Ykm, ale vyrostl jsem s jakmsi vnitYnm strachem z katolko. Vdl jsem, ~e to bylo neracionln a pYekonal jsem to, ale byla to prost zkuaenost z ulice . Chomsky pamatuje na svoj prvn lnek, kter napsal ve vku pYibli~n deseti let, o hrozb aYen  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fa%C5%A1ismus" \o "Faaismus" faaismu po pdu Barcelony ve  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0pan%C4%9Blsk%C3%A1_ob%C4%8Dansk%C3%A1_v%C3%A1lka" \o "`panlsk ob ansk vlka" apanlsk ob ansk vlce. Od dvancti nebo tYincti let se ztoto~nil jeat plnji s anarchistickou politikou. Po absolvovn stYedn akoly (Central High School of Philadelphia) za al studovat filozofii a lingvistiku na Pensylvnsk univerzit. U il se od filozofo  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Churchman&action=edit" \o "Churchman" C. W. Churchmana a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Goodman&action=edit" \o "Goodman" N. Goodmana a lingvisty  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harris&action=edit" \o "Harris" Z. Harrise. Harrisovo u en zahrnovalo jeho objev transformac jako  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matematick%C3%A1_anal%C3%BDza" \o "Matematick analza" matematick analzy struktury jazyka (mapovn od jedn podmno~iny k jin v mno~in vt). Chomsky nsledn vylo~il toto u en jako operace na zklad  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bezkontextov%C3%A1_gramatika" \o "Bezkontextov gramatika" bezkontextov gramatiky (odvozen od post-produk nch systmo).  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harris&action=edit" \o "Harris" Harrisovy politick nzory rovn~ pYisply k utvYen Chomskho nzoro. V roce 1949 se Chomsky o~enil za lingvistku Carol Schatz. Maj dv dcery: Aviva (nar. 1957) a Diane (nar. 1960) a jednoho syna Harryho (nar. 1967). Chomskmu byl udlen titul  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/PhD" \o "PhD" PhD z lingvistiky na Pensylvnsk univerzit v roce 1955. st svho doktorskho vzkumu vedl bhem tyYech let na  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard" \o "Harvard" Harvardsk univerzit. Ve sv diserta n prci za al tvoYit nkter ze svch lingvistickch myalenek, kter rozvinul v roce 1957 v knize Syntaktick struktury (orig. Syntactic Structures), je~ se stala jeho nejznmja lingvistickou knihou. Mlad Chomsky Chomsky se stal zamstnancem na  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" \o "Massachusetts Institute of Technology" Massachusetts Institute of Technology v roce 1955 a v roce 1961 byl jmenovn Ydnm profesorem Katedry modernch jazyko a lingvistiky (nyn Katedra lingvistiky a filozofie). Od roku 1966 do roku 1976 byl dr~itelem profesury Ferrari P. Ward Professorship z modernch jazyko a lingvistiky, a v roce 1976 byl jmenovn profesorem institutu. V roce 2007 Chomsky u il na MIT souvisle 52 let. V noru 1967 se Chomsky stal jednm z hlavnch odporco  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamsk%C3%A1_v%C3%A1lka" \o "Vietnamsk vlka" Vietnamsk vlky dky vydn sv eseje  The Responsibility of Intellectuals (Odpovdnost intelektulo) v New Yorskm magaznu knih (New York Review of Books). Nsledovala dala kniha  Ameri an Power and the New Mandarins (1969), je~ byla sbrkou esej, dky kterm se dostal do popYed nesouhlasu s americkou politikou. Jeho dalekoshl kritika americk zahrani n politiky a oprvnnosti moci  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spojen%C3%A9_st%C3%A1ty_americk%C3%A9" \o "Spojen stty americk" Spojench stto z nj udlala kontroverzn postavu, kter se tradi n americk media velice stranila. Chomsky je asto vyhledvn pro sv nzory v publikacch po celm svt. Pro kritiku americk zahrani n politiky bylo Chomskmu asto vyhro~ovno smrt. Navc se dostal na seznam plnovanch clo vytvoYen  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theodor_Kaczynski&action=edit" \o "Theodor Kaczynski" Theodorem Kaczynskim, znmm t~ jako Unabomber. Bhem doby, kdy  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kaczynski&action=edit" \o "Kaczynski" Kaczynski byl hrozbou, si nechal Chomsky kontrolovat veakerou poatu na vbuaniny. Chomsky uvd, ~e je asto tajn stYe~en polici, hlavn na univerzitn pod MIT, a koliv s policejn ochranou nesouhlas. Chomsky bydl v Lexingtonu v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts" \o "Massachusetts" Massachusetts a asto cestuje a pYedna o politice. PYispn do lingvistiky Syntaktick struktury byly vtahem jeho knihy Logick struktura teorie lingvistiky (orig. Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory) z roku 1955. V tto knize pYedstavuje transforma n gramatiku. Podle tto teorie maj vroky (sekvence slov) njakou  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntax" \o "Syntax" syntax, kter mo~e bt z velk sti popsna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_gramatika" \o "Formln gramatika" formln gramatikou, pYesnji  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bezkontextov%C3%A1_gramatika" \o "Bezkontextov gramatika" bezkontextovou gramatiku rozaYenou o transforma n pravidla. U dt se pYedpokld, ~e maj vrozenou znalost zkladn gramatick struktury spole nou vaem lidskm jazykom (tzn. jakkoliv jazyk, se kterm se setkaj, je ur itho omezenho druhu). Tato vrozen znalost se asto ozna uje jako  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Univerz%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_gramatika&action=edit" \o "Univerzln gramatika" univerzln gramatika. Tvrd se, ~e tvoYen na zklad znalosti jazyka za pou~it  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_gramatika" \o "Formln gramatika" formln gramatiky je zodpovdn za  produktivitu jazyka: s omezenou mno~inou gramatickch pravidel a kone nou mno~inou pojmo jsou lid schopni utvoYit nekone n mno~stv vt v etn tch, kter nikdo nikdy pYedtm neYekl. Chomsky v~dy upozorHuje na svoj zvazek Paninimu za jeho modern nhled na explicitn  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generativn%C3%AD_gramatika" \o "Generativn gramatika" generativn gramatiku.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=P%C5%99%C3%ADstup_pravidel_a_parametr%C5%AF&action=edit" \o "PYstup pravidel a parametro" PYstup pravidel a parametro (P&P), rozveden v jeho Pisa 1979 Lectures, pozdji publikovan jako Lecutres on Government and Binding (LGB), o univerzln gramatice tvrd nsledujc: gramatick principy spole n vaem jazykom jsou vrozen a nemnn. Rozdly mezi svtovmi jazyky mohou bt charakterizovny podle nastaven parametro v mozku (napY. pro-drop parametr, kter Yk, zda m bt explicitn podmt v~dy vy~adovn, jako napY. v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angli%C4%8Dtina" \o "Angli tina" angli tin, nebo zda mo~e bt vypuatn, jako napY. ve  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0pan%C4%9Bl%C5%A1tina" \o "`panlatina" apanlatin, kter jsou asto pYirovnvny k pYepna om. Prv proto je tento pYstup asto ozna ovn jako  pravidla a parametry (principles and parameters). V tomto pojet si dt u c se jazyk potYebuje osvojit pouze  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lexik%C3%A1ln%C3%AD&action=edit" \o "Lexikln" lexikln polo~ky ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slova&action=edit" \o "Slova" slova, gramatick  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morf%C3%A9m" \o "Morfm" morfmy a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Idiom&action=edit" \o "Idiom" idiomy) a ur it vhodn nastaven parametro, co~ lze provst na zklad nkolika pYklado. Zastnci tohoto pohledu tvrd, ~e tempo, kterm se dti u  jazyky, je nevysvtliteln rychl. Jedin mo~n vysvtlen je, ~e by dti mly vrozenou schopnost u it se jazyky. Pro tuto tezi hovoY i nsledujc fakta. Dti po celm svt se u  svoj  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mate%C5%99sk%C3%BD_jazyk" \o "MateYsk jazyk" mateYsk jazyk stejnmi kroky. Dle bhem tohoto u en dlaj stejn charakteristick chyby, zatmco jin zdnliv logick druhy chyb se nikdy bhem u en neobjev. Pozdji se ve svm Minimalistickm programu (1995) ponechal jdro konceptu  pravidel a parametro , avaak zroveH se zde Chomsky pokoua o vznamnja pYepracovn lingvistickho apartu v LGB modelu oddlenm vaech jeho prvko s vjimkou tch nejnutnjach. Zastv zde obecn pYstup ke stavb lidsk jazykov vlohy, kter zdorazHuje princip hospodrnosti a optimlnho nvrhu, a znovu se uchyluje k  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deriva%C4%8Dn%C3%AD_p%C5%99%C3%ADstup&action=edit" \o "Deriva n pYstup" deriva nmu pYstupu ke generaci, na rozdl od velkou mrou reprezentativnho pYstupu klasickch  pravidel a parametro . Chomskho myalenky mly velk vliv na badatele v oblasti zkoumn osvojovn si jazyka u dt, a koliv nkteY badatel, kteY dnes pracuj v tto oblasti, nepodporuj Chomskho teorie. Namsto toho prosazuj teorie, kter redukuj jazyk na instanci obecnch zpracovvajcch mechanismo v mozku. Chomsky dle vytvY teorii, ~e neomezen rozaYen jazyka jako je  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angli%C4%8Dtina" \o "Angli tina" angli tina je mo~n jedin  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rekurzivn%C3%AD_metoda&action=edit" \o "Rekurzivn metoda" rekurzivn metodou vkldn vt do vt. Generativn gramatika Chomskho analzy syntaxe, ozna ovan jako  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generativn%C3%AD_gramatika" \o "Generativn gramatika" generativn gramatika, jsou vysoce abstraktn a jsou zalo~eny na bedlivm prozkumu hranic mezi gramatickmi a negramatickmi konstrukcemi jazyka. Takov gramatick sudky o jazyku mo~e span provst pouze rodil mluv  a z tchto pragmatickch dovodo se lingvist zamYuj na sv mateYsk jazyky nebo jazyky, kter dokonale ovldaj, a tak se dostvme k  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angli%C4%8Dtina" \o "Angli tina" angli tin,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francouz%C5%A1tina" \o "Francouzatina" francouzatin,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C4%9Bm%C4%8Dina" \o "Nm ina" nm in,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nizozem%C5%A1tina" \o "Nizozematina" nizozematin,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ital%C5%A1tina" \o "Italatina" italatin,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japon%C5%A1tina" \o "Japonatina" japonatin nebo k jazykom, jimi~ se hovoY v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8C%C3%ADna" \o " na"  n. Chomskho pYstup k  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntax" \o "Syntax" syntaxi, asto ozna ovan jako  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generativn%C3%AD_gramatika" \o "Generativn gramatika" generativn gramatika, studuje gramatiku jako podstatu znalosti, kterou maj u~ivatel jazyka. Od aedestch let minulho stolet Chomsky trv na tom, ~e vtaina tto znalosti je vrozen, z eho~ vyplv, ~e dti se potYebuj nau it jen omezen vlastnosti jejich  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mate%C5%99sk%C3%BD_jazyk" \o "MateYsk jazyk" mateYskho jazyka. Vrozen podstata lingvistick znalosti se asto ozna uje jako  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Univerz%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_gramatika&action=edit" \o "Univerzln gramatika" univerzln gramatika. Z Chomskho pohledu je nejsilnjam dokazem existence univerzln gramatiky jednoduae fakt, ~e si dti span osvoj svoj  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mate%C5%99sk%C3%BD_jazyk" \o "MateYsk jazyk" mateYsk jazyk za tak krtkou dobu. Tvrd, ~e lingvistick data, ke kterm maj dti pYstup, vobec nedokldaj bohatou lingvistickou znalost, kter doshnou do dosplosti (argument nedostatku podnto). Chomskho teorie jsou stle populrn, zvlat ve Spojench sttech, ale nikdy nebyly oproatny od  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kontroverze&action=edit" \o "Kontroverze" kontroverze. Kritika pYichz z nkolika smro. Lingvist dle Chomskho se pYlia spolhaj na intuici rodilch mluv ch pYi posuzovn, kter vty jejich jazyka jsou sprvn utvoYen. Tato praxe byla kritizovna jednak z hlediska obecnch metodickch vchodisek, tak i proto, ~e vedla k pYehnanmu dorazu na studium  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angli%C4%8Dtina" \o "Angli tina" angli tiny. Stovky roznch jazyko zskaly alespoH trochu pozornosti v literatuYe o  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generativn%C3%AD_gramatika" \o "Generativn gramatika" generativn gramatice, ale nkteY kritici stejn vnmaj pYehnan doraz na angli tinu a tendenci zalo~it tvrzen o  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Univerz%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_gramatika&action=edit" \o "Univerzln gramatika" univerzln gramatice na pYlia malm vzorku jazyko. NkteY psychologov a psycholingvisti, pYesto~e schvaluj Chomskho celkov program, tvrd, ~e lingvistika dle Chomskho nevnuje dostate nou pozornost experimentlnm datom ze zpracovn jazyka, a nsledn, ~e jejich teorie nejsou psychologicky pYijateln. Radiklnja kritici pochybuj, zda je pro vysvtlen u en se dt jazyku nutn  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Univerz%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_gramatika&action=edit" \o "Univerzln gramatika" univerzln gramatika, a tvrd, ~e domain-general u c mechanismy sta . Kulturn antropolog a lingvista  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Daniel_Everett&action=edit" \o "Daniel Everett" Daniel Everett z  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Illinois_State_University&action=edit" \o "Illinois State University" Illinois State University tvrd, ~e jazyk lid  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Piraha&action=edit" \o "Piraha" Piraha v severozpadnm detnm pralese  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braz%C3%ADlie" \o "Brazlie" Brazlie odporuje Chomskho teorim o  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generativn%C3%AD_gramatika" \o "Generativn gramatika" generativn gramatice.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Everett&action=edit" \o "Everett" Everett tvrd, ~e lid  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Piraha&action=edit" \o "Piraha" Piraha nepou~vaj  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekurze" \o "Rekurze" rekurzi, jednu z kl ovch vlastnost  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generativn%C3%AD_gramatika" \o "Generativn gramatika" generativn gramatiky. Navc se tvrd, ~e lid  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Piraha&action=edit" \o "Piraha" Piraha nemaj pevn slova pro  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barvy" \o "Barvy" barvy nebo  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C4%8C%C3%ADsla&action=edit" \o " sla"  sla, mluv jednoduchmi  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fon%C3%A9m" \o "Fonm" fonmy, a mluv v prozdii. Nicmn, jeho tvrzen sama byla kritizovna. David  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pesetsky&action=edit" \o "Pesetsky" Pesetsky z  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT" \o "MIT" MIT, Andrew  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nevis&action=edit" \o "Nevis" Nevis z  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard" \o "Harvard" Harvardu a Vlineme  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rodrigues&action=edit" \o "Rodrigues" Rodrigues z  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Universidade_Estadual_de_Campinas&action=edit" \o "Universidade Estadual de Campinas" Universidade Estadual de Campinas v Brazli tvrd ve spole nm lnku, ~e vaechny z Everettovch tvrzen obsahuj v~n nedostatky. Spor pokra uje, o ekv se dala vzkum a analza. Chomskho hierarchie Chomsky se proslavil rovn~ studiem roznch druho  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_jazyk" \o "Formln jazyk" formlnch jazyko a vzkumem, zda tyto mohou i nemohou bt schopny zachytit kl ov vlastnosti lidskho jazyka.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chomsk%C3%A9ho_hierarchie" \o "Chomskho hierarchie" Chomskho hierarchie dl  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_gramatika" \o "Formln gramatika" formln gramatiky do tYd a skupin s rostouc vyjadYovac silou  ka~d nsledn tYda je schopna generovat aira skupinu formlnch jazyko ne~ pYedchoz tYda. Chomsky tvrd, ~e modelovn nkterch aspekto lidsk Ye i vy~aduje komplexnja formln gramatiku (mYeno Chomskho hierarchi) ne~ modelovn jinch. NapYklad zatmco regulrn jazyk je dostate n siln k modelovn  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morfologie_%28lingvistika%29" \o "Morfologie (lingvistika)" morfologie angli tiny, nen u~ schopen modelovat jej  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntax" \o "Syntax" syntax. Chomskho hierarchie se stala dole~itou v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatika" \o "Informatika" informatice, zvlat v konstrukci kompiltoro a teori automato. Chomskho politika Chomsky je proslul svm kritickm pohledem na svt. Sm sebe ozna uje za pYznivce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchosyndikalismus" \o "Anarchosyndikalismus" anarchosyndikalismu a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Libertinsk%C3%BD_socialismus&action=edit" \o "Libertinsk socialismus" libertinskho socialismu. Chomsky nesporn patY k nejvlivnjam intelektulom dneaka HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" \l "_note-2#_note-2" \o "" [ Herbert A. Simon Herbert Alexander Simon ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/15._%C4%8Derven" \o "15. erven" 15. ervna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1916" \o "1916" 1916  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milwaukee" \o "Milwaukee" Milwaukee,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisconsin" \o "Wisconsin" Wisconsin,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spojen%C3%A9_st%C3%A1ty_americk%C3%A9" \o "Spojen stty americk" USA  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/9._%C3%BAnor" \o "9. nor" 9. nora  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001" \o "2001" 2001,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh" \o "Pittsburgh" Pittsburgh,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pensylv%C3%A1nie" \o "Pensylvnie" Pensylvnie) byl americk vdec, kter se zabval po ta ovou vdou, kognitivn psychologi,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomika" \o "Ekonomika" ekonomikou a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" \o "Filosofie" filozofi. Polo~il zklady rozhodovacho pYstupu k managementu, kter pova~uje rozhodovn za podstatnou st Yzen. V roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1978" \o "1978" 1978 obdr~el  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobelova_cena_za_ekonomii" \o "Nobelova cena za ekonomii" Nobelovu cenu za ekonomii za prokopnick vzkum rozhodovacch proceso v rmci organizace. Spole n s Richardem Cyertem a James G. Marchem pYiali v padestch a~ aedestch letech  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/20._stolet%C3%AD" \o "20. stolet" 20. stolet s kritikou teorie racionlnho rozhodovn. Jak uvd Simon ve svch publikacch, objektivn racionln rozhodovn je nereln, proto~e klade pYehnan po~adavky na kognitivn schopnosti rozhodovatele. Rozhodovn je determinovan pYedpoklady subjektu rozhodovn - schopnosti, vdomosti, osobnmi cli a zjmy, okam~itm stavem - psychologickm rozpolo~enm, nladou a objektivnmi podmnkami materiln a nemateriln povahy. Gustave Le Bon Gustave Le Bon ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/7._kv%C4%9Bten" \o "7. kvten" 7. kvtna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1841" \o "1841" 1841 -  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/13._prosinec" \o "13. prosinec" 13. prosince  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1931" \o "1931" 1931) byl  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francie" \o "Francie" francouzsk  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soci%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_psychologie" \o "Sociln psychologie" sociln psycholog,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologie" \o "Sociologie" sociolog a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amat%C3%A9r" \o "Amatr" amatrsk  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyzik" \o "Fyzik" fyzik. Mezi jeho nejznmja prce patY  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologie_davu" \o "Psychologie davu" Psychologie davu. Kde svou koncepci vypracoval v souvislosti s chovnm davu bhem francouzsk revoluce. Dav je podle nj soubor individu, je~ jsou sjednocena iracionln pYipravenost k innosti, kter vyplv z faktu rozplynut individua v mase a jeho rezignace na sebekontrolu. Je to shrom~dn, kter podlh snadno sugesci a nen schopno si utvoYit vlastn nzor na nic, proto~e ka~d nzor je davu imputovn zvnjaku. Dav aktivuje spc i utlumen instinkty. ( lnek z u ebnho materilu Matje Krle)  Gustave Le Bon se narodil 7.5.1841 v Nogent-le-Rotrou. Byl vaestranm vdcem. Zabval se sociologi, sociln psychologi, fyzikou, medicnou, etnografi a archeologi. V roce 1876 zskal doktort z medicny, napsal knihu o zdnliv smrti (la Mort apparente et les Inhumations prmatures, 1886), studoval napYklad nemoci urogenitlnho systmu. Za vlky roku 1870, kdy byl aflkaYem jednoho oddlen vojensk ambulance v PaY~i, psal o praktick hygien vojko a rannch. Pozdji hodn cestoval, ve sttnch slu~bch poznal Orient a Indii (studoval zde napY. buddhistickou architekturu). Starm vchodnm civilizacm pak vnoval nkolik publikac , napY. Arabsk civilizace, 1884; Indick civilizace, 1887; Prvn civilizace, 1888-1889; Pamtky Indie, 1891. V osmdestch letech minulho stolet se za al zabvat studiem modern spole nosti a jejmu vvoji vnoval knihu lovk a spole nost, jejich povod a djiny, 1881. Jeho nejznmja kniha Psychologie davu vyala francouzsky poprv roku 1895 a o dva roky pozdji byla pYelo~ena do eatiny. Nsledovaly pYeklady do vce ne~ deseti jazyko Psychologie davu Psychologie davu je dnes asi nejznmja  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kniha" \o "Kniha" knihou  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Francouz%C5%A1t%C3%AD_sociologov%C3%A9&action=edit" \o "Francouzt sociologov" francouzskho  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologie" \o "Sociologie" sociologa z konce 19. stolet  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" \o "Gustave Le Bon" Gustava le Bona. Le Bon ji~ na konci  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/19._stolet%C3%AD" \o "19. stolet" 19. stolet v tto knize popsal zmny v chovn jednotlivco, kteY se stanou sou st davu. Jedinci v davu se neYd vlastnm svdomm, ale dlaj to, co ostatn (novjam termnem Ye eno - jsou  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konformita" \o "Konformita" konformn) a jsou tak mnohem snze ovlivniteln njakm vodcem. Jedinec, kter je sou st davu je podle nj o nkolik stdi civiliza nho vvoje n~e. V minulosti byla tato kniha velice oblben (na pYebalu se tvrd, ~e ji rd etl i  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" \o "Adolf Hitler" Adolf Hitler). Dnes, pYesto~e je chpna jako pYekonna, se zd, ~e mnoh modern sociln-psychologick teorie pouze rozpracovvaj ji~ v tto knize na rtnut postYehy. Poprv tato kniha vyala v roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1895" \o "1895" 1895 a do  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Ce%C5%A1tina" \o " eatina"  eatiny byla pYelo~ena ji~ v roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1897" \o "1897" 1897. vod Podle le Bona je sou asnost (tehdeja) "obdobm  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dav" \o "Dav" davo". Nejvta historick pYevraty, kter vedou ke zmnm  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilizace" \o "Civilizace" civilizac tkv, podle nj, v promnch myalen nrodo. A vznamn udlosti jsou tedy jen viditelnmi vsledky takovchto revolu nch zmn v myslch jedinco. Autor charakterizuje svou dobu, jako obdob prv takovchto zmn. Zmn, kter jsou zposobeny dvma jevy, prvnm z nich je rozvrat  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%A1bo%C5%BEenstv%C3%AD" \o "Nbo~enstv" nbo~enskch,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soci%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_struktura" \o "Sociln struktura" socilnch i politickch hodnot, na kterch stoj naae civilizace. Druhm nemn dole~itm dovodem jsou objektivn zmny, zposoben novmi technologickmi objevy. DYve neml spole ensk nzor zpravidla ~dn vznam. V autorov sou asnosti se vaak mnn davo stv hlavnm faktorem historickho dn. Politick tradice, i osobn nzory vldco znamenaj v jeho dob ji~ mlo, hlas davu nabv pYevahy. Charakteristika davo V prvn sti podv autor obecnou charakteristiku davo. Za ur itch okolnost m shrom~dn lid  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Davov%C3%A1_psych%C3%B3za&action=edit" \o "Davov psychza" nov vlastnosti, odlian od vlastnost jedinco, z kterch se skld  to je to co le Bon nazv davem. TvoY se  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Skupinov%C3%A1_identita&action=edit" \o "Skupinov identita" kolektivn duae, osobnost ka~dho jednotlivce je jakoby  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolektivn%C3%AD_chov%C3%A1n%C3%AD" \l "Zimbardo_-_Teorie_deindividuace_.28odosobn.C4.9Bn.C3.AD.29" \o "Kolektivn chovn" potYena. Ztrta uvdoml osobnosti a orientace myalenek a cito stejnm smrem jsou hlavnmi atributy davu. Zajmavm postYehem je, ~e prostorov sounle~itost nen nutn a ani posta ujc pro vznik davu (davem tak mohou bt i tenYi stejnch novin ( HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rozhlas" \o "Rozhlas" rozhlas tehdy jeat nebyl). V kolektivn duai se straj intelektuln vlastnosti jedinco a tm tak jejich  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualismus" \o "Individualismus" individualita. Jak jsou pY iny tto promny jedince? Vdom iny vznikaj z neuvdomlho podkladu, kter je utvYen ddi nmi vlivy. Tento podklad tvoY duai rasy. Davom se stanou spole n prv tyto obecn, vrozen charakterov vlastnosti Yzen  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nev%C4%9Bdom%C3%AD" \o "Nevdom" nevdomm. Jedinec nabv ji~ svou pYsluanost k davu pocitu Moci, kter mu dovoluje povoliti pudom, kter by sm musel potla it. Dav je  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anonymita" \o "Anonymita" anonymn a proto nezodpovdn. Jedinec tm ~e je v davu,  & sestupuje & na ~ebY ku civilizace o nkolik stupHo n~e&  stv se pudovou bytost. Autor tak zdorazHuje nestlost davu. Srovnv davy s bytostmi na ni~am stupni vvoje, jako napYklad s divochy i dtmi. V jin sti textu pou~v (z dneanho pohledu) dosti  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender" \o "Gender" nekorektn pYirovnn k ~enm:  & davy neznaj pochybnosti ani nejistotu. Zachzej hned do krajnosti prv jako ~eny. Jednou vysloven podezYen se stv okam~it nepopiratelnou pravdou, po najc antipatie nebo odpor, & mn se u jedince v davu ihned v divokou nenvist. Faktory ovlivHujc dav Ve druh sti knihy autor zkoum hlavn faktory posobc nepYmo na pYesvd en a nzory davo. Za tyto hlavn faktory pova~uje  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasa" \o "Rasa" rasu,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradice" \o "Tradice" tradici, dobu,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instituce" \o "Instituce" instituce a vchovu. Rasu chpe jako nejdole~itja faktor, tento pojem vaak chpe jinak, ne~li je chpn dnes, nejde o tvar lebky ani  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasismus" \o "Rasismus" barvu pleti. Le Bon tmto pojmem ozna uje ddi n rasov pudy a obecn nemnn psychologick vlastnosti. Uvd mnoh pYklady, ve kterch mluv o rase  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ%C3%A1nsk%C3%A9_jazyky" \o "Germnsk jazyky" anglosask i rase  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rom%C3%A1nsk%C3%A9_jazyky" \o "Romnsk jazyky" latinsk. Z dneanho pohledu byl tento pojem v podstat vdeckm vyjdYenm  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacionalismus" \l "Podrobn.C4.9Bj.C5.A1.C3.AD_charakteristika" \o "Nacionalismus" nrodnostnch  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=P%C5%99edsudek&action=edit" \o "PYedsudek" pYedsudko, kter se le Bon rozhodl  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soci%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_konstruktivismus" \o "Sociln konstruktivismus" opYt o  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingvistika" \o "Lingvistika" lingvistick kategorie  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazyk" \o "Jazyk" jazyko. Alexander Luria  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychology" \o "Neuropsychology" Neuropsychology Topics HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain-computer_interface" \o "Brain-computer interface" Brain-computer interfaces  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_damage" \o "Brain damage" Brain damage  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_regions_in_the_human_brain" \o "List of regions in the human brain" Brain regions  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_neuropsychology" \o "Clinical neuropsychology" Clinical neuropsychology  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" \o "Cognitive neuroscience" Cognitive neuroscience  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_brain" \o "Human brain" Human brain  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomy" \o "Neuroanatomy" Neuroanatomy  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurophysiology" \o "Neurophysiology" Neurophysiology  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrenology" \o "Phrenology" Phrenology  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_brain" \l "Common_misconceptions" \o "Human brain" Common misconceptions HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_function" \o "Brain function" Brain functions HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arousal" \o "Arousal" arousal  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention" \o "Attention" attention  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness" \o "Consciousness" consciousness  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_making" \o "Decision making" decision making  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_functions" \o "Executive functions" executive functions  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language" \o "Natural language" language  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning" \o "Learning" learning  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory" \o "Memory" memory  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_coordination" \o "Motor coordination" motor coordination  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception" \o "Perception" perception  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planning" \o "Planning" planning  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_solving" \o "Problem solving" problem solving  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought" \o "Thought" thoughtPeople HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_L._Benton" \o "Arthur L. Benton" Arthur L. Benton  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bohm" \o "David Bohm" David Bohm  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Dam%C3%A1sio" \o "Antnio Damsio" Antnio Damsio  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Heilman" \o "Kenneth Heilman" Kenneth Heilman  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phineas_Gage" \o "Phineas Gage" Phineas Gage  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Geschwind" \o "Norman Geschwind" Norman Geschwind  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elkhonon_Goldberg" \o "Elkhonon Goldberg" Elkhonon Goldberg  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Olding_Hebb" \o "Donald Olding Hebb" Donald Hebb Alexander Luria  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muriel_Lezak" \o "Muriel Lezak" Muriel D. Lezak  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brenda_Milner" \o "Brenda Milner" Brenda Milner  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_H._Pribram" \o "Karl H. Pribram" Karl Pribram  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Sacks" \o "Oliver Sacks" Oliver Sacks  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Wolcott_Sperry" \o "Roger Wolcott Sperry" Roger Sperry  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HM_%28patient%29" \o "HM (patient)" H.M. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychological_test" \o "Neuropsychological test" Tests HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bender-Gestalt_Test" \o "Bender-Gestalt Test" Bender-Gestalt Test  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benton_Visual_Retention_Test" \o "Benton Visual Retention Test" Benton Visual Retention Test  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_Dementia_Rating" \o "Clinical Dementia Rating" Clinical Dementia Rating  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_Performance_Task" \o "Continuous Performance Task" Continuous Performance Task  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow_Coma_Scale" \o "Glasgow Coma Scale" Glasgow Coma Scale  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayling_and_Brixton_tests" \o "Hayling and Brixton tests" Hayling and Brixton tests  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_decision_task" \o "Lexical decision task" Lexical decision task  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mini-mental_state_examination" \o "Mini-mental state examination" Mini-mental state examination  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroop_effect" \o "Stroop effect" Stroop effect  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wechsler_Adult_Intelligence_Scale" \o "Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale" Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisconsin_card_sort" \o "Wisconsin card sort" Wisconsin card sorting task HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Mind_and_Brain" \o "Portal:Mind and Brain" Mind and Brain PortalThis box: HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Neuropsychology" \o "Template:Neuropsychology" view HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Neuropsychology" \o "Template talk:Neuropsychology" talk HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Neuropsychology&action=edit" \o "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Neuropsychology&action=edit" editAlexander Romanovich Luria ;5:A0=4@ ><0=>28G C@8O ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_16" \o "July 16" July 16,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1902" \o "1902" 1902-  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_14" \o "August 14" August 14,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1977" \o "1977" 1977) was a famous  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet" \o "Soviet" Soviet  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychologist" \o "Neuropsychologist" neuropsychologist and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_psychology" \o "Developmental psychology" developmental psychologist. He was one of the founders of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural-historical_psychology" \o "Cultural-historical psychology" cultural-historical psychology and psychological  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activity_theory" \o "Activity theory" activity theory. Biography Luria was born in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazan" \o "Kazan" Kazan, a regional center east of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow" \o "Moscow" Moscow. Studied in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazan_State_University" \o "Kazan State University" Kazan State University (graduated in 1921),  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharkov" \o "Kharkov" Kharkov Medical Institute and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_Medical_Academy" \o "Moscow Medical Academy" 1st Moscow Medical Institute (graduated in 1937). Professor (1944), Doctor of Pedagogical (1937) and Medical Sciences (1943). Throughout his career Luria worked in a wide range of scientific fields at such institutions as Academy of Communist Education (1920-30s), Experimental Defectological Institute (1920-30s, 1950-60s, both in Moscow), Ukrainian Psychoneurological Academy (Kharkov, early 1930s), All-Union Institute of Experimental Medicine, Burdenko Institute of Neurosurgery (late 1930s), etc. In the late 1930s, Luria went to medical school (partly to escape the Great Purges being carried out by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Stalin" \o "Josef Stalin" Josef Stalin). Following the war, Luria continued his work in Moscow's Institute of Psychology. For a period of time, he was removed from the Institute of Psychology, mainly as a result of a flare of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Semitism" \o "Anti-Semitism" anti-Semitism and had to shift to the research work on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mentally_retarded" \o "Mentally retarded" mentally retarded children at the Defectological Institute in the 1950s. Additionally, from 1945 on Luria worked at the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University" \o "Moscow State University" Moscow State University and was instrumental in the foundation of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSU_Faculty_of_Psychology" \o "MSU Faculty of Psychology" Faculty of Psychology at the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University" \o "Moscow State University" Moscow State University, where he later headed the Departments of Patho- and Neuropsychology. Scientific work While a student in Kazan, he established the Kazan Psychoanalytic Association and exchanged letters with  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Sigmund Freud. In  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1923" \o "1923" 1923, his work with reaction times related to thought processes earned him a position at the Institute of Psychology in Moscow. There, he developed the "combined motor method," which helped diagnose individuals'  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_process" \o "Thought process" thought processes, creating the first ever lie-detector device. This research was published in the US in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1932" \o "1932" 1932 (published in Russian for the first time only in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002" \o "2002" 2002). In  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1924" \o "1924" 1924, Luria met  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" \o "Lev Vygotsky" Lev Vygotsky, who would influence him greatly. Along with  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexei_Nikolaevich_Leont%27ev" \o "Alexei Nikolaevich Leont'ev" Alexei Nikolaevich Leont'ev, these three psychologists launched a project of developing a psychology of a radically new kind. This approach, coined "cultural," "historical," and "instrumental" psychology and most commonly referred to nowadays as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural-historical_psychology" \o "Cultural-historical psychology" cultural-historical psychology, emphasized the mediatory role of the culture, particularly  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language" \o "Language" language, in the development of higher mental functions in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontogeny" \o "Ontogeny" ontogeny and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogeny" \o "Phylogeny" phylogeny. Luria's work continued in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1930" \o "1930" 1930s with his psychological expeditions to the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asia" \o "Central Asia" Central Asia. Under the supervision of Vygotsky, Luria investigated various psychological changes (including perception, problem solving, and memory) that take place as a result of cultural development of undereducated minorities. In this regard he has been credited with a major contribution to the study of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orality" \o "Orality" orality. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Luria" \l "_note-0#_note-0" \o "" [1] Later, he studied  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identical_twin" \o "Identical twin" identical and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraternal_twin" \o "Fraternal twin" fraternal  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin" \o "Twin" twins in large residential  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School" \o "School" schools to determine the interplay of various factors of cultural and genetic human development. In his early neuropsychological work in the end of 1930s as well as throughout his entire life in academia in the postwar period he focused on the study of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphasia" \o "Aphasia" aphasia, focusing on the relation between language, thought, and cortical functions, particularly, on the development of compensatory functions for aphasia. During  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" \o "World War II" World War II Luria led a research team at an army hospital looking for ways to compensate psychological dysfunctions in patients with brain lesions. His work resulted in creating the field of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychology" \o "Neuropsychology" Neuropsychology. His two main case studies, both published a few years before his death, described  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S.V._Shereshevskii" \o "S.V. Shereshevskii" S.V. Shereshevskii, a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia" \o "Russia" Russian journalist with a seemingly unlimited memory ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968" \o "1968" 1968), in part due to his fivefold  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synesthesia" \o "Synesthesia" synesthesia. This case was presented in a book  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Mind_of_Mnemonist&action=edit" \o "The Mind of Mnemonist" The Mind of Mnemonist. The other famous Luria's book is  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Man_with_a_Shattered_World&action=edit" \o "The Man with a Shattered World" The Man with a Shattered World, a penetrating account of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zasetsky" \o "Zasetsky" Zasetsky, a man with a traumatic brain injury ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972" \o "1972" 1972). These case studies illustrate Luria's main methods of combining classical and remediational approaches. Luria's work is frequently and favorably mentioned in the popular books written by Dr.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Sacks" \o "Oliver Sacks" Oliver Sacks on neurological disorders, which has led to greater recognition of Luria's accomplishments. Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Test The Luria-Nebraska is a standardized test based on the theories of Luria regarding neuropsychological functioning. There are 14 scales: motor functions, rhythm, tactile functions, visual functions, receptive speech, expressive speech, writing, reading, arithmetic, memory, intellectual processes, pathognomic, left hemisphere and right hemisphere. It is used with people who are 15 years or older; however, it may be used with adolescents down to 12 years old. Part of A.R. Luria's legacy was the premium that he placed on the observation of a patient completing a task; intraindividual differences. This flies in the face of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardized" \o "Standardized" standardized testing, yet its importance cannot be ignored. The Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery (now in its third iteration) attempts to create an alloy of standardized testing and idiosyncratic observation by allowing comparison to the normative sample, and at the same time giving the test administrator flexibility in the administration. References Luria, A. R.; Bruner, Jerome (1987). The Mind of a Mnemonist: A Little Book About A Vast Memory. Harvard University Press.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0674576225" ISBN 0-674-57622-5. Luria, A. R.; Solotaroff, Lynn (1987). The Man with a Shattered World: The History of a Brain Wound. Harvard University Press.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0674546253" ISBN 0-674-54625-3. Luria, A. R. (1970). Traumatic Aphasia: Its Syndromes, Psychology, and Treatment. Mouton de Gruyter.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=902790717X" ISBN 90-279-0717-X.  HYPERLINK "http://www.wanprc.org/luria/intro.html" \o "http://www.wanprc.org/luria/intro.html" Book summary by Washington University National Primate Research Center Luria, A. R. (1973). The Working Brain. Basic Books.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=046509208X" ISBN 0-465-09208-X. Luria, A.R. (2005). Autobiography of Alexander Luria: A Dialogue with the Making of Mind. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc..  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0805854991" ISBN 0-805-85499-1.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Luria" \l "_ref-0#_ref-0" \o "" ^ Walter J. Ong. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word (second edition). Routledge, London and New York, 2002, pp. 49-54. Karl H. Pribram Karl H. Pribram (born  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_25" \o "February 25" February 25,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1919" \o "1919" 1919 in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna%2C_Austria" \o "Vienna, Austria" Vienna, Austria) is a professor at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgetown_University" \o "Georgetown University" Georgetown University and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Mason_University" \o "George Mason University" George Mason University, and an emeritus professor of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology" \o "Psychology" psychology and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatry" \o "Psychiatry" psychiatry at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University" \o "Stanford University" Stanford University and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radford_University" \o "Radford University" Radford University.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Board_of_Medical_Specialties" \o "American Board of Medical Specialties" Board-certified as a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosurgeon" \o "Neurosurgeon" neurosurgeon, Pribram did pioneering work on the definition of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbic_system" \o "Limbic system" limbic system, the relationship of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontal_cortex" \o "Frontal cortex" frontal cortex to the limbic system, the sensory-specific "association" cortex of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parietal_lobe" \o "Parietal lobe" parietal and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporal_lobe" \o "Temporal lobe" temporal lobes, and the classical  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_cortex" \o "Motor cortex" motor cortex of the human  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain" \o "Brain" brain. To the general public, Pribram is best known for his development of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holonomic_brain_model" \o "Holonomic brain model" holonomic brain model of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_function" \o "Cognitive function" cognitive function and his contribution to ongoing neurological research into memory, emotion, motivation and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness" \o "Consciousness" consciousness. American author  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katherine_Neville" \o "Katherine Neville" Katherine Neville is his significant other. Holonomic model Main article:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holonomic_brain_theory" \o "Holonomic brain theory" Holonomic brain theory Pribram's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography" \o "Holography" holonomic model, developed in collaboration with quantum physicist  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bohm" \o "David Bohm" David Bohm, theorizes that  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory" \o "Memory" memory/information is stored not in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_%28biology%29" \o "Cell (biology)" cells, but rather in wave  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interference_pattern" \o "Interference pattern" interference patterns. Pribram was drawn to this conclusion by two facts: There are  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_cortex" \o "Visual cortex" visual cortex response functions that correspond to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Gabor" \o "Dennis Gabor" Gabor functions, which in turn are related to hologram image functions. Drastic  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesions" \o "Lesions" lesions can be made in animal brains which reduce, but do not extinguish memories (training), as demonstrated by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Lashley" \o "Karl Lashley" Karl Lashley in the 1920s. To formulate his model, Pribram utilized  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_analysis" \o "Fourier analysis" Fourier analysis, based on the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_Theorem" \o "Fourier Theorem" Fourier Theorem, a variation of calculus that transforms complex patterns into component  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sine_waves" \o "Sine waves" sine waves. Some believe that Pribram's theory also explains how the human brain can store so many memories in the engram in such limited space. Pribram believes the brain operates according to the same mathematical principles as a hologram. Bohm has suggested these wave forms may compose hologram-like organizations. Technological advances associated with brain wave patterns, such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroimaging" \o "Neuroimaging" neuroimaging and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcranial_magnetic_stimulation" \o "Transcranial magnetic stimulation" transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), have provided understanding that was foreshadowed by the insights of Pribram and Bohm. TMS offers the potential for improving diagnostic objectivity and the efficacy of psychiatric interventions. Researchers have made significant advances with TMS brain implants, which focus magnetic pulses on specific brain regions, thereby perhaps altering the neurological wave patterns that Pribram describes. Other contributions In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Pribram's work and neurobehavioral experiments established the composition of the limbic system. Over the next decades, much was learned about the function of the limbic system, the executive functions of the anterior  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" \o "Prefrontal cortex" prefrontal cortex, and the role of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basal_ganglia" \o "Basal ganglia" basal ganglia in organizing our emotions and motivations. Pribram also discovered the sensory specific systems of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" \l "association_areas" \o "Cerebral cortex" association cortex, and showed that these systems operate to organize the choices we make among sensory stimuli, not the sensing of the stimuli themselves. Bibliography Books Miller, George; Galanter, Eugene, & Pribram, Karl (1960). Plans and the structure of behavior.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City" \o "New York City" New York:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holt%2C_Rinehart_and_Winston" \o "Holt, Rinehart and Winston" Holt, Rinehart and Winston.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0030100755" ISBN 0030100755. Pribram, Karl H. (1969). Brain and behaviour. Hammondsworth:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penguin_Books" \o "Penguin Books" Penguin Books.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0140805214" ISBN 0140805214. Pribram, Karl (1971). Languages of the brain; experimental paradoxes and principles in neuropsychology.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englewood_Cliffs%2C_New_Jersey" \o "Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey" Englewood Cliffs, N. J.:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prentice-Hall" \o "Prentice-Hall" Prentice-Hall.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0135227305" ISBN 0135227305. Pribram, Karl; Gill, Morton M. (1976). Freud's "Project" re-assessed: preface to contemporary cognitive theory and neuropsychology.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City" \o "New York City" New York: Basic Books.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0465025692" ISBN 0465025692. Pribram, Karl (1991). Brain and perception: holonomy and structure in figural processing.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillsdale%2C_New_Jersey" \o "Hillsdale, New Jersey" Hillsdale, N. J.:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Erlbaum_Associates" \o "Lawrence Erlbaum Associates" Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0898599954" ISBN 0898599954. Globus, Gordon G.; Pribram, Karl "$@BTVhjxz  " $       [ \ b c e f ަhiaVhiaV5OJQJ\^JhiaV0JCJaJjhiaVCJUaJhiaV5CJ\aJ hiaV5\hiaVCJaJhiaVCJaJhiaVjhiaVUmHnHu? 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(? )? >? ?? ? ? ? @ ,@ .@ @ @ @ @ PB RB B B B B D D LE NE fE hE F F VG XG `G bG nG pG H H H H JH LH hVu5\jzhVuU hVuy( hVu0JjhVuUhVuV8 : .< = = H H K O Q Q ] X` bd d p p p p q $x$Ifa$ -D`M gd/Yw -D`M gd/Yw ,],^gdiaVgdVugdVugdVu -D`M gdVuLH H H H H H H 8I :I I I I I "J $J J J J J L L M M M M M M N N N N Q Q R R S S S S hT jT PU RU pU rU U U W W W W Y Y Y Y Y Y dZ fZ [ [ [ "[ \ \ ] ] ] ] ^ ^ 4_ 6_ F_ H_ _ "` a a 6b 8b rb tb xb `d bd d e e f hVu6] hVu0J hVu0JjhVuUhVuYf f f f f f f f f f f f @g Bg Tg Vg Rh Th h h h h j j j j j j j j k k k k :l o Ho Jo Po Ro o o o o p p p p p p p p p p bq dq Ǹh/Yw5B*CJ\aJph&jh/Yw5B*CJU\aJphh/YwmH sH hVuOJQJ^JhVu hVu0JjhVuUEdq q q q q q q q /r 0r Ir Jr Mr Nr r r r r r r s s *s +s .s /s s s s s s s t t t !t $t %t lt mt xt yt zt {t t t t t t t %u &u 5u 6u 7u 8u }u ~u u u u u u u v v ̻h/Yw0JCJaJh/YwB*CJaJph jh/YwB*CJUaJphh/YwCJaJh/Yw5B*\ph&jh/Yw5B*CJU\aJphh/Yw0J5CJ\aJAq q q q |s $$Ifa$zkd$$If0b  062340` ap $$Ifa$q q v | $$Ifa$zkd$$If0b  062340` ap v v v v Vv Wv fv gv hv iv jv v v v v v v v v w w w w Qw Rw _w `w cw dw w w w w w w x x 1x 2x 5x 6x x x x x x x x x x x x x y y &y 'y (y )y ~y y y y y y y y y y 󶬶󶬶󶬶󶬶󶬶󶬶󶬶󶬶󶬶󶬶h/Yw0JCJaJ jh/YwB*CJUaJphh/Yw0J5\h/Yw5B*\phjh/Yw5B*U\phh/YwCJaJh/YwB*CJaJphDv v hv | $$Ifa$zkd$$If0b  062340` ap hv iv z | $$Ifa$zkd\$$If0b  062340` ap y y y *z +z 3z 4z 7z 8z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z >{ ?{ O{ P{ S{ T{ { { { { { { | | | | | | f| g| v| w| z| {| | | | | | | '} (} 8} 9} <} =} } } } } } } } } ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ h/Yw0JB*CJaJphh/Yw5B*\phh/YwCJaJh/Yw0JCJaJ jh/YwB*CJUaJphh/YwB*CJaJphHz z z | $$Ifa$zkd$$If0b  062340` ap z z U | $$Ifa$zkd$$If0b  062340` ap ~ ~ h~ i~ x~ y~ |~ }~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ * + 7 8 ; <            N O S T U V W   + , - .   1 2 3 4 h/Yw0J5\h/Yw5B*\phjh/Yw5B*U\phh/YwCJaJh/Yw0JCJaJh/YwB*CJaJph jh/YwB*CJUaJphDU V | $$Ifa$zkd$$If0b  062340` ap   | $$Ifa$zkdd$$If0b  062340` ap    " # $ %       t u    k l ѡ jh/YwB*CJUaJphh/YwB*CJaJphh/Yw0J5\h/Yw5B*\phjh/Yw5B*U\phh/YwCJaJh/Yw0JCJaJh/YwB*CJaJph jh/YwB*CJUaJph6  | $$Ifa$zkd&$$If0b  062340` ap  L y $$Ifa$gd/Ywzkd$$If0b  062340` ap  e f j k l m n o > @ H J L N : < J L P R ĉ Ɖ Ή Љ ԉ ։ . / 8 9 ; < u v z { Ȋ Ɋ ٷh/Yw0JmH sH jh/YwUmH sH h/Yw6]mH sH h/YwmH sH h/Yw5\mH sH h/YwCJaJh/Yw0JB* CJaJph+h/YwB*CJ aJ phh/YwB*CJaJph jh/YwB*CJUaJphh/Yw0JCJaJ3L N ߌ   %  2 xkxkxxxxx -D`M gd/Yw -D`M gd/Ywzkd$$If0b  062340` ap Ɋ ϊ Њ ъ Ҋ % & 7 8 = > ۋ ܋ I J h i | } ̌ ͌ ܌ ݌ ߌ 7 8 = > Z [ " # 9 : y z   W X k l Œ ƒ D E V W   6 7 f g ʔ h/Yw0JmH sH h/YwmH sH jh/YwUmH sH h/Yw0JmH sH Uʔ ˔ I J a b " # n o | } – M N   ? @ D E Q R י ؙ A B ] ^ 9 : ƛ Ǜ   F G O P Ŝ Ɯ Μ Ϝ Ԝ ՜   " # C D h/Yw0JmH sH h/YwmH sH h/Yw0JmH sH jh/YwUmH sH UD } ~   0 1 p q x y z { П џ ԟ ՟ 6 7 @ A F G ڠ ۠ 5 6 = > 4 5 t u | }   d e q r & ' v w ۤ ܤ 1 2 D E I J h/Yw0JH*mH sH h/YwH*mH sH jh/YwH*UmH sH h/Yw0JmH sH jh/YwUmH sH h/YwmH sH L   f g r s " # F G ͧ Χ  J K S T { | } ~ ǩ ȩ ԩ թ 2 X ˬ ̬   " # v ӷӷh/Yw0J6]mH sH h/Yw0JmH sH h/Yw0JmH sH !h/Yw0J6B*]mH ph"sH h/Yw6]mH sH jh/Yw6U]mH sH h/Yw0JmH sH jh/YwUmH sH h/YwmH sH 82 Y v p c ` a b s ] { dd[$\$gdf_ dd@&[$\$gdf_dd-D`M [$\$gdf_ & F*dd-D`M [$\$gd/Yw & F)dd-D`M [$\$gd/Yw -D`M gd/Yw -D`M gd/Yw -D`M gd/Yw X Y k l m n p ӯ K L ^ _ ` a c x Ȱ ɰ $ % 7 8 9 : ; <   w x h i { | } ~ ˲˲h/Yw>*B*mH phsH jh/YwUmH sH h/Yw0J6]mH sH h/YwmH sH h/Yw0JmH sH h/Yw0JmH sH h/Yw0JmH sH jh/Yw0JUmH sH : Գ ճ ֳ ׳  ` b c s Ѵ Ҵ ݴ ޴    $ % v w    s }yqyqdqyqyqdqyqyqdqyqyqdqyqyhf_hf_>*B*phjhf_Uhf_hf_hf_5\hf_hf_5CJ0KH$\aJ0jhf_UmHnHuhf_CJaJmH sH h/Yw6CJ]aJmH sH h/YwCJaJmH sH h/Yw0J5CJ\aJmH sH h/Yw5CJ\aJmH sH %jh/Yw5CJU\aJmH sH 's t   H I S T X Y ķ ŷ ʷ ˷ ! 3 4 6 7 ¸ ø ɸ ʸ   ! X Y ͹ ι   * + s t Ⱥ ɺ κ Ϻ   ) * > ? 1 2   n o hf_hf_hf_>*B*phjhf_U[ Ƚ ɽ ۽ ܽ / 0 A B ] m { | پ ھ B C L M Ϳ ο ؿ ٿ ( ) / 0 N O   , - l m 8 9 H I   = > hf_hf_6>*B*]phjhf_hf_6U]hf_hf_6]hf_hf_5CJ$\aJ$hf_jhf_Uhf_hf_>*B*phF] m b r A U F > /  & FDdd[$\$gdf_ & FCdd[$\$gdf_ & FBdd[$\$gdf_ & FAdd[$\$gdf_ dd@&[$\$gdf_ & F@dd[$\$gdf_ dd[$\$gdf_^gdf_ dd@&[$\$gdf_  0 1 @ A 1 2 < =     A U R S   ) *   V W _ ` b c ĺįįįįjhf_hf_Uhf_hf_6] hf_hf_hf_hf_5CJ\aJhf_hf_5CJ$\aJ$hf_jhf_Uhf_hf_>*B*phE 2 3 B C E F _ r * + : ; = > T   * + - . y z  j l m   + , . / E c d  hf_hf_6]hf_hf_hf_>*B*phjhf_hf_U hf_hf_S/ & 1 L U ` zk & FMdd[$\$gdf_ & FLdd[$\$gdf_ & FKdd[$\$gdf_ & FJdd[$\$gdf_ & FIdd[$\$gdf_ & FHdd[$\$gdf_ & FGdd[$\$gdf_ dd@&[$\$gdf_ & FFdd[$\$gdf_ & FEdd[$\$gdf_   U V Z [ \ ] ) J K > ? G H J K   " # % & X i k l   - . 0 1 _ 8 9 H hf_hf_5CJ\aJhf_hf_6]hf_hf_>*B*phjhf_hf_UU hf_hf_hf_M H., & Vitiello, Giuseppe ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004" \o "2004" 2004- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_30" \o "September 30" 09-30). Brain And Being: At The Boundary Between Science, Philosophy, Language, And Arts (Advances in Consciousness Research, 58). John Benjamins Publishing Co..  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/158811550X" ISBN 158811550X. Edited by Pribram Pribram, Karl (ed.) (1969). On the biology of learning.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City" \o "New York City" New York:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harcourt_Trade_Publishers" \o "Harcourt Trade Publishers" Harcourt Brace & World.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0155675206" ISBN 0155675206. Pribram, Karl, & Broadbent, Donald (eds.) (1970). Biology of memory.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City" \o "New York City" New York: Academic Press.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0125643500" ISBN 0125643500. Pribram, K. H., & Luria, A. R. (eds.) (1973). Psychophysiology of the frontal lobes.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City" \o "New York City" New York: Academic Press.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0125643403" ISBN 0125643403. Pribram, Karl, & Isaacson, Robert L. (eds.) (1975). The Hippocampus.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City" \o "New York City" New York: Plenum Press.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0306375354" ISBN 0306375354. Pribram, Karl (ed.) (1993). Rethinking neural networks: quantum fields and biological data.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillsdale%2C_New_Jersey" \o "Hillsdale, New Jersey" Hillsdale, N. J.:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Erlbaum_Associates" \o "Lawrence Erlbaum Associates" Erlbaum.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0805814663" ISBN 0805814663. Pribram, Karl (ed.) (1994). Origins: brain and self organization.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillsdale%2C_New_Jersey" \o "Hillsdale, New Jersey" Hillsdale, N. J.:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Erlbaum_Associates" \o "Lawrence Erlbaum Associates" Lawrence Erlbaum.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0805817867" ISBN 0805817867. King, Joseph, & Pribram, Karl (eds.) (1995). Scale in conscious experience: Is the brain too important to be left to the specialists to study?.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahwah%2C_New_Jersey" \o "Mahwah, New Jersey" Mahwah, N. J.:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Erlbaum_Associates" \o "Lawrence Erlbaum Associates" Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0805821783" ISBN 0805821783. Pribram, Karl, &K ing, Joseph (eds.) (1996). Learning as self-organization.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahwah%2C_New_Jersey" \o "Mahwah, New Jersey" Mahwah, N. J.:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Erlbaum_Associates" \o "Lawrence Erlbaum Associates" L. Erlbaum Associates.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/080582586X" ISBN 080582586X. Pribram, Karl (ed.) (1998). Brain and values: is a biological science of values possible.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahwah%2C_New_Jersey" \o "Mahwah, New Jersey" Mahwah, N. J.:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Erlbaum_Associates" \o "Lawrence Erlbaum Associates" Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0805831541" ISBN 0805831541. Articles Pribram, Karl (2004).  HYPERLINK "http://www.paricenter.com/library/papers/pribram01.php" \o "http://www.paricenter.com/library/papers/pribram01.php" Brain and Mathematics. Pari Center for New Learning. Retrieved on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" \o "2007" 2007- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_25" \o "October 25" 10-25.  HYPERLINK "http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/%7Ethegroundoffaith/issues/2003-10/pribram.html" \o "http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~thegroundoffaith/issues/2003-10/pribram.html" Like Bohm, Karl Pribram sees the holographic nature of reality. The Ground of Faith (October 2003). Retrieved on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" \o "2007" 2007- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_25" \o "October 25" 10-25. Mishlove, Jeffrey (1998).  HYPERLINK "http://twm.co.nz/pribram.htm" \o "http://twm.co.nz/pribram.htm" The Holographic Brain with Karl Pribram, Ph.D.. TWM.co.nz. Retrieved on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" \o "2007" 2007- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_25" \o "October 25" 10-25. External links  HYPERLINK "http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/%7Esai/pribram.htm" \o "http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~sai/pribram.htm" "The Holographic Brain" - Dr. Jeffrey Mishlove interviews Karl Pribham  HYPERLINK "http://www.acsa2000.net/bcngroup/jponkp/" \o "http://www.acsa2000.net/bcngroup/jponkp/" "Comparison between Holographic Brain Theory and conventional models of neuronal computation" academic paper on Pribham's work  HYPERLINK "http://www.katherineneville.com/karl_havel_prize.htm" \o "http://www.katherineneville.com/karl_havel_prize.htm" "Pribram Receives Havel Prize For His Work in Neuroscience" news article  HYPERLINK "http://www.immaginehdv.com/detail.php?c=2&i=b90c95bf29b3909ced9b95a10d865cd329684d33" \o "http://www.immaginehdv.com/detail.php?c=2&i=b90c95bf29b3909ced9b95a10d865cd329684d33" Global Lens Interview (Video) David Bohm David Bohm David Joseph Bohm (1917-1992)Born HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_20" \o "December 20" December 20,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1917" \o "1917" 1917(1917-12-20)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilkes-Barre%2C_Pennsylvania" \o "Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania" Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA" \o "USA" USADied HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_27" \o "October 27" October 27,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992" \o "1992" 1992 (aged74)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London" \o "London" London,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK" \o "UK" UKResidence HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" USACitizenship HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg" \o "Flag of the United Kingdom.svg"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom" \o "United Kingdom" BritishNationality HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" \o "Flag of the United States.svg"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" AmericanEthnicity HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian" \o "Hungarian" Hungarian- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian" \o "Lithuanian" Lithuanian- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish" \o "Jewish" JewishFields HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics" \o "Physics" PhysicistInstitutions HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Project" \o "Manhattan Project" Manhattan Project  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University" \o "Princeton University" Princeton University  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_S%C3%A3o_Paulo" \o "University of So Paulo" University of So Paulo  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technion" \o "Technion" Technion  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Bristol" \o "University of Bristol" University of Bristol  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birkbeck%2C_University_of_London" \o "Birkbeck, University of London" Birkbeck College HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alma_mater" \o "Alma mater" Alma mater HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_College%2C_Pennsylvania" \o "State College, Pennsylvania" Pennsylvania State College  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology" \o "California Institute of Technology" California Institute of Technology  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Berkeley" \o "University of California, Berkeley" University of California, Berkeley HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctorate" \o "Doctorate" Doctoral advisor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimer" \o "Robert Oppenheimer" Robert OppenheimerDoctoral students HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakir_Aharonov" \o "Yakir Aharonov" Yakir Aharonov  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Pines" \o "David Pines" David Pines  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Henri_Bortoft&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Henri Bortoft (page does not exist)" Henri BortoftOther notablestudents HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Sarfatti" \o "Jack Sarfatti" Jack SarfattiKnownfor HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohm-diffusion" \o "Bohm-diffusion" Bohm-diffusion  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohm_interpretation" \o "Bohm interpretation" Bohm interpretation  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aharonov-Bohm_effect" \o "Aharonov-Bohm effect" Aharonov-Bohm effect  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holonomic_model" \o "Holonomic model" Holonomic model  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohm_Dialogue" \o "Bohm Dialogue" Bohm DialogueInfluences HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein" \o "Albert Einstein" Albert Einstein  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddu_Krishnamurti" \o "Jiddu Krishnamurti" Jiddu KrishnamurtiInfluenced HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stewart_Bell" \o "John Stewart Bell" John Stewart BellDavid Joseph Bohm (b.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_20" \o "December 20" December 20,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1917" \o "1917" 1917,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilkes-Barre%2C_Pennsylvania" \o "Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania" Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania - d.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_27" \o "October 27" October 27,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992" \o "1992" 1992,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London" \o "London" London) was an  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" American-born  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" \o "Quantum mechanics" quantum  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicist" \o "Physicist" physicist who made significant contributions in the fields of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_physics" \o "Theoretical physics" theoretical physics,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy" \o "Philosophy" philosophy and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychology" \o "Neuropsychology" neuropsychology, and to the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Project" \o "Manhattan Project" Manhattan Project. Biography Youth and college Bohm was born in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilkes-Barre%2C_Pennsylvania" \o "Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania" Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania to a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary" \o "Hungary" Hungarian  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish" \o "Jewish" Jewish  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigrant" \o "Immigrant" immigrant father and a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_Jewish" \o "Lithuanian Jewish" Lithuanian Jewish mother. He was raised mainly by his father, a furniture store owner and assistant of the local  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabbi" \o "Rabbi" rabbi. Bohm attended  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_College%2C_Pennsylvania" \o "State College, Pennsylvania" Pennsylvania State College, graduating in 1939, and then headed west to the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology" \o "California Institute of Technology" California Institute of Technology for a year, and then transferred to the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_physics" \o "Theoretical physics" theoretical physics group under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimer" \o "Robert Oppenheimer" Robert Oppenheimer at the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Berkeley" \o "University of California, Berkeley" University of California, Berkeley, where he was to obtain his doctorate degree. Bohm lived in the same neighborhood as some of Oppenheimer's other graduate students ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Rossi_Lomanitz" \o "Giovanni Rossi Lomanitz" Giovanni Rossi Lomanitz, Joseph Weinberg, and Max Friedman) and with them became increasingly involved not only with physics, but with  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radicalization" \o "Radicalization" radical politics. Bohm gravitated to alternative models of society and became active in organizations like the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Communist_League%2C_USA" \o "Young Communist League, USA" Young Communist League, the Campus Committee to Fight Conscription, and the Committee for Peace Mobilization all later branded as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communism" \o "Communism" Communist organizations by the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FBI" \o "FBI" FBI under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover" \o "J. Edgar Hoover" J. Edgar Hoover. Work and doctorate Manhattan Project Contributions During  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" \o "World War II" World War II, the Manhattan Project mobilized much of Berkeley's physics research in the effort to produce the first  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_bomb" \o "Atomic bomb" atomic bomb. Though Oppenheimer had asked Bohm to work with him at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" \o "Los Alamos National Laboratory" Los Alamos, the top-secret laboratory established in 1942 to design the bomb, the head of the Manhattan Project, General  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_Groves" \o "Leslie Groves" Leslie Groves, would not approve Bohm's security clearance, after tip-offs about his politics (Bohm's friend, Joseph Weinberg, had also come under suspicion for  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espionage" \o "Espionage" espionage). Bohm remained in Berkeley, teaching physics, until he completed his Ph.D. in 1943, under an unusually ironic circumstance. According to Peat (see reference below, p.64), "the scattering calculations (of collisions of protons and deuterons) that he had completed proved useful to the Manhattan Project and were immediately classified. Without security clearance, Bohm was denied access to his own work; not only would he be barred from defending his thesis, he was not even allowed to write his own thesis in the first place!" To satisfy the university, Oppenheimer certified that Bohm had successfully completed the research. He later performed theoretical calculations for the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calutron" \o "Calutron" Calutrons at the Y-12 facility in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oak_Ridge%2C_Tennessee" \o "Oak Ridge, Tennessee" Oak Ridge, used to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotope_separation" \l "Electromagnetic" \o "Isotope separation" electromagnetically enrich uranium for use in the bomb dropped on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiroshima" \o "Hiroshima" Hiroshima in 1945. McCarthyism leads to Bohm leaving the United States After the war, Bohm became an assistant professor at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University" \o "Princeton University" Princeton University, where he worked closely with  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein" \o "Albert Einstein" Albert Einstein. In May, 1949, at the beginning of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McCarthyism" \o "McCarthyism" McCarthyism period, the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_Un-American_Activities_Committee" \o "House Un-American Activities Committee" House Un-American Activities Committee called upon Bohm to testify before it because of his previous ties to suspected Communists. Bohm, however, pleaded the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth_amendment_rights_of_witness" \o "Fifth amendment rights of witness" Fifth amendment right to decline to testify, and refused to give evidence against his colleagues. In 1950, Bohm was charged for refusing to answer questions before the Committee and arrested. He was acquitted in May, 1951, but Princeton had already suspended him. After the acquittal, Bohm's colleagues sought to have his position at Princeton re-instated, and Einstein reportedly wanted Bohm to serve as his assistant. The university, however, did not renew his contract. Bohm then left for  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil" \o "Brazil" Brazil to take up a Chair in Physics at the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_S%C3%A3o_Paulo" \o "University of So Paulo" University of So Paulo. Quantum theory and Bohm-diffusion During this early period, Bohm made a number of significant contributions to physics, particularly in the area of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" \o "Quantum mechanics" quantum mechanics and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativity_theory" \o "Relativity theory" relativity theory. While still a post-graduate at Berkeley, he developed a theory of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_%28physics%29" \o "Plasma (physics)" plasmas, discovering the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron" \o "Electron" electron phenomenon now known as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohm-diffusion" \o "Bohm-diffusion" Bohm-diffusion. His first book, Quantum Theory published in 1951, was well-received by Einstein, among others. However, Bohm became dissatisfied with the orthodox approach to quantum theory, which he had written about in that book, and began to develop his own approach ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohm_interpretation" \o "Bohm interpretation" Bohm interpretation) a non- HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locality_principle" \o "Locality principle" local  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_variable_theories" \o "Hidden variable theories" hidden variable deterministic theory whose predictions agree perfectly with the nondeterministic quantum theory. His work and the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPR_paradox" \o "EPR paradox" EPR argument became the major factor motivating  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stewart_Bell" \o "John Stewart Bell" John Bell's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%27s_inequality" \o "Bell's inequality" inequality, whose consequences are still being investigated. The Aharonov-Bohm effect In 1955 Bohm moved to Israel, where he spent two years at the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technion" \o "Technion" Technion at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haifa" \o "Haifa" Haifa. Here he met his wife Saral, who became an important figure in the development of his ideas. In 1957, Bohm moved to the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom" \o "United Kingdom" UK as a research fellow at the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Bristol" \o "University of Bristol" University of Bristol. In 1959, with his student  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakir_Aharonov" \o "Yakir Aharonov" Yakir Aharonov, they discovered the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aharonov-Bohm_effect" \o "Aharonov-Bohm effect" Aharonov-Bohm effect, showing how an electro-magnetic field could affect a region of space in which the field had been shielded, although its vector potential did exist there. This showed for the first time that the vector potential, hitherto a mathematical convenience, could have real physical (quantum) effects. In 1961, Bohm was made Professor of Theoretical Physics at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birkbeck%2C_University_of_London" \o "Birkbeck, University of London" Birkbeck College  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London" \o "London" London, where his  HYPERLINK "http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?coll_id=3070&inst_id=33" \o "http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?coll_id=3070&inst_id=33" collected papers are kept. Bridging science, philosophy, and cognition Bohm's scientific and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy" \o "Philosophy" philosophical views seemed inseparable. In 1959, his wife Saral recommended to him a book by the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" \o "India" Indian philosopher  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddu_Krishnamurti" \o "Jiddu Krishnamurti" Jiddu Krishnamurti that she had seen in a library. He found himself impressed by the way his own ideas on quantum mechanics meshed with the philosophical ideas of Krishnamurti. Bohm's approach to philosophy and physics receive expression in his 1980 book  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wholeness_and_the_Implicate_Order" \o "Wholeness and the Implicate Order" Wholeness and the Implicate Order, and in his 1987 book Science, Order and Creativity. Bohm and Krishnamurti went on to become close friends for over 25 years, with a deep mutual interest in philosophy and the state of humanity. The holonomic model of the brain Bohm also made significant theoretical contributions to neuropsychology and the development of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holonomic_model" \o "Holonomic model" holonomic model of the functioning of the brain. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bohm" \l "cite_note-0" \o "" [1] In collaboration with  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford" \o "Stanford" Stanford neuroscientist  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_H._Pribram" \o "Karl H. Pribram" Karl Pribram, Bohm helped establish the foundation for Pribram's theory that the brain operates in a manner similar to a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hologram" \o "Hologram" hologram, in accordance with quantum mathematical principles and the characteristics of wave patterns. These wave forms may compose hologram-like organizations, Bohm suggested, basing this concept on his application of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_analysis" \o "Fourier analysis" Fourier analysis, a mathematical method for decomposing complex waves into component  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sine" \o "Sine" sine waves. The holonomic brain model developed by Pribram and Bohm posits a lens defined world view much like the textured prismatic effect of sunlight refracted by the churning mists of a rainbow a view which is quite different from the more conventional "objective" approach. Pribram held that if psychology means to understand the conditions that produce the world of appearances, it must look to the thinking of physicists like Bohm. HYPERLINK "http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/%7Esai/pribram.htm" \o "http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~sai/pribram.htm" [1] Thought as a System Bohm was alarmed by what he considered an increasing imbalance of not only 'man' and nature, but among peoples, as well as people, themselves. Bohm: "So one begins to wonder what is going to happen to the human race. Technology keeps on advancing with greater and greater power, either for good or for destruction." He goes on to ask: What is the source of all this trouble? I'm saying that the source is basically in thought. Many people would think that such a statement is crazy, because thought is the one thing we have with which to solve our problems. That's part of our tradition. Yet it looks as if the thing we use to solve our problems with is the source of our problems. It's like going to the doctor and having him make you ill. In fact, in 20% of medical cases we do apparently have that going on. But in the case of thought, it's far over 20%. In Bohm's view: ...the general tacit assumption in thought is that it's just telling you the way things are and that it's not doing anything - that 'you' are inside there, deciding what to do with the info. But you don't decide what to do with the info. Thought runs you. Thought, however, gives false info that you are running it, that you are the one who controls thought. Whereas actually thought is the one which controls each one of us. Thought is creating divisions out of itself and then saying that they are there naturally. This is another major feature of thought: Thought doesn't know it is doing something and then it struggles against what it is doing. It doesn't want to know that it is doing it. And thought struggles against the results, trying to avoid those unpleasant results while keeping on with that way of thinking. That is what I call "sustained incoherence". Bohm thus proposes in his book, Thought as a System, a pervasive, systematic nature of thought: What I mean by "thought" is the whole thing - thought, felt, the body, the whole society sharing thoughts - it's all one process. It is essential for me not to break that up, because it's all one process; somebody else's thoughts becomes my thoughts, and vice versa. Therefore it would be wrong and misleading to break it up into my thoughts, your thoughts, my feelings, these feelings, those feelings... I would say that thought makes what is often called in modern language a system. A system means a set of connected things or parts. But the way people commonly use the word nowadays it means something all of whose parts are mutually interdependent - not only for their mutual action, but for their meaning and for their existence. A corporation is organized as a system - it has this department, that department, that department. They don't have any meaning separately; they only can function together. And also the body is a system. Society is a system in some sense. And so on. Similarly, thought is a system. That system not only includes thoughts, "felts" and feelings, but it includes the state of the body; it includes the whole of society - as thought is passing back and forth between people in a process by which thought evolved from ancient times. A system is constantly engaged in a process of development, change, evolution and structure changes...although there are certain features of the system which become relatively fixed. We call this the structure.... Thought has been constantly evolving and we can't say when that structure began. But with the growth of civilization it has developed a great deal. It was probably very simple thought before civilization, and now it has become very complex and ramified and has much more incoherence than before. Now, I say that this system has a fault in it - a "systematic fault". It is not a fault here, there or here, but it is a fault that is all throughout the system. Can you picture that? It is everywhere and nowhere. You may say "I see a problem here, so I will bring my thoughts to bear on this problem". But "my" thought is part of the system. It has the same fault as the fault I'm trying to look at, or a similar fault. Thought is constantly creating problems that way and then trying to solve them. But as it tries to solve them it makes it worse because it doesnt notice that it's creating them, and the more it thinks, the more problems it creates. (P. 18-19) Bohm Dialogue To address societal problems in his later years, Bohm wrote a proposal for a solution that has become known as " HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohm_Dialogue" \o "Bohm Dialogue" Bohm Dialogue", in which equal status and "free space" form the most important prerequisites of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication" \o "Communication" communication and the appreciation of differing personal beliefs. He suggested that if these Dialogue groups were experienced on a sufficiently wide scale, they could help overcome the isolation and fragmentation Bohm observed was inherent in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society" \o "Society" society. Later years Bohm continued his work in quantum physics past his retirement in 1987. His final work, the posthumously published The Undivided Universe: An  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontological" \o "Ontological" ontological interpretation of quantum theory (1993), resulted from a decades-long collaboration with his colleague  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Basil_Hiley&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Basil Hiley (page does not exist)" Basil Hiley. He also spoke to audiences across Europe and North America on the importance of dialogue as a form of sociotherapy, a concept he borrowed from London psychiatrist and practitioner of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_Analysis" \o "Group Analysis" Group Analysis  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_De_Mare" \o "Patrick De Mare" Patrick De Mare, and had a series of meetings with the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalai_Lama" \o "Dalai Lama" Dalai Lama. He was elected  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" \o "Fellow of the Royal Society" Fellow of the Royal Society in 1990. David Bohm died of a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myocardial_infarction" \o "Myocardial infarction" heart attack in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London" \o "London" London on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_27" \o "October 27" October 27,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992" \o "1992" 1992, aged 74. Publications 1951. Quantum Theory, New York: Prentice Hall. 1989 reprint, New York: Dover,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0486659690" ISBN 0-486-65969-0 1957. Causality and Chance in Modern Physics, 1961 Harper edition reprinted in 1980 by Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania Press,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0812210026" ISBN 0-8122-1002-6 1962. Quanta and Reality, A Symposium, with  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N._R._Hanson" \o "N. R. Hanson" N. R. Hanson and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_B._Hesse" \o "Mary B. Hesse" Mary B. Hesse, from a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC" \o "BBC" BBC program published by the American Research Council 1965. The Special Theory of Relativity, New York: W.A. Benjamin. 1980. Wholeness and the Implicate Order, London: Routledge,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0710009712" ISBN 0-7100-0971-2, 1983 Ark paperback:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0744800005" ISBN 0-7448-0000-5, 2002 paperback:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415289793" ISBN 0-415-28979-3 1985. Unfolding Meaning: A weekend of dialogue with David Bohm (Donald Factor, editor), Gloucestershire: Foundation House,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0948325003" ISBN 0-948325-00-3, 1987 Ark paperback:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0744800641" ISBN 0-7448-0064-1, 1996 Routledge paperback:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415136385" ISBN 0-415-13638-5 1985. The Ending of Time, with Jiddu Krishnamurti, San Francisco, CA: Harper,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0060647965" ISBN 0-06-064796-5. 1987. Science, Order and Creativity, with  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._David_Peat" \o "F. David Peat" F. David Peat. London: Routledge. 2nd ed. 2000.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415171822" ISBN 0-415-17182-2. 1991. Changing Consciousness: Exploring the Hidden Source of the Social, Political and Environmental Crises Facing our World (a dialogue of words and images), coauthor Mark Edwards, Harper San Francisco,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0062500724" ISBN 0-06-250072-4 1992. Thought as a System (transcript of seminar held in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ojai%2C_California" \o "Ojai, California" Ojai, California, from  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_30" \o "November 30" November 30 to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_2" \o "December 2" December 2,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990" \o "1990" 1990), London: Routledge.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415119804" ISBN 0-415-11980-4. 1993. The Undivided Universe: An ontological interpretation of quantum theory, with  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=B.J._Hiley&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "B.J. Hiley (page does not exist)" B.J. Hiley, London: Routledge,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/041512185X" ISBN 0-415-12185-X (final work) 1996. On Dialogue. editor Lee Nichol. London: Routledge, hardcover:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415149118" ISBN 0-415-14911-8, paperback:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415149126" ISBN 0-415-14912-6, 2004 edition:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415336414" ISBN 0-415-33641-4 1998. On Creativity, editor Lee Nichol. London: Routledge, hardcover:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415173957" ISBN 0-415-17395-7, paperback:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415173965" ISBN 0-415-17396-5, 2004 edition:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415336406" ISBN 0-415-33640-6 1999. Limits of Thought: Discussions, with Jiddu Krishnamurti, London: Routledge,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415193982" ISBN 0-415-19398-2. 1999. Bohm-Biederman Correspondence: Creativity and Science, with Charles Biederman. editor Paavo Pylkknen.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415162254" ISBN 0-415-16225-4. 2002. The Essential David Bohm. editor Lee Nichol. London: Routledge,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415261740" ISBN 0-415-26174-0. preface by the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalai_Lama" \o "Dalai Lama" Dalai Lama See also  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aharonov-Bohm_effect" \o "Aharonov-Bohm effect" Aharonov-Bohm effect  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohm_diffusion" \o "Bohm diffusion" Bohm diffusion of a plasma in a magnetic field  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohm_interpretation" \o "Bohm interpretation" Bohm interpretation  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correspondence_principle" \o "Correspondence principle" Correspondence principle  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPR_paradox" \o "EPR paradox" EPR paradox  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Holomovement&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Holomovement (page does not exist)" Holomovement  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicate_and_Explicate_Order" \o "Implicate and Explicate Order" Implicate and Explicate Order  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stewart_Bell" \o "John Stewart Bell" John Stewart Bell  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Pribram" \o "Karl Pribram" Karl Pribram  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McCarthyism" \o "McCarthyism" McCarthyism  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debye_sheath" \l "The_Bohm_sheath_criterion" \o "Debye sheath" The Bohm sheath criterion, which states that a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_%28physics%29" \o "Plasma (physics)" plasma must flow with at least the speed of sound toward a solid surface Influence on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joh_David_Garcia&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Joh David Garcia (page does not exist)" Joh David Garcia References  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bohm" \l "cite_ref-0" \o "" ^  HYPERLINK "http://www.acsa2000.net/bcngroup/jponkp/" \l "chap4" \o "http://www.acsa2000.net/bcngroup/jponkp/#chap4" Comparison between Karl Pribram's "Holographic Brain Theory" and more conventional models of neuronal computation "Bohm's Alternative to Quantum Mechanics", David Z. Albert,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_American" \o "Scientific American" Scientific American (May,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994" \o "1994" 1994) Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller, Herken, Gregg, New York: Henry Holt (2002)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/080506589X" ISBN 0-8050-6589-X (information on Bohm's work at Berkeley and his dealings with  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HUAC" \o "HUAC" HUAC) Infinite Potential: the Life and Times of David Bohm, F. David Peat, Reading, MA: Addison Wesley (1997),  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0201406357" ISBN 0-201-40635-7  HYPERLINK "http://www.fdavidpeat.com/" \o "http://www.fdavidpeat.com/" DavidPeat.com Quantum Implications: Essays in Honour of David Bohm, (B.J. Hiley, F. David Peat, editors), London: Routledge (1987),  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415069602" ISBN 0-415-06960-2 Thought as a System (transcript of seminar held in Ojai, California, from November 30 to December 2, 1990), London: Routledge. (1992)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0415119804" ISBN 0-415-11980-4. The Quantum Theory of Motion: an account of the de Broglie-Bohm Causal Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics, Peter R. Holland, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (2000)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0921484539" ISBN 0-921-48453-9. External links  HYPERLINK "http://www.david-bohm.net" \o "http://www.david-bohm.net" English site for David Bohm's ideas about Dialogue.  HYPERLINK "http://www.david-bohm.org/mailman/listinfo/bohm_dialogue" \o "http://www.david-bohm.org/mailman/listinfo/bohm_dialogue" Moderated Dialogue Group Participate in an international English-speaking Bohm Dialogue group, by list server email.  HYPERLINK "http://thinkg.net/TT" \o "http://thinkg.net/TT" TT The Table unmoderated Bohm dialogue by private email.  HYPERLINK "http://www.thinkg.net/david_bohm/" \o "http://www.thinkg.net/david_bohm/" the David_Bohm_Hub From thinkg.net, with compilations of David Bohm's life and work in form of texts, audio, video, and pictures.  HYPERLINK "http://www.vision.net.au/%7Eapaterson/science/david_bohm.htm" \l "BOHM%27S%20LEGACY" \o "http://www.vision.net.au/~apaterson/science/david_bohm.htm#BOHM'S%20LEGACY" Lifework of David Bohm: River of Truth: Article by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Will_Keepin&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Will Keepin (page does not exist)" Will Keepin  HYPERLINK "http://www.dialogos.com" \o "http://www.dialogos.com" Dialogos: Consulting group, originally founded by Bohm colleagues William Isaacs and Peter Garrett, aiming to bring Bohm dialogue into organizations.  HYPERLINK "http://www.fdavidpeat.com/interviews/bohm.htm" \o "http://www.fdavidpeat.com/interviews/bohm.htm" Interview with David Bohm provided and conducted by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._David_Peat" \o "F. David Peat" F. David Peat along with  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Briggs_%28author%29" \o "John Briggs (author)" John Briggs, first issued in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omni_%28magazine%29" \o "Omni (magazine)" Omni magazine, January 1987  HYPERLINK "http://www.wie.org/j11/peat.asp" \o "http://www.wie.org/j11/peat.asp" David Bohm and Krishnamurti  HYPERLINK "http://bibliotraducciones.com/autores/bohm-david.html" \o "http://bibliotraducciones.com/autores/bohm-david.html" Bibliography in Spanish [ HYPERLINK "javascript:collapseTable(0);" hide]  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Manhattan_Project" \o "Template:Manhattan Project" v HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Manhattan_Project&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Template talk:Manhattan Project (page does not exist)" d HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Manhattan_Project&action=edit" \o "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Manhattan_Project&action=edit" e  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Project" \o "Manhattan Project" Manhattan ProjectProject Sites HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanford_Site" \o "Hanford Site" Hanford Engineer Works  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oak_Ridge_National_Laboratory" \o "Oak Ridge National Laboratory" Oak Ridge, Tennessee  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" \o "Los Alamos National Laboratory" Los Alamos, New Mexico  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Berkeley_National_Laboratory" \o "Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory" Berkeley Radiation Laboratory  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" \o "Metallurgical Laboratory" Chicago Metallurgical Laboratory  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_Test" \o "Trinity Test" Trinity Test Site  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Alberta" \o "Project Alberta" Project Alberta  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ames_Laboratory" \o "Ames Laboratory" Project Ames  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayton_Project" \o "Dayton Project" Dayton Project HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Atom_diagram.png" \o "Atom diagram.png"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/d8/Atom_diagram.png/100px-Atom_diagram.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET People HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimer" \o "Robert Oppenheimer" Robert Oppenheimer  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_Groves" \o "Leslie Groves" Leslie Groves  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" \o "Enrico Fermi" Enrico Fermi David Bohm  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" \o "Emilio Segr" Emilio Segr  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Teller" \o "Edward Teller" Edward TellerRelated Articles HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Manhattan_Project" \o "Timeline of the Manhattan Project" Timeline of the Manhattan Project  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" \o "History of nuclear weapons" History of nuclear weapons  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_and_the_United_States" \o "Nuclear weapons and the United States" Nuclear weapons and the United States  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-1_Uranium_Committee" \o "S-1 Uranium Committee" S-1 Uranium Committee  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" \o "Chicago Pile-1" Chicago Pile-1  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-10_Graphite_Reactor" \o "X-10 Graphite Reactor" X-10 Graphite Reactor  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-12_National_Security_Complex" \o "Y-12 National Security Complex" Y-12 National Security Complex  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Alsos" \o "Operation Alsos" Operation Alsos  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smyth_Report" \o "Smyth Report" Smyth Report  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/509th_Operations_Group" \o "509th Operations Group" 509th Operations Group  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat_Man" \o "Fat Man" Fat Man  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Boy" \o "Little Boy" Little Boy  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" \o "Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki" Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debate_over_the_atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" \o "Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki" debate) Arthur Lester Benton Arthur Lester Benton, Ph.D., ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_16" \o "October 16" October 16,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1909" \o "1909" 1909  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_27" \o "December 27" December 27,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006" \o "2006" 2006) was a neuropsychologist and Emeritus Professor of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurology" \o "Neurology" Neurology and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology" \o "Psychology" Psychology at the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Iowa" \o "University of Iowa" University of Iowa. He received his A.B. from  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberlin_College" \o "Oberlin College" Oberlin College in 1931, his A.M. from Oberlin College in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1933" \o "1933" 1933 and his Ph.D. from  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University" \o "Columbia University" Columbia University in 1935. He established a Neuropsychology Laboratory in the Neurology Department at the University of Iowa School of Medicine in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1940s" \o "1940s" 1940s; the lab remains and now bears his name. He was the author of numerous books and the creator of a number of neuropsychological testing instruments, including the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benton_Visual_Retention_Test" \o "Benton Visual Retention Test" Benton Visual Retention Test (BVRT). He died in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenview%2C_Illinois" \o "Glenview, Illinois" Glenview, Illinois from complications of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emphysema" \o "Emphysema" emphysema. Lev Vygotsky Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (Russian: 52 !5<Q=>28G K3>BA:89) ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_17" \o "November 17" November 17 ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_5" \o "November 5" November 5  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" \o "Old Style and New Style dates" Old Style),  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1896" \o "1896" 1896  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_11" \o "June 11" June 11,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1934" \o "1934" 1934) was a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet" \o "Soviet" Soviet  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_psychology" \o "Developmental psychology" developmental psychologist and the founder of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural-historical_psychology" \o "Cultural-historical psychology" cultural-historical psychology. Biography Lev Vygotsky, psychologist, was born in 1896 in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orsha" \o "Orsha" Orsha, in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire" \o "Russian Empire" Russian Empire (today in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus" \o "Belarus" Belarus). Vygotsky was tutored privately by Solomon Ashpiz and graduated from  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University" \o "Moscow State University" Moscow State University in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1917" \o "1917" 1917. Later, he attended the Institute of Psychology in Moscow (192434), where he worked extensively on ideas about cognitive development, particularly the relationship between language and thinking. His writings emphasized the roles of historical, cultural, and social factors in cognition and argued that language was the most important symbolic tool provided by society. Vygotsky died of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis" \o "Tuberculosis" tuberculosis in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1934" \o "1934" 1934, leaving a wealth of work that is still being explored. Work A pioneering psychologist, Vygotsky was also a highly prolific author: his major works span 6 volumes, written over roughly 10 years, from his Psychology of Art (1925) to Thought and Language [or Thinking and Speech] (1934). Vygotsky's interests in the fields of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_psychology" \o "Developmental psychology" developmental psychology,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_development" \o "Child development" child development, and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education" \o "Education" education were extremely diverse. His innovative work in psychology includes several key concepts such as psychological tools, mediation, internalization and the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_of_proximal_development" \o "Zone of proximal development" zone of proximal development. His work covered such diverse topics as the origin and the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_art" \o "Psychology of art" psychology of art, development of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Higher_mental_function&action=edit" \o "Higher mental function" higher mental functions,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" \o "Philosophy of science" philosophy of science and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology" \o "Methodology" methodology of psychological research, the relation between  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning" \o "Learning" learning and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_development" \o "Human development" human development, concept formation, interrelation between  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_and_thought" \o "Language and thought" language and thought development, play as a psychological phenomenon, the study of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_disabilities" \o "Learning disabilities" learning disabilities and abnormal human development (aka  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Defectology&action=edit" \o "Defectology" defectology). Cultural mediation and internalization Vygotsky investigated child development and how this was guided by the role of culture and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_communication" \o "Interpersonal communication" interpersonal communication. Vygotsky observed how higher mental functions developed historically within particular cultural groups, as well as individually through social interactions with significant people in a child's life, particularly parents, but also other adults. Through these interactions, a child came to learn the habits of mind of her/his culture, including speech patterns, written language, and other symbolic knowledge through which the child derives meaning and affected a child's construction of her/his knowledge. This key premise of Vygotskian psychology is often referred to as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_mediation" \o "Cultural mediation" cultural mediation. The specific knowledge gained by children through these interactions also represented the shared knowledge of a culture. This process is known as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internalization" \o "Internalization" internalization. Internalization can be understood in one respect as knowing how. For example, riding a bicycle or pouring a cup of milk are tools of the society and initially outside and beyond the child. The mastery of these skills occurs through the activity of the child within society. A further aspect of internalization is appropriation in which the child takes a tool and makes it his own, perhaps using it in a way unique to himself. Internalizing the use of a pencil allows the child to use it very much for his own ends rather than draw exactly what others in society have drawn previously. Psychology of play Lesser known is his research on play, or child's game as a psychological phenomenon and its role in the child's development. Through play the child develops abstract meaning separate from the objects in the world which is a critical feature in the development of higher mental functions. The famous example Vygotsky gives is of a child who wants to ride a horse but he cannot. As a child under three, he would perhaps cry and be angry, but around the age of three the child's relationship with the world changes, "Henceforth play is such that the explanation for it must always be that it is the imaginary, illusory realization of unrealizable desires. Imagination is a new formation that is not present in the consciousness of the very young child, is totally absent in animals, and represents a specifically human form of conscious activity. Like all functions of consciousness, it originally arises from action." (Vygotsky, 1978) He wishes to ride a horse but cannot, so he picks up a stick and stands astride of it, thus pretending he is riding a horse. The stick is a pivot. "Action according to rules begins to be determined by ideas, not by objects..... It is terribly difficult for a child to sever thought (the meaning of a word) from object. Play is a transitional stage in this direction. At that critical moment when a stick i.e., an object becomes a pivot for severing the meaning of horse from a real horse, one of the basic psychological structures determining the childs relationship to reality is radically altered". As children get older, their reliance on pivots such as sticks, dolls and other toys diminishes. They have internalized these pivots as imagination and abstract concepts through which they can understand the world. "The old adage that childrens play is imagination in action can be reversed: we can say that imagination in adolescents and schoolchildren is play without action" (Vygotsky, 1978). Another aspect of play that Vygotsky referred to was the development of social rules that develop, for example, when 'children play house and adopt the roles of different family members. Vygotsky cites an example of two sisters playing at being sisters. The rules of behavior between them that go unnoticed in daily life are consciously acquired through play. As well as social rules the child acquires what we now refer to as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-regulation" \o "Self-regulation" self-regulation. For example, as a child stands at the starting line of a running race, she may well desire to run immediately so as to reach the finish line first, but her knowledge of the social rules surrounding the game and her desire to enjoy the game enable her to regulate her initial impulse and wait for the start signal. Thinking and Speaking Perhaps Vygotsky's most important contribution concerns the inter-relationship of language development and thought. This concept, explored in Vygotsky's book Thinking and Speaking, establishes the explicit and profound connection between speech (both silent inner speech and oral language), and the development of mental concepts and cognitive awareness. It should be noted that Vygotsky described inner speech as being qualitatively different than normal (external) speech. Although Vygotsky believed inner speech to develop from external speech via a gradual process of internalization, with younger children only really able to "think out loud", he claimed that in its mature form it would be unintelligible to anyone except the thinker and would not resemble spoken language as we know it (in particular, being greatly compressed). Hence, thought itself develops socially. An infant learns the meaning of signs through interaction with its main carers, e.g., pointing, cries, and gurgles can express what is wanted. How verbal sounds can be used to conduct social interaction is learned through this activity, and the child begins to utilize/build/develop this faculty: using names for objects, etc. Language starts as a tool external to the child used for social interaction. The child guides personal behavior by using this tool in a kind of self-talk or "thinking out loud". Initially, self-talk is very much a tool of social interaction and it tapers to negligible levels when the child is alone or with deaf children. Gradually self-talk is used more as a tool for self-directed and self-regulating behavior. Then, because speaking has been appropriated and internalized, self-talk is no longer present around the time the child starts school. Self-talk "develops along a rising not a declining, curve; it goes through an evolution, not an involution. In the end, it becomes inner speech (Vygotsky, 1987). pg 57 Inner speech develops through its differentiation from social speech. Speaking has thus developed along two lines, the line of social communication and the line of inner speech, by which the child mediates and regulates her activity through her thoughts which in turn are mediated by the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiotics" \o "Semiotics" semiotics (the meaningful signs) of inner speech. This is not to say that thinking cannot take place without language, but rather that it is mediated by it and thus develops to a much higher level of sophistication. Just as the birthday cake as a sign provides much deeper meaning than its physical properties allow, inner speech as signs provides much deeper meaning than the lower psychological functions would otherwise allow. Inner speech is not comparable in form to external speech. External speech is the process of turning thought into words. Inner speech is the opposite, it is the conversion of speech into inward thought. Inner speech for example contains predicates only. Subjects are superfluous. Words too are used much more economically. One word in inner speech may be so replete with sense to the individual that it would take many words to express it in external speech. Influence and development of Vygotsky's ideas In the Soviet Union, Russia, and Eastern Europe In the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" \o "Soviet Union" Soviet Union, the work of the group of Vygotsky's students known as the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharkov_School_of_Psychology" \o "Kharkov School of Psychology" Kharkov School of Psychology was vital for preserving the scientific legacy of Lev Vygotsky and identifying new avenues of its subsequent development. The members of the group laid a foundation for Vygotskian psychology's systematic development in such diverse fields as the psychology of memory ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyotr_Zinchenko" \o "Pyotr Zinchenko" P. Zinchenko), perception, sensation and movement ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Zaporozhets" \o "Alexander Zaporozhets" Zaporozhets,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Asnin" \o "Vladimir Asnin" Asnin,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexei_Nikolaevich_Leont%27ev" \o "Alexei Nikolaevich Leont'ev" A. N. Leont'ev), personality ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lidiya_Bozhovich&action=edit" \o "Lidiya Bozhovich" L. Bozhovich,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Asnin" \o "Vladimir Asnin" Asnin,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexei_Nikolaevich_Leont%27ev" \o "Alexei Nikolaevich Leont'ev" A. N. Leont'ev), will and volition ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Zaporozhets" \o "Alexander Zaporozhets" Zaporozhets,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexei_Nikolaevich_Leont%27ev" \o "Alexei Nikolaevich Leont'ev" A. N. Leont'ev,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyotr_Zinchenko" \o "Pyotr Zinchenko" P. Zinchenko,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lidiya_Bozhovich&action=edit" \o "Lidiya Bozhovich" L. Bozhovich,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Asnin" \o "Vladimir Asnin" Asnin), psychology of play (G. D. Lukov,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Daniil_El%27konin&action=edit" \o "Daniil El'konin" D. El'konin) and psychology of learning ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyotr_Zinchenko" \o "Pyotr Zinchenko" P. Zinchenko,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lidiya_Bozhovich&action=edit" \o "Lidiya Bozhovich" L. Bozhovich,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Daniil_El%27konin&action=edit" \o "Daniil El'konin" D. El'konin), as well as the theory of step-by-step formation of mental actions ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pyotr_Gal%27perin&action=edit" \o "Pyotr Gal'perin" Gal'perin), general psychological  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activity_theory" \o "Activity theory" activity theory ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexei_Nikolaevich_Leont%27ev" \o "Alexei Nikolaevich Leont'ev" A. N. Leont'ev) and psychology of action ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Zaporozhets" \o "Alexander Zaporozhets" Zaporozhets). In the West In the West, most attention was aimed at the continuing work of Vygotsky's Western contemporary  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Piaget" \o "Jean Piaget" Jean Piaget. Vygotsky's work appeared virtually unknown until its "rediscovery" in the 1960s, when the interpretative translation of Thought and language (1934) was published in English (in 1962;  HYPERLINK "http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0262720108" \o "http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0262720108" revised edition in 1986, translated by A. Kozulin; and as  HYPERLINK "http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/030642441X" \o "http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/030642441X" Thinking and speech in 1987, translated by N. Minick). In the end of the 1970s, truly ground-breaking publication was the major compilation of Vygotsky's works that saw the light in 1978 under the header of  HYPERLINK "http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0674576292" \o "http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0674576292" Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Vygotsky's views are reported to have influenced development of a wide range of psychological and educational theories such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_Systems_Theory" \o "Ecological Systems Theory" Ecological Systems Theory,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activity_theory" \o "Activity theory" activity theory,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_cognition" \o "Distributed cognition" distributed cognition,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_apprenticeship" \o "Cognitive apprenticeship" cognitive apprenticeship,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_language_acquisition" \o "Second language acquisition" second language acquisition theory,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesture" \o "Gesture" gesture theory, etc. Strong influences of Vygotskian thought can be found in the work of a number of scholars such as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urie_Bronfenbrenner" \o "Urie Bronfenbrenner" Urie Bronfenbrenner,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome_Bruner" \o "Jerome Bruner" Jerome Bruner, Michael Cole, James V. Wertsch, Sylvia Scribner, Vera John-Steiner,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Brown" \o "Ann Brown" Ann L. Brown, Courtney Cazden, Gordon Wells, Ren van der Veer, Jaan Valsiner, Pentti Hakkarainen, Seth Chaiklin, Alex Kozulin, Dorothy Robbins, Nikolai Veresov, Anna Stetsenko,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kieran_Egan" \o "Kieran Egan" Kieran Egan,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Newman" \o "Fred Newman" Fred Newman, David McNeill and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lois_Holzman" \o "Lois Holzman" Lois Holzman, to mention but a few. Western scholars have also begun to apply the Vygotskian paradigm to the domain of moral development. In Educational Psychology, first published in English in 1997,Vygotsky devotes a chapter to the discussion of moral development and moral education. Vygotsky viewed moral development as involving similar processes as other areas of cognitive development. Examples of scholars applying Vygotskian theory to moral development include Mark Tappan and Val D. Turner. Critics of Vygotsky The school of Vygotsky and, specifically, his  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural-historical_psychology" \o "Cultural-historical psychology" cultural-historical psychology was much criticized during his lifetime as well as after his death. By the beginning of the 1930s the school was defeated by Vygotsky's scientific opponents who criticized him for "idealist aberrations", which at that time equaled with the charge in disloyalty to the Communist Party and frequently entailed very serious consequences not only for the academic work but also for freedom and even life itself. As a result of this criticism of their work a major group of Vygotsky's students including  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Luria" \o "Alexander Luria" Luria and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksei_N._Leontiev" \o "Aleksei N. Leontiev" Leontiev had to flee from Moscow to Ukraine where they established the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharkov_School_of_Psychology" \o "Kharkov School of Psychology" Kharkov school of psychology. Later the representatives of the school would, in turn, in the second half of the 1930s criticize Vygotsky himself for his interest in the cross-disciplinary study of the child that was developed under the umbrella term of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paedology" \o "Paedology" paedology (also spelled as pedology) as well as for his ignoring the role of practice and practical, object-bound activity and arguably his emphasis on the research on the role of language and, on the other hand, emotional factors in human development. Much of this early criticism of the 1930s was later discarded by these Vygotskian scholars themselves. Another line of the critique of Vygotsky's psychological theory comes from such major figure of the Soviet psychology as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sergei_Rubinshtein&action=edit" \o "Sergei Rubinshtein" Sergei Rubinshtein and his followers who criticized Vygotsky's notion of mediation and its development in the works of students. Secondary literature Major monographs about Vygotsky's Work Wertsch, J. V. (1985). Vygotsky and the Social Formation of Mind, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., and London. Kozulin, A. (1990). Vygotsky's Psychology: A Biography of Ideas. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Van der Veer, R., & Valsiner, J. (1991). Understanding Vygotsky. A quest for synthesis. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Newman, F. & Holzman, L. (1993). Lev Vygotsky: Revolutionary scientist. London: Routledge. Van der Veer, R., & Valsiner, J. (Eds.) (1994). The Vygotsky Reader. Oxford: Blackwell. Daniels, H. (Ed.) (1996). An Introduction to Vygotsky, London: Routledge. Vygodskaya, G. L., & Lifanova, T. M. (1996/1999). Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, Journal of Russian and East European Psychology, Part 1, 37 (2), 3-90; Part 2, 37 (3), 3-90; Part 3, 37 (4), 3-93, Part 4, 37 (5), 3-99. Veresov, N. N. (1999). Undiscovered Vygotsky: Etudes on the pre-history of cultural-historical psychology. New York: Peter Lang. Daniels, H., Wertsch, J. & Cole, M. (Eds.) (2007).  HYPERLINK "http://www.amazon.com/dp/0521537878" \o "http://www.amazon.com/dp/0521537878" The Cambridge Companion to Vygotsky Van der Veer, Rene (2007). Lev Vygotsky: Continuum Library of Educational Thought. Continuum.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0826484093" ISBN 0-8264-8409-3. Vygotsky's texts online In English  HYPERLINK "http://www.marxists.org/archive/vygotsky/" \o "http://www.marxists.org/archive/vygotsky/" Lev Vygotsky archive @ marxists.org: all major works (in English) In Russian  HYPERLINK "http://lib.aldebaran.ru/author/vygotskii_lev/vygotskii_lev_psihologiya_iskusstva/" \o "http://lib.aldebaran.ru/author/vygotskii_lev/vygotskii_lev_psihologiya_iskusstva/" A8E>;>38O 8A:CAAB20 (1922)  HYPERLINK "http://yanko.lib.ru/books/psycho/vugotskiy-psc_razv_chel-1-soznanie_kak_problema_psc_i_povedeniya.pdf" \o "http://yanko.lib.ru/books/psycho/vugotskiy-psc_razv_chel-1-soznanie_kak_problema_psc_i_povedeniya.pdf" !>7=0=85 :0: ?@>1;5<0 ?A8E>;>388 ?>2545=8O (1924/5)  HYPERLINK "http://yanko.lib.ru/books/psycho/vugotskiy-psc_razv_chel-2-istoricheskiy_smysl_psihologicheskogo_krizisa.pdf" \o "http://yanko.lib.ru/books/psycho/vugotskiy-psc_razv_chel-2-istoricheskiy_smysl_psihologicheskogo_krizisa.pdf" AB>@8G5A:89 A<KA; ?A8E>;>38G5A:>3> :@878A0 (1927)  HYPERLINK "http://yanko.lib.ru/books/psycho/vugotskiy-psc_razv_chel-3-problema_kul'turnogo_razvitiya_rebenka.pdf" \o "http://yanko.lib.ru/books/psycho/vugotskiy-psc_razv_chel-3-problema_kul'turnogo_razvitiya_rebenka.pdf" @>1;5<0 :C;LBC@=>3> @0728B8O @515=:0 (1928)  HYPERLINK "http://yanko.lib.ru/books/psycho/vugotskiy-psc_razv_chel-9-orudie_i_znak_v_razvitii_rebenka.pdf" \o "http://yanko.lib.ru/books/psycho/vugotskiy-psc_razv_chel-9-orudie_i_znak_v_razvitii_rebenka.pdf" @C485 8 7=0: 2 @0728B88 @515=:0 (1930)  HYPERLINK "http://yanko.lib.ru/books/psycho/vugotskiy-psc_razv_chel-4-istoriya_razvitiya_vysshyh_psih_funkciy.pdf" \o "http://yanko.lib.ru/books/psycho/vugotskiy-psc_razv_chel-4-istoriya_razvitiya_vysshyh_psih_funkciy.pdf" AB>@8O @0728B8O 2KAH8E ?A8E8G5A:8E DC=:F89 (1931)  HYPERLINK "http://yanko.lib.ru/books/psycho/vugotskiy-psc_razv_chel-6-lekcii_po_psihologii.pdf" \o "http://yanko.lib.ru/books/psycho/vugotskiy-psc_razv_chel-6-lekcii_po_psihologii.pdf" 5:F88 ?> ?A8E>;>388 (1. >A?@8OB85; 2. 0<OBL; 3. KH;5=85; 4. -<>F88; 5. >>1@065=85; 6. @>1;5<0 2>;8) (1932)  HYPERLINK "http://yanko.lib.ru/books/psycho/vugotskiy-psc_razv_chel-5-problema_razvitiya_i_raspada_vysshih_psih_funkciy.pdf" \o "http://yanko.lib.ru/books/psycho/vugotskiy-psc_razv_chel-5-problema_razvitiya_i_raspada_vysshih_psih_funkciy.pdf" @>1;5<0 @0728B8O 8 @0A?040 2KAH8E ?A8E8G5A:8E DC=:F89 (1934)  HYPERLINK "http://yanko.lib.ru/books/psycho/vugotskiy-psc_razv_chel-7-myshlenie_i_rech.pdf" \o "http://yanko.lib.ru/books/psycho/vugotskiy-psc_razv_chel-7-myshlenie_i_rech.pdf" KH;5=85 8 @5GL ( HYPERLINK "http://yanko.lib.ru/books/psycho/vygotsky=ps_pzv_cheloveka=ann.htm" \o "http://yanko.lib.ru/books/psycho/vygotsky=ps_pzv_cheloveka=ann.htm" idem,  HYPERLINK "http://www.koob.ru/vigodsky_v_l/vihotskij_mishlenie_i_rech" \o "http://www.koob.ru/vigodsky_v_l/vihotskij_mishlenie_i_rech" idem,  HYPERLINK "http://filosof.historic.ru/books/item/f00/s00/z0000763/index.shtml" \o "http://filosof.historic.ru/books/item/f00/s00/z0000763/index.shtml" idem) (1934)  HYPERLINK "http://yanko.lib.ru/books/psycho/vugotskiy-psc_razv_chel-8-konkretnaya_psihologiya_cheloveka.pdf" \o "http://yanko.lib.ru/books/psycho/vugotskiy-psc_razv_chel-8-konkretnaya_psihologiya_cheloveka.pdf" >=:@5B=0O ?A8E>;>38O G5;>25:0 Roger W. Sperry Roger Wolcott Sperry (*  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/20._srpen" \o "20. srpen" 20. srpna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1913" \o "1913" 1913,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hartford" \o "Hartford" Hartford,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connecticut" \o "Connecticut" Connecticut  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/18._duben" \o "18. duben" 18. dubna  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994" \o "1994" 1994,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pasadena_%28Kalifornia%29&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Pasadena (Kalifornia) (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Pasadena,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifornie" \o "Kalifornie" Kalifornie) byl  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spojen%C3%A9_st%C3%A1ty_americk%C3%A9" \o "Spojen stty americk" americk zoolog, neurobiolog a neurofyziolog. V roce  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1981" \o "1981" 1981 mu byla udlana  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobelova_cena" \o "Nobelova cena" Nobelova cena za odhalen specifick lohy jednotlivch  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozek" \o "Mozek" mozkovch hemisfr u loveka. U epileptickch paciento provdl operaci, pYi n~ proeal corpus callosum (tvar spojujc ob mozkov hemisry). U paciento doalo k vymizen epileptickch zchvato, ale sou asn si vaiml, ~e byla v~n naruaena integrita osobnosti paciento. Pacienti mli pYi pokusu ohmatat rukou (bez zrakov kontroly) njak pYedmt - pokud jej ohmatali pravou rukou, pak tento pYedmt dokzali pojmenovat (prav ruka komunikuje s levou - verbln hemisfrou), pokud pYedmt ohmatvali levou rukou, nedokzli Yct, co je to za pYedmt. Fechner Gustav Theodor, znamenit fysik a filosof nm. (*1801 v Gross-Srchen v Doln Lu~ici- 1877 v Dr~anech). Studoval na universit v Lipsku, nejprve medicinu, pak se obrtil k fysice a lu b. Ji~ jako 20let jinoch vystoupil jako nadan spisovatel, uveYejHuje pod pseudonymem Dr. Mises vtipn humoristick vahy. PYi tom vaak zabval se velmi intensivn vdami. Habilitoval se jako docent fysiky na universit v Lipsku, kde~ r. 1831 stal se mimoYdnm, r. 1834 Ydnm professorem tto vdy. V tu dobu uveYejnil vta spisy obsahu soubornho o vdch pYrodnch, r. 1825-28 pYeklad Thnardovy chemie (5 sv.), r. 1828 spracovn Biotovy fysiky (5 sv.), dle Resultate der heutigen Pflanzenanalysen (1829), Repertorium d. neuen Entdeckungen der Chemie (1830-33, 5 sv.), Repertorium der Experimentalphysik (1832, 2 sv.), v nich~ podal pln pYehled vymo~enost tchto vd v on dob; pak zalo~il a a~ do r. 1835 redigoval Das Pharmaceutische Centralblatt. Samostatn vdeck jeho prce thnou se nejvce ke galvanismu; ve hlavnm spise: Massbestimmungen ber die galva- nische Kette (1831) podal potvrzen Ohmova zkona a pYispl jm velice k vaeobecnmu uznn jeho. Konal rozmanit pokusy k jeho potvrzen, dokzal stejnost sly proudu ve vaech proYezech veden, i kdy~ se toto skld z roznch vodi o pevnch i kapalnch, ur oval konstanty lnko, konal pokusy o vyvozovn elektYiny, o elektrolyse, dle vyaetYoval vjevy indukce, nosnost elektromagneto, zdokonalil Bohnenbergrov elektroskop aj. Pojednn pYsluan uveYejnil ponejvce v Poggendorffevch Annalech a ve Zprvch krl. Sask Spole nosti nauk; tamt~ jsou i vsledky jeho vzkumo o barvch subjektivnch, ktermi se s takovou horlivost zabval, ~e si pYivodil t~kou o n chorobu, tak ~e v ltech 1839-43 nemohl se vnovati u itelsk innosti. Zabval se nyn skoro pln filosofi, kter ji~ dYve ho poutala. Po svm uzdraven r. 1843 byl pak jmenovn professorem pYrodn filosofie a anthropologie na lipsk universit. Do t doby pad jeho znamenit spis: Die physikalische und philosophische Atomenlehre (1855, 2. vyd. 1864), v nm~ se jev jako rozhodn stoupenec atomismu. Zvlat poutala [Fechner] a souvislost svta duaevnho a hmotnho; stal se v t pY in zakladatelem nov vdy, kterou nazval psychofysikou, spisem: Elemente der Psychophysik (1860). Sm konal etn pokusy na odvozen a odovodnn zkono psychofysickch; dala jeho spisy o tomto pYedmtu jsou: In Sachen der Psychophysik (1872); Revision der Hauptpunkte der Psychophysik (1882). Pka.-Metafysick soustava jeho je pYbuzn jednak Leibnizov, jednak stk se s theisty, pantheisty i materialisty. Podle [Fechner]-a je vaechno oduaevnno: od kamene a~ po hvzdu. Vesmr jest jen zapjat seYadnost a nadYadnost vdomch jednotlivin sepjatch, organisovanch ve kruhy v~dy aira a aira. Na zemi tedy na pY. maj vdom vaecky jednotliviny fysick, byliny, zvYata atd., ale vdom to spojuje, slv, schraHuje se v jednot vyaa, ve vyaam vdom, ve vyaa duai-duai zem. V n zajist ste n ka~d jednotlivina zemsk ~ivotem a vdomm se s astn a je tak podmiHuje. Vesmr cel tedy podoben ~ebYku stle vce rozaiYovanmu, stle vce ~ivota, vdom a it objmajcmu. Na vrcholu jeho je vdom jednota Boha, kter zmocnn zahrnuje, ob. jm a spojuje vdom jednotlivin ni~ach. Duae lidsk podle [Fechner]-a skld se z mno~stv atomov bezprostorch a neposti~itelnch.Ona ani nen podstatn rozdlna od tla. Nzor [Fechner]ov thne ke stoto~nn obou: duae a tlo jsou mu dva vzhledy, dv tvYe jednoho a tho~ podkladu. Duae a tlo jsou nejn~e vzjemn, pYevratn hodnoty. Plyne tedy pYmo z metafysiky [Fechner] ovy kol jeho psychofysiky, kol vdy, kter m vzjemnost tuto, zvrat a doplnitelnost obou svto;-fysickho a hmotnho, duae a tla-vyaetYovati a zjistiti. Cl [Fechner]-ov byl dti tto vd pYesn vdeck rz, mYitelnost, nejen odhad neur it, jakostn, ale ur itost kolikostnou. Bedliv studium vztaho popudu a pocitu sledovalo prv tento cl. Prvn pokusy [Fechner]-ovy zjistily, ~e po ka~d, kdykoli pocity thy, svtla, tepla, zvuku a napjet svalovho rostou zposobem plynulm (v jistch stYednch mezch), pYi tnm nejmenach posti~itelnch rozdlo vzrostl odpovdajc popud o jistou, v~dycky stejnou, se popudu celkovho seYetzenho. Dala pokusy [Fechner]-ovy smYovaly pak jednak k cifrovmu ur en nejmenach posti~itelnch rozdlo pocitovch pro ka~d smysl, jednak ke kvantitativnmu ur en sly popudov a jejho rostu. Takto doalo se ke dvma Yadm cifrov ur itch hodnot, mezi nimi~ bylo mo~no vy. aetYiti a vysloviti pomr zvislosti-vyjdYiti tedy pocit jako funkci, pYerod, zmnu po. pudu. Postupy mathematickmi doael pak [Fechner] k tomu zvru, ~e vztah ten lze vysloviti mathematickou formul logarithmovou-ke znmmu psychofysickmu zkonu [Fechner]-ovu pocit roste (v jistch mezch stYednch) jako logarithmus popudu; skld-li sla popudu Yadu geometrickou, skld sla pocitu Yadu arithmetickou. Zkon ten napadn byl zejm. Helmholtzem, Heringem, Langerem a z sti i Delboeufem. ale hjen vytrvale svm povodcem. O jeho psychofysickm zkon jednaj hlavn: Hering (Ueber [Fechner]-s psychophys. Gesetz, 1875); Delboeuf (Etude psychophysique, 1873); Langer (Grundlagen der Psychophysik, 1876); Ward (An Attempt to interpret [Fechner]-s Law, 1876); G. Mller (Zur Grundlegung der Psychophysik, 1878); Ferd. Aug. Mller (Das Axiom der Psychophysik, 1882); Elsas (Uiber die Psychophysik, 1886). `ld. Vedle tchto vdeckch prac uveYejnil [Fechner] Yadu spiso, ktermi svoje filosofick nzory vykldal a objasHoval: Das Bchlein v m Leben nach den Tode (1. vyd. 1836, 3. vyd. 1887); ber das hchste Gut (1846); Nanna oder ber das. Seelenleben der Pflanzen (1848); Zend-Avesta oder ber die Dinge des Himmels und des Jenseits vom Standpunkte der Naturbetrachtung (1851, 3 sv.); ber die Seelenfrage. Ein Gang durch die sichtbare Welt, um die unsichtbare zu finden (1861); Die drei Motive und Grnde des Glaubens (1863); Einige Ideen zur Schpfungs-und Entwickelungsgeschichte der Organismen (1873); Tagesansicht gegenber der Nachtansicht (1879). Obshlou innost svoji obrtil i k aesthetice, o n~ uveYejnil tyto spisy: Untersuchungen ber die Holbeinsche Madonna (1866 a 1871); Zur experimentalen Aesthetik (1871); soubor vce prac: Vorschule der Aesthetik (1876, 2 sv.); znamenitm humorem a vtipem vynikaj spisy, kter vy. dal pod pseudonymem Dr. Mises: Panegyricus der jetzigen Medicin und Naturgeschichte (1822); Stapelia mixta (1824); Verleichende Anatomie der Engel (1825); Beweis, dass der Mond aus Jodine bestehe (1821); Vier Paradoxa (1846); Professor Schleiden und der Mond (1856).I jeho bsnm (Gedichte, 1841) dostalo se pYznivho pYijet. O [Fechner]-ovi jako filosofu viz Djiny filosofie nejnovja od prof. Dra J. Durdka; Dr. Aug. Seydler napsal o jeho vznamu monografii uveYejnnou ve Vst. esk akademie cs. Frantiaka Josefa ro . II. . 5.-8. Pka. William Louis Stern Wiliam Louis, *29.4.1871 - 27.3.1938, nmeck psycholog a filozof, profesor univerzity v Hamburku, po roce 1933 v USA. Zakladatel  HYPERLINK "http://encyklopedie.seznam.cz/heslo/36044-diferencialni-psychologie" diferenciln psychologie. inn v oblasti  HYPERLINK "http://encyklopedie.seznam.cz/heslo/86690-psychologie-osobnosti" psychologie osobnosti a  HYPERLINK "http://encyklopedie.seznam.cz/heslo/35658-detska-psychologie" dtsk psychologie. Odmtal dlen subjektu na izolovan psychick funkce, osobnost chpal nehistoricky (nad asov). Jeho prce z dtsk psychologie (Psychologie der frhen Kindheit - Psychologie ranho dtstv) jsou pova~ovny za klasiku. V oblasti  HYPERLINK "http://encyklopedie.seznam.cz/heslo/86667-psychodiagnostika" psychodiagnostiky jeden z prokopnko testovch metod a vzkumu  HYPERLINK "http://encyklopedie.seznam.cz/heslo/52613-inteligence" inteligence. Zavedl pojem  HYPERLINK "http://encyklopedie.seznam.cz/heslo/52998-iq" IQ. Podstatn pYispl k  HYPERLINK "http://encyklopedie.seznam.cz/heslo/96131-soudni-psychologie" soudn psychologii zkoumnm vrohodnosti svdeckch vpovd. Ve filozofii tvorce systmu tzv. kritickho  HYPERLINK "http://encyklopedie.seznam.cz/heslo/81256-personalismus" personalismu, pYipomnajcho leibnizovskou  HYPERLINK "http://encyklopedie.seznam.cz/heslo/71982-monadologie" monadologii, avaak bez teistickch dosledko. Svt chpal jako hierarchii osobnost, tj. diferencovanch  HYPERLINK "http://encyklopedie.seznam.cz/heslo/31736-celostnost" celostnost rozn rovn (od krystalu a~ po lovka). Osobnost ostYe odliaoval od vci jako pouhho agregtu st (Person und Sache I-III - Osoba a vc). Sna~il se pYekonat dualismus tla a duae z pozic blzkch filozofii ~ivota. Ovlivnil zejmna vvoj nmeckho  HYPERLINK "http://encyklopedie.seznam.cz/heslo/40855-existencialismus" existencialismu a filozofickho  HYPERLINK "http://encyklopedie.seznam.cz/heslo/81256-personalismus" personalismu. Z dalach dl: Die differentielle Psychologie in ihren methodischen Grundlagen (Diferenciln psychologie a jej metodick zklady), Die menschlichen Persnlichkeit (Lidsk osobnost), Allgemeine Psychologie (Veobecn psychologie). Francis Galton Sir Francis Galton (*  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/16._%C3%BAnor" \o "16. nor" 16. nor  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1822" \o "1822" 1822,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sparkbrook&action=edit" \o "Sparkbrook" Sparkbrook (blzko  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham" \o "Birmingham" Birminghamu)  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/17._leden" \o "17. leden" 17. leden  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1911" \o "1911" 1911,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haslemere&action=edit" \o "Haslemere" Haslemere) byl anglick  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholog" \o "Psycholog" psycholog a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolog" \o "Antropolog" antropolog. V matematice rozpracoval metody statistickho zpracovn vsledko pozorovan (pYedevam metodu vypo tn korelac mezi promnnmi); zavedl koeficient korelace; Galton je zakladatelem  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenika" \o "Eugenika" eugeniky. Po tomto vdci je pojmenovna vysokofrekven n  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%AD%C5%A1%C5%A5ala" \o "Paeala" paeala, u~van pro vcvik  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pes" \o "Pes" pso, tzv.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galtonova_p%C3%AD%C5%A1%C5%A5ala" \o "Galtonova paeala" Galtonova paeala. Ehrenfels Christian von * Ehrenfels Christian von, *22. na 1859 v Rodaun (H. Rak.), nm. filosof, psycholog a bsnk, prof. nm. univ. v Praze od 1896. Na vd. univ. se stal horlivm poslucha em Brentanovm. Nejhluba vliv na jeho vvoj mlo vaak seznmen s Rich. Wagnerem (od 1878), jeho~ uml. dlo jej lkalo k bsn. pokra ovn. Po rozchodu s kYeseanstvm (odvrtil se od katol. 1880) zpracovv kYeseansk mythus v  sborovch dramatech (Chordramen: Christliche Dramen 1895, Der Strmer 1911; z ostatn beletrie drama Die Mutter des Legionrs 1925 (pYel. A. Fuchs 1925) vnovno Masarykovi, s nm~ byl od 1880 ve styku a provozovno tho~ r. na Kr. Vinohr., se svrznou kulturn-idealistickou koncepc sl. odboje). V prvotnm obdob nejsilnjaho vlivu Wagnerova s reflex nad spory wagnerovco a Hanslicka o podstat hud. vrazu a pojmu formy vznikl nejznmja psychologick objev [Ehrenfels Christian von]-ov, pojem Gestaltqualitt (tvarov kvality 1890), kter m v dnean psychologii pronikav vliv. tvarov kvality podle [Ehrenfels Christian von]-a jsou positivn pYedstavy, svzan s pYtomnost jistch souboro pYedstavovch, skldajcch se z oddlitelnch (t. j. samostatn pYedstavitelnch) prvko. tvarovou kvalitu m na pY. melodie, tvar, interval, akord (barev i tno). Dl se na asov a ne asov. Nkt. popudy obdr~el zde [Ehrenfels Christian von] od Macha (Analyse d. Empfindungen). - V druhm obdob zabv se [Ehrenfels Christian von] hl. otzkami, souviscmi s morlkou, pYedevam theori hodnot a otzkami sexulnmi. V theorii hodnot (Werttheorie u. Ethik 1893, System d. Werttheorie, 2 dly 1897, Grundbegriffe d. Ethik 1907) je zstupcem psychologismu, t. j. vyvozuje pojem hodnoty jako relativn k subjektu, ze ~doucnosti, kter je tam, kde co nej~ivja pYedstava o byt njak vci vzbuzuje vyaa libost ne~ pYedstava jej neexistence. Tato theorie nen zbudovna na zklad brentanovskm, nbr~ smYuje spae proti Brentanovu pojmu obecn platnch, evidentnch hodnotnch soudo. Ji~ zde se projevuje u [Ehrenfels Christian von]-e siln orientace biologick, lze dokonce tvrditi, ~e od dob theorie hodnot skln se k neovitalismu. Horliv studium biologie dalo mu popudy k Yeaen socil. otzek, klade si kol zavsti soc. ethiku na drhu biolog. zdrav a vvoje schopnosti. Pozornost vzbudily zvl. jeho myalenky k sexuln reform; pro dosa~en  harmonick sexuln morlky (je~ sjednocuje biol. po~adavky s kulturn-spole enskmi) propaguje zprvu zaveden polygamie (dokonce za vlky koncipuje pln, jak na tomto zklad eliti v Nm. biol. zhoubnosti vlky), pozdji v dosledku t~k krise pochybnost a deprese upouat od tto myalenky a domnv se, ~e jeho eugenick program lze provsti jen na zklad umlho oplodHovn. O tom viz Sexualethik 1910, Yadu lnko asop., zejmna v asopise Archiv fr Rassen- und Gesellschaftsbiologie. - Kone n se zabval [Ehrenfels Christian von] metafysikou, a to od po tku sv innosti (Metaphysische Erwgungen im Anschluss an Dubois-Reymond 1886), pak intensivnji po vlce. Po vystoupen z crkve byl nevrcem, pak se propracoval k dualistickmu nzoru, formulovanmu v hl. dle Kosmogonie 1924. Na zkl. problmu pYedvdn a vdn o minulm dochz k pYesvd en, ~e svt je vsledkem pudu k vyaamu utvYen, kter nen spojen s vaevdoucnost a pYedvdnm a smYuje proti odporu bezdovodnho chaosu. PYekonv tak racionalismus a bl~ se k novmu nbo~enstv, je~ vylo~il 1929 v otevYenm list presidentu Masarykovi s vzvou k zalo~en nov nbo~. organisace. - Dlouho se zabval t~ hlednm zkona prvo sel, parapsychologi a j. O [Ehrenfels Christian von]-ovi v. zejm. Eaton, Austrian Philosophy of Values, Oklahoma 1930. Pa. Paul Federn Paul Federn ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_13" \o "October 13" October 13,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1871" \o "1871" 1871 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_4" \o "May 4" May 4,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1950" \o "1950" 1950) was an Austrian-American  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist" \o "Psychologist" psychologist who was a native of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna" \o "Vienna" Vienna. After earning his doctorate in 1895, he was an assistant in general medicine under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Nothnagel" \o "Hermann Nothnagel" Hermann Nothnagel in Vienna. It was Nothnagel who introduced Federn to the works of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Sigmund Freud. Federn was deeply influenced by Freud's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretation_of_Dreams" \o "Interpretation of Dreams" Interpretation of Dreams, and in 1904 became devoted to the field of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalysis" \o "Psychoanalysis" psychoanalysis. Along with  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Adler" \o "Alfred Adler" Alfred Adler and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Stekel" \o "Wilhelm Stekel" Wilhelm Stekel, Federn was an early, important follower of Freud. In 1924 he became an official representative of Freud, as well as vice president of the Vienna Society. In 1938 Federn emigrated to the United States and settled in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City" \o "New York City" New York City, however it wouldn't be until 1946 that he would be officially recognized as a training analyst at the New York Psychoanalytic Institute. In 1950, Paul Federn committed suicide following a recurrence of what he believed was incurable  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer" \o "Cancer" cancer. Federn is mostly remembered for his theories regarding  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ego_psychology" \o "Ego psychology" ego psychology and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychotherapy" \o "Psychotherapy" therapeutic treatment of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosis" \o "Psychosis" psychosis. Although an ardent supporter of Freud's teachings, Federn's concept of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ego" \o "Ego" ego as experience coinciding with "ego feeling" was inconsistent with Freud's structural approach. In the late 1920s, Federn published treatises such as Some Variations in Ego-Feeling and Narcissism in the Structure of the Ego, and during this time-period his ideas concerning "ego states", "ego boundaries", "ego  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathexis" \o "Cathexis" cathexis" and the median nature of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissism" \o "Narcissism" narcissism are brought forth. Federn advocated an unorthodox approach concerning analysis of psychosis. He believed that a patients' attempt at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integration" \o "Integration" integration should involve strengthening his defenses, while at the same time avoiding repressed material. He also believed that  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transference" \o "Transference" transference concerning  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosis" \o "Psychosis" psychosis should not be analyzed, and that negative transference should be avoided. In regards to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophrenia" \o "Schizophrenia" schizophrenic patients, he believed that their egos possessed insufficient  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathexis" \o "Cathexis" cathectic energy, and that it was a lack rather than an excess of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissism" \o "Narcissism" narcissistic  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libido" \o "Libido" libido that caused a psychotic individuals' difficulties with the object. Federn was also interested in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_psychology" \o "Social psychology" social psychology. In an early 1919 work of his titled Zur Psychologie der Revolution, he explains the challenge to authority by the post-World War I generation as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconscious" \o "Unconscious" unconscious  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parricide" \o "Parricide" parricide whose goal is to create a "fatherless society". Although Federn's psychoanalytical theories had limited influence, he had several important followers in Europe and America. Wilhelm Stekel Wilhelm Stekel HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Wilhelm_Stekel.jpg" \o "Wilhelm Stekel.jpg"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/5e/Wilhelm_Stekel.jpg" \* MERGEFORMATINET  Wilhelm StekelBorn HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_18" \o "March 18" March 18,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1868" \o "1868" 1868(1868-03-18)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bujon&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Bujon (page does not exist)" Bujon,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukowina" \o "Bukowina" BukowinaDied HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_25" \o "June 25" June 25,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1940" \o "1940" 1940 (aged72)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London" \o "London" London,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England" \o "England" EnglandCauseof death HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide" \o "Suicide" SuicideNationality HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria" \o "Austria" Austrian  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Austria.svg" \o "Flag of Austria"  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/22px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET Occupation HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology" \o "Psychology" PsychologistKnownforAuto-erotism: A Psychiatric Study of Onanism and NeurosisWilhelm Stekel ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_18" \o "March 18" March 18,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1868" \o "1868" 1868  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_25" \o "June 25" June 25,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1940" \o "1940" 1940) was an Austrian physician and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist" \o "Psychologist" psychologist, who became one of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Sigmund Freud's earliest followers, a self-described apostle. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Stekel" \l "cite_note-0" \o "" [1] He later had a falling-out with Freud. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Stekel" \l "cite_note-1" \o "" [2] His works were translated in many languages. A biographical account appeared in The Self-Marginalization of Wilhem Stekel (2007) by Jaap Bos and Leendert Groenendijk, which also includes his correspondence with Sigmund Freud. Born in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bujon&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Bujon (page does not exist)" Bujon,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukowina" \o "Bukowina" Bukowina, he wrote a book called Auto-erotism: A Psychiatric Study of Onanism and Neurosis, first published in English in 1950. His Autobiography was also published in 1950. Stekel died in London, by his own hand. He was married twice and left two children. He analysed, among others, the Austrian Psychoanalyst Otto Gross and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._S._Neill" \o "A. S. Neill" A. S. Neill He is quoted in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._D._Salinger" \o "J. D. Salinger" J. D. Salinger's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Catcher_in_the_Rye" \o "The Catcher in the Rye" The Catcher in the Rye. This quote is also used in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anime" \o "Anime" anime  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_in_the_Shell" \o "Ghost in the Shell" Ghost in the Shell. It has also been speculated that Stekel was the analyst after which  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italo_Svevo" \o "Italo Svevo" Italo Svevo modeled the narrator in his famous  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Coscienza_di_Zeno" \o "La Coscienza di Zeno" Confessions of Zeno. Eric Berne Eric Berne ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_10" \o "May 10" May 10,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1910" \o "1910" 1910  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_15" \o "July 15" July 15,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970" \o "1970" 1970) was a Canadian-born psychiatrist best known as the creator of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transactional_analysis" \o "Transactional analysis" transactional analysis and the author of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Games_People_Play_%28book%29" \o "Games People Play (book)" Games People Play. Background and education Eric was born on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_10" \o "May 10" May 10,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1910" \o "1910" 1910 as Eric Lennard Bernstein in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal%2C_Quebec" \o "Montreal, Quebec" Montreal,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada" \o "Canada" Canada. (He is unrelated to the conductor/composer  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein" \o "Leonard Bernstein" Leonard Bernstein.) He was the son of a physician and a writer, David and Sara Gordon Bernstein. His father died in 1921, leaving Sara with Eric and his sister, Grace (who was five years younger). Bernstein attended  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGill_University" \o "McGill University" McGill University, graduating in 1931 and earning an M.D. in 1935. While at McGill he wrote for several student newspapers using pseudonyms. He followed graduation with a residency in psychiatry at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_University" \o "Yale University" Yale, where he studied psychoanalysis under Dr.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Federn" \o "Paul Federn" Paul Federn. He completed his training in 1938 and became an American citizen in 1939. In 1943 he changed his legal name to Eric Berne. He continued to use pseudonyms for whimsical articles in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transactional_Analysis_Bulletin&action=edit" \o "Transactional Analysis Bulletin" Transactional Analysis Bulletin, often as Cyprian St. Cyr ("Cyprian Sincere"). Clinical work Berne's training was interrupted by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" \o "World War II" World War II and his service in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army" \o "United States Army" Army  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_Medical_Corps" \o "Army Medical Corps" Medical Corps. After working at Bushnell Army Hospital in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogden%2C_Utah" \o "Ogden, Utah" Ogden, Utah, he was discharged in 1945. He resumed his studies under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erik_Erikson" \o "Erik Erikson" Erik Erikson at the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco%2C_California" \o "San Francisco, California" San Francisco Psychoanalytic Institute and practiced at Mt. Zion Hospital. In addition to technical papers on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalysis" \o "Psychoanalysis" psychoanalysis, Berne published The Mind in Action in 1947. He became a group therapist attached to several hospitals in San Francisco. He also began to further extend of the Ego State Model of Dr. Federn. Berne's work began to diverge from the mainstream of psychoanalytic thought. He published his work in several technical journals, but met with largely negative reactions. His break became formal in 1949 when he was rejected for membership in the San Francisco Psychoanalytic Institute. Intuition Berne wrote a series of papers and articles on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intuition_%28knowledge%29" \o "Intuition (knowledge)" intuition, describing in one popular exposition his apparently uncanny ability to guess the civilian occupation of soldiers from just a few moments conversation with them. His musings on the faculty of intuition led to his groundbreaking work on transactional analysis. Transactional analysis Main article:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transactional_analysis" \o "Transactional analysis" Transactional analysis Berne mapped interpersonal relationships to three ego-states of the individuals involved: the Parent, Adult, and Child state. He then investigated communications between individuals based on the current state of each. These interpersonal interactions he called transactions; certain patterns of transactions which popped up repeatedly in everyday life he called games. His seminar group from the 1950s developed the term transactional analysis (TA) to describe therapies based on his work. By 1964, this expanded into the International Transactional Analysis Association. While still largely ignored by the psychoanalytic community, many therapists have put his ideas in practice. In the early 1960s he published both technical and popular accounts of his conclusions. His Structures and Dynamics of Organizations and Groups in 1963 examined the same analysis in a broader context than one-on-one interaction. In 1964 Berne published  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Games_People_Play_%28book%29" \o "Games People Play (book)" Games People Play which became an enormous bestseller and made Berne famous. The book presented clear everyday examples of the way in which human beings get caught up in the games they play, giving the games titles such as "Now I've got you you son of a bitch." Some of his terminology became a part of everyday vocabulary. Transactional analysis of drinking In Berne's explanation of transactions, when the transaction is a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-sum_game" \o "Zero-sum game" zero-sum game, e.g. one must win at the other's expense, the person who benefits from a transaction (wins the game) is referred to as White, and the victim is referred to as Black. The transactional object of the drinking, for example, aside from the personal pleasure it brings, could be seen as being to set up a situation where the Child can be severely scolded not only by the internal parent but by any parental figures in the immediate environment who are interested enough to oblige. It is the same in the game Schlemiel: the messmaking, which attracts the most attention, is merely a pleasure-giving way for White to led up to the crux, which is obtaining forgiveness by Black. There are a variety of organizations involved in 'Alcoholic, some of them national or even international in scope, others local. Many of them publish rules for the game. Nearly all of them explain how to play the role of Alcoholic: take a drink before breakfast, spend money allotted for other purposes, etc. They also explain the function of the Rescuer. Alcoholics Anonymous, for example, continues playing the actual game but concentrates on inducing the Alcoholic to take the role of Rescuer. Former Alcoholics are preferred because they know how the game goes, and hence are better qualified to play the supporting role than people who have never played before. Cases have been reported of a chapter of A.A. running out of Alcoholics to work on; whereupon the members resumed drinking, since there was no other way to continue the game in the absence of people to rescue. According to this type of analysis, with the rise of rescue organizations which publicize that alcoholism is a disease, alcoholics have been taught to play "Wooden Leg". HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Berne" \l "_note-0#_note-0" \o "" [1] The role of the addict Roles: Victim (addict), Persecutor (usually spouse), Rescuer (often family member of same sex), Patsy (enabler), Connection (supplier) Pastimes: Martini (how much I used) and morning after (look what you made me do). Many addicts find unlimited access to these pastimes in organizations such as AA. The game is played from the Victim role as "see how bad I've been; see if you can stop me." The purpose is self-punishment and the garnering of negative (persecution) strokes and positive ones of forgiveness, and the vindication of an "I'm not OK" existential position. The game often becomes elaborated into a self-destructive life script, especially if the parents were also chemically dependent. Effective antithesis and cure can be achieved through psychotherapeutic script analysis, redecision, relearning.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Berne" \l "_note-1#_note-1" \o "" [2] Cure due to his theory -- critical review One would realize after reading his books or theories that he could not achieve even a single satisfactory cure-- a cure in which a patient is happy to be cured. His concentration seems to be only theories and not curing people or achieving any cures. In this scenario his theory can be appropriately studied without the exepected side-effects of any (permanent) cures. Personal life Berne was married three times. His first wife was Elinor McRae. They married in 1942, had two children, and divorced bitterly in 1945. In 1949 he married Dorothy DeMass Way, by whom he also had two children before their divorce in 1964. After his popular success, Eric married a third time, to Torre Peterson in 1967. The couple took up residence in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmel%2C_California" \o "Carmel, California" Carmel, California where he wrote, but he continued some clinical work in San Francisco. This marriage also ended in divorce in early 1970. Berne died suddenly of a heart attack on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_15" \o "July 15" July 15,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970" \o "1970" 1970. Footnotes  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Berne" \l "_ref-0#_ref-0" \o "" ^ Eric Berne, Games People Play, pp. 73-81.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Berne" \l "_ref-1#_ref-1" \o "" ^  HYPERLINK "http://frogsandprinces.dawntreader.net/appendixa.html" \l "aa" \o "http://frogsandprinces.dawntreader.net/appendixa.html#aa" http://frogsandprinces.dawntreader.net/appendixa.html#aa Bibliography The Mind in Action; 1947, New York, Simon and Schuster. The Structures and Dynamics of Organizations and Groups; 1961; (1984 Paperback reprint:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0345320255" ISBN 0-345-32025-5). Transactional Analysis in Psychotherapy; 1961; (1986 reprint:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0345338367" ISBN 0-345-33836-7). Sex in Human Loving; 1963, Beverly Hills, California: City National Bank.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Games_People_Play_%28book%29" \o "Games People Play (book)" Games People Play: the Psychology of Human Relations; 1964 (1978 reprint,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grove_Press" \o "Grove Press" Grove Press,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0345170466" ISBN 0-345-17046-6); (1996 Paperback,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0345410033" ISBN 0-345-41003-3) The Happy Valley; 1968, Random House Publisher,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0394475623" ISBN 0-394-47562-3 A Layman's Guide to Psychiatry and Psychoanalysis (Paperback); 1975, Grover Press;  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=039417833X" ISBN 0-394-17833-X What Do You Say After You Say Hello?; 1975;  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=055209806X" ISBN 0-552-09806-X Further reading Eric Berne by Ian Stewart; 1992, Sage Publications,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0803984669" ISBN 0-8039-8466-9; (Paperback:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0803984677" ISBN 0-8039-8467-7). By Eric Berne, M.D. External links  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Wikiquote-logo-en.svg" \o "Wikiquote-logo-en.svg"   HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikiquote" \o "Wikiquote" Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Eric_Berne" \o "wikiquote:Special:Search/Eric_Berne" Eric Berne  HYPERLINK "http://www.ericberne.com/" \o "http://www.ericberne.com/" Posthumous tribute website for Dr. Eric Berne  HYPERLINK "http://www.anb.org/articles/12/12-02112-article.html" \o "http://www.anb.org/articles/12/12-02112-article.html" American National Biography article  HYPERLINK "http://itaa-net.org/" \o "http://itaa-net.org/" International Transactional Analysis Association web site  HYPERLINK "http://usataa.org/" \o "http://usataa.org/" United States Transactional Analysis Association web site  HYPERLINK "http://bernecomunicacion.net/" \o "http://bernecomunicacion.net/" curso Eric Berne  HYPERLINK "http://www.ericberne.com/Eric_Berne_Bibliography.htm/" \o "http://www.ericberne.com/Eric_Berne_Bibliography.htm/" Complete Bibliography of Dr. Eric Berne  HYPERLINK "http://www.paulstips.com/brainbox/pt/home.nsf/link/13082006-Understanding-the-games-people-play" \o "http://www.paulstips.com/brainbox/pt/home.nsf/link/13082006-Understanding-the-games-people-play" A summary of Games People Play  HYPERLINK "http://frogsandprinces.dawntreader.net/appendixa.html" \o "http://frogsandprinces.dawntreader.net/appendixa.html" Some social games with links to game descriptions  HYPERLINK "http://www.coachingsupervisionacademy.com/our_approach/karpman_drama_triangle.phtml" \o "http://www.coachingsupervisionacademy.com/our_approach/karpman_drama_triangle.phtml" The Karpman Triangle/Berne  HYPERLINK "http://www.lynneforrest.com/html/the_faces_of_victim.html" \o "http://www.lynneforrest.com/html/the_faces_of_victim.html" Faces of the Victim Retrieved from " HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Berne" http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Berne" Kretschmer Ernst Kretschmer Ernst, nmeck psychiatr. Zabval se l bou maniodepresivnho syndromu a hysterie, po 1. svtov vlce zejm. jako dosledku vle nch posti~en. Studoval vztah mezi tlesnou a psychickou konstituc lovka s ohledem na jeho osobn charakter a dispozici k rozvoji ur itch typo onemocnn. Autor konstitu n typologie lovka (viz t~ biotyp). Hlavn dlo: Krperbau und Charakter (Stavba tla a charakter). Erik Erikson nmeck lkaY, psychoanalytik; profesor na Yad univerzit (Harvard, Yale, Berkley aj.). PYed nacismem emigroval do USA. Revidoval klasickou psychoanalzu, zdorazHoval sociln a kulturn vztahy pYed biologickou determinac lovka. Populrnmi se staly jeho psychoanalytick studie o vznamnch osobnostech (M. Luther, M. Gndh, M. Gorkij, A. Hitler a jin). Erik Erikson  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_15" \o "June 15" June 15,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1902" \o "1902" 1902 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_12" \o "May 12" May 12,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994" \o "1994" 1994 Erik Homburger Erikson ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_15" \o "June 15" June 15,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1902" \o "1902" 1902  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_12" \o "May 12" May 12,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994" \o "1994" 1994) was born in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt" \o "Frankfurt" Frankfurt by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark" \o "Denmark" Danish parents, but later obtained  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" American  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizenship" \o "Citizenship" citizenship  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erik_Erikson" \l "cite_note-0" \o "" [1]. He was a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_psychology" \o "Developmental psychology" developmental psychologist and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalyst" \o "Psychoanalyst" psychoanalyst known for his  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erikson%27s_stages_of_psychosocial_development" \o "Erikson's stages of psychosocial development" theory on social development of human beings, and for coining the phrase  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_crisis_%28psychology%29" \o "Identity crisis (psychology)" identity crisis. Early life Erik Erikson's lifelong interest in psychology of identity may be traced to his childhood. He was born on  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_15" \o "June 15" June 15,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1902" \o "1902" 1902 as a result of his mother's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extramarital_affair" \o "Extramarital affair" extramarital affair, and the circumstances of his birth were concealed from him in his childhood. His mother, Karla Abrahamsen, came from a prominent  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish" \o "Jewish" Jewish family in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen" \o "Copenhagen" Copenhagen HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erik_Erikson" \l "cite_note-1" \o "" [2]. Abrahamsen's father, Josef, was a merchant in dried goods; her mother Henrietta died when Karla was only 13. Karla's older brothers Einar, Nicolai, and Axel were active in local Jewish charity and helped maintain a free soup kitchen for indigent Jewish immigrants from Russia. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erik_Erikson" \l "cite_note-2" \o "" [3] Since Karla Abrahamsen was officially married to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish" \o "Jewish" Jewish stockbroker Waldemar Isidor Salomonsen at the time, her son, born in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" \o "Germany" Germany, was registered as Erik Salomonsen. There is no more information about his biological father, except that he was a Dane and his given name probably was Erik. It is also suggested that he was married at the time that Erikson was conceived[ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" \o "Wikipedia:Citation needed" citation needed]. Following her son's birth, Karla trained to be a nurse, moved to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karlsruhe" \o "Karlsruhe" Karlsruhe and in 1904 married a Jewish pediatrician Theodor Homburger. In 1909 Erik Salomonsen became Erik Homburger and in 1911 he was officially adopted by his stepfather. The development of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_%28social_science%29" \o "Identity (social science)" identity seems to have been one of his greatest concerns in Erikson's own life as well as in his theory. During his childhood and early adulthood he was known as Erik Homburger, and his parents kept the details of his birth a secret. He was a tall, blond, blue-eyed boy who was raised in the Jewish religion. At temple school, the kids teased him for being  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordic_countries" \o "Nordic countries" Nordic; at grammar school, they teased him for being Jewish. Psychoanalytic experience and training As a youth, Erikson was a student and teacher of art. While teaching at a private school in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna" \o "Vienna" Vienna, he became acquainted with  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Freud" \o "Anna Freud" Anna Freud, the daughter of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Sigmund Freud. Erikson underwent psychoanalysis, and the experience made him decide to become an analyst himself. He was trained in psychoanalysis at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute and also studied the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montessori_method" \o "Montessori method" Montessori method of education, which focused on child development. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erik_Erikson" \l "cite_note-3" \o "" [4] America Following Eriksons graduation from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1933" \o "1933" 1933, the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazis" \o "Nazis" Nazis had just come to power in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" \o "Germany" Germany, and he emigrated with his wife, first to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark" \o "Denmark" Denmark and then to the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" United States, where he became the first child psychoanalyst in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston" \o "Boston" Boston. Erikson held positions at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_General_Hospital" \o "Massachusetts General Hospital" Massachusetts General Hospital, the Judge Baker Guidance Center, and at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Medical_School" \o "Harvard Medical School" Harvards Medical School and Psychological Clinic, establishing a solid reputation as an outstanding clinician. In  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1936" \o "1936" 1936, Erikson accepted a position at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_University" \o "Yale University" Yale University, where he worked at the Institute of Human Relations and taught at the Medical School. After spending a year observing children on a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sioux" \o "Sioux" Sioux reservation in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Dakota" \o "South Dakota" South Dakota, he joined the faculty of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California" \o "University of California" University of California at  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley%2C_California" \o "Berkeley, California" Berkeley, where he was affiliated with the Institute of Child Welfare, and opened a private practice as well. While in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California" \o "California" California, Erikson also studied children of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yurok" \o "Yurok" Yurok Native American tribe. After publishing the book for which Erikson is best known, Childhood and Society, in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1950" \o "1950" 1950, he left the University of California when professors there were asked to sign  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loyalty_oaths" \o "Loyalty oaths" loyalty oaths. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erik_Erikson" \l "cite_note-4" \o "" [5] He spent ten years working and teaching at the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austen_Riggs_Center" \o "Austen Riggs Center" Austen Riggs Center, a prominent psychiatric treatment facility in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockbridge%2C_Massachusetts" \o "Stockbridge, Massachusetts" Stockbridge,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts" \o "Massachusetts" Massachusetts, where he worked with emotionally troubled young people. In the 1960s, Erikson returned to Harvard as a professor of human development and remained at the university until his retirement in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970" \o "1970" 1970. Theories of development and the ego Erikson's greatest innovation was to postulate not five stages of development, as  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" \o "Sigmund Freud" Sigmund Freud had done with his  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosexual_development" \o "Psychosexual development" psychosexual stages, but eight. Erik Erikson believed that every human being goes through a certain number of stages to reach his or her full development, theorizing eight stages, that a human being goes through from birth to death. (Childhood and Society-Erik Erikson)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erik_Erikson" \l "cite_note-5" \o "" [6] Erikson elaborated Freud's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genital_stage" \o "Genital stage" genital stage into  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolescence" \o "Adolescence" adolescence, and added three stages of adulthood. His widow Joan Serson Erikson elaborated on his model before her death, adding a ninth stage (old age) to it, taking into consideration the increasing life expectancy in Western cultures. Erikson is also credited with being one of the originators of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ego_psychology" \o "Ego psychology" Ego psychology, which stressed the role of the ego as being more than a servant of the id. According to Erikson, the environment in which a child lived was crucial to providing growth, adjustment, a source of self awareness and identity. His  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1969" \o "1969" 1969 book  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandhi%27s_Truth" \o "Gandhi's Truth" Gandhi's Truth, which focused more on his theory as applied to later phases in the life cycle, won Erikson a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize" \o "Pulitzer Prize" Pulitzer Prize and a U.S.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Book_Award" \o "National Book Award" National Book Award. Erikson's theory of personality Main article:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erikson%27s_stages_of_psychosocial_development" \o "Erikson's stages of psychosocial development" Erikson's stages of psychosocial development Even though Erikson always insisted that he was a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freudian" \o "Freudian" Freudian, he is better described as a  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Freudian" \o "Neo-Freudian" Neo-Freudian. Subsequent authors have described him as an "ego psychologist" studying the stages of development, spanning the entire lifespan. Each of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erikson%27s_stages_of_psychosocial_development" \o "Erikson's stages of psychosocial development" Erikson's stages of psychosocial development are marked by a conflict, for which successful resolution will result in a favourable outcome, for example, trust vs. mistrust, and by an important event that this conflict resolves itself around, for example, meaning of one's life. Favourable outcomes of each stage are sometimes known as "virtues", a term used, in the context of Eriksonian work, as it is applied to medicines, meaning "potencies." For example, the virtue that would emerge from successful resolution. Oddly, and certainly counter-intuitively, Erikson's research suggests that each individual must learn how to hold both extremes of each specific life-stage challenge in tension with one another, not rejecting one end of the tension or the other. Only when both extremes in a life-stage challenge are understood and accepted as both required and useful, can the optimal virtue for that stage surface. Thus, 'trust' and 'mis-trust' must both be understood and accepted, in order for realistic 'hope' to emerge as a viable solution at the first stage. Similarly, 'integrity' and 'despair' must both be understood and embraced, in order for actionable 'wisdom' to emerge as a viable solution at the last stage. The Erikson life-stage virtues, in the order of the stages in which they may be acquired, are:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hope" \o "Hope" hope - Basic Trust vs. Mistrust - Infant stage. Does the child believe its caregivers to be reliable?  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volition_%28psychology%29" \o "Volition (psychology)" will - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt - Toddler stage. Child needs to learn to explore the world. Bad if the parent is too smothering or completely neglectful.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purpose" \o "Purpose" purpose - Initiative vs. Guilt - Kindergarten - Can the child plan or do things on his own, such as dress him or herself. If "guilty" about making his or her own choices, the child will not function well. Erikson has a positive outlook on this stage, saying that most guilt is quickly compensated by a sense of accomplishment.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competence" \o "Competence" competence - Industry vs. Inferiority - Around age 6 to puberty. Child comparing self worth to others (such as in a classroom environment). Child can recognise major disparities in personal abilities relative to other children. Erikson places some emphasis on the teacher, who should ensure that children do not feel inferior.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fidelity" \o "Fidelity" fidelity - Identity vs. Role Confusion - Teenager. Questioning of self. Who am I, how do I fit in? Where am I going in life? Erikson believes that if the parents allow the child to explore, they will conclude their own identity. However, if the parents continually push him/her to conform to their views, the teen will face identity confusion.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love" \o "Love" love (in intimate relationships, work and family) - Intimacy vs. Isolation - Young adult. Who do I want to be with or date, what am I going to do with my life? Will I settle down? This stage has begun to last longer as young adults choose to stay in school and not settle.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caring" \o "Caring" caring - Generativity vs. Stagnation - the Mid-life crisis. Measure accomplishments/failures. Am I satisfied or not? The need to assist the younger generation. Stagnation is the feeling of not having done anything to help the next generation.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisdom" \o "Wisdom" wisdom - Ego Integrity vs. Despair - old age. Some handle death well. Some can be bitter, unhappy, dissatisfied with what they accomplished or failed to accomplish within their life time. They reflect on the past, and either conclude at satisfaction or despair. On Ego Identity versus Role Confusion, Ego identity enables each person to have a sense of individuality, or as Erikson would say, "Ego identity, then, in its subjective aspect, is the awareness of the fact that there is a self-sameness and continuity to the ego's synthesizing methods and a continuity of one's meaning for others". (1963)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role" \o "Role" Role Confusion however, is, according to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Barbara_Engler&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Barbara Engler (page does not exist)" Barbara Engler in her book Personality Theories (2006), "The inability to conceive of oneself as a productive member of one's own society" (158). This inability to conceive of oneself as a productive member is a great danger; it can occur during adolescence when looking for an occupation. Scientific support Most empirical research into Erikson's theories has stemmed around his views on adolescence and attempts to establish identity. His theoretical approach was studied and supported, particularly regarding adolescence, by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Marcia" \o "James Marcia" James Marcia  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erik_Erikson" \l "cite_note-6" \o "" [7]. Marcia's work extended Erikson's by distinguishing different forms of identity, and there is some empirical evidence that those people who form the most coherent self-concept in adolescence are those who are most able to make intimate attachments in early adulthood. This supports Eriksonian theory, in that it suggests that those best equipped to resolve the crisis of early adulthood are those who have most successfully resolved the crisis of adolescence. Bibliography Major works Childhood and Society ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1950" \o "1950" 1950) Young Man  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Luther" \o "Martin Luther" Luther. A Study in Psychoanalysis and History ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1958" \o "1958" 1958) Identity: Youth and Crisis (1968)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandhi%27s_Truth" \o "Gandhi's Truth" Gandhi's Truth: On the Origin of Militant  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonviolence" \o "Nonviolence" Nonviolence ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1969" \o "1969" 1969) Adulthood (edited book,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1978" \o "1978" 1978) Vital Involvement in Old Age (with J.M. Erikson and H. Kivnick,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1986" \o "1986" 1986) The Life Cycle Completed (with J.M. Erikson,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987" \o "1987" 1987) Collections Identity and the Life Cycle. Selected Papers ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1959" \o "1959" 1959) A Way of Looking at Things: Selected Papers 1930-1980 (Editor: S.P. Schlien,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1915" \o "1915" 1915) The Erik Erikson Reader (Editor:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Coles" \o "Robert Coles" Robert Coles,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001" \o "2001" 2001) Related works Erikson on Development in Adulthood: New Insights from the Unpublished Papers (Carol Hren Hoare,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002" \o "2002" 2002) Erik Erikson, His Life, Work, and Significance (Kit Welchman,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000" \o "2000" 2000) Identity's Architect: A Biography of Erik H. Erikson (Lawrence J. Friedman,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999" \o "1999" 1999) Erik H. Erikson: The Power and Limits of a Vision, N.Y., The Free Press (Paul Roazen, 1976) "Everybody Rides the Carousel" (documentary film) (Hubley,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976" \o "1976" 1976) Erik H. Erikson: the Growth of His Work ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Coles" \o "Robert Coles" Robert Coles,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970" \o "1970" 1970) Ideas and Identities: The Life and Work of Erik Erikson (Robert S. Wallerstein & Leo Goldberger, eds., [IUP, 1998]) mi ma ma es una tonta See also  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erikson_Institute" \o "Erikson Institute" Erikson Institute - graduate school in child development in Chicago, Illinois External links  HYPERLINK "http://www.erikson.edu" \o "http://www.erikson.edu" Erikson Institute Web site  HYPERLINK "http://www.freeonlineresearchpapers.com/erik-erikson-theory" \o "http://www.freeonlineresearchpapers.com/erik-erikson-theory" Biography of Erik Erikson Hermann von Helmholtz 1821-1894 German scientist who conducted breakthrough research on the nervous system. Hermann Helmholtz was one of the few scientists to master two disciplines: medicine and physics. He conducted breakthrough research on the nervous system, as well as the functions of the eye and ear. In physics, he is recognized (along with two other scientists) as the author of the concept of conservation of energy. Helmholtz was born into a poor but scholarly family; his father was an instructor of philosophy and literature at a gymnasium in his hometown of Potsdam, Germany. At home, his father taught him Latin, Greek, French, Italian, Hebrew, and Arabic, as well as the philosophical ideas of Immanuel Kant and J. G. Fichte (who was a friend of the family). With this background, Helmholtz entered school with a wide scope of knowledge. Though he expressed an interest in the sciences, his father could not afford to send him to a university; instead, he was persuaded to study medicine, an area that would provide him with government aid. In return, Helmholtz was expected to use his medical skills for the good of the governmentparticularly in army hospitals. Helmholtz entered the Friedrich Wilhelm Institute in Berlin in 1898, receiving his M.D. four years later. Upon graduation he was immediately assigned to military duty, practicing as a surgeon for the Prussian army. After several years of active duty he was discharged, free to pursue a career in academia. In 1848 he secured a position as lecturer at the Berlin Academy of Arts. Just a year later he was offered a professorship at the University of Konigsberg, teaching physiology. Over the next 22 years he moved to the universities at Bonn and Heidelberg, and it was during this time that he conducted his major works in the field of medicine. Helmholtz began to study the human eye, a task that was all the more difficult for the lack of precise medical equipment. In order to better understand the function of the eye he invented the ophthalmoscope, a device used to observe the retina. Invented in 1851, the ophthalmoscopein a slightly modified formis still used by modern eye specialists. Helmholtz also designed a device used to measure the curvature of the eye called an ophthalmometer. Using these devices he advanced the theory of three-color vision first proposed by Thomas Young. This theory, now called the Young-Helmholtz theory, helps ophthalmologists to understand the nature of color blindness and other afflictions. Intrigued by the inner workings of the sense organs, Helmholtz went on to study the human ear. Being an expert pianist, he was particularly concerned with the way the ear distinguished pitch and tone. He suggested that the inner ear is structured in such a way as to cause resonations at certain frequencies. This allowed the ear to discern similar tones, overtones, and timbres, such as an identical note played by two different instruments. Page301 |  HYPERLINK "http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retrieve.do?sgHitCountType=None&isETOC=true&inPS=true&prodId=GVRL&userGroupName=masaryk&resultListType=RELATED_DOCUMENT&contentSegment=9780787677459&docId=GALE|CX3406000307" \l "contentcontainer#contentcontainer" Top of Article Hermann von Helmhotz (The Library of Congress. Reproduced by permission.) In 1852 Helmholtz conducted what was probably his most important work as a physician: the measurement of the speed of a nerve impulse. It had been assumed that such a measurement could never be obtained by science, since the speed was far too great for instruments to catch. Some physicians even used this as proof that living organisms were powered by an innate "vital force" rather than energy. Helmholtz disproved this by stimulating a frog's nerve first near a muscle and then farther away; when the stimulus was farther from the muscle, it contracted just a little slower. After a few simple calculations Helmholtz announced the impulse velocity within the nervous system to be about one-tenth the speed of sound. After completing much of the work on sensory physiology that had interested him, Helmholtz found himself bored with medicine. In 1868 he decided to return to his first lovephysical science. However, it was not until 1870 that he was offered the physics chair at the University of Berlin and only after it had been turned down by Gustav Kirchhoff. By that time, Helmholtz had already completed his groundbreaking research on energetics. The concept of conservation of energy was introduced by Julius Mayer in 1842, but Helmholtz was unaware of Mayer's work. Helmholtz conducted his own research on energy, basing his theories upon his previous experience with muscles. It could be observed that animal heat was generated by muscle action, as well as chemical reactions within a working muscle. Helmholtz believed that this energy was derived from food and that food got its energy from the Sun. He proposed that energy could not be created spontaneously, nor could it vanishit was either used or released as heat. This explanation was much clearer and more detailed than the one offered by Mayer, and Helmholtz is often considered the true originator of the concept of conservation of energy. Helmholtz had been a sickly child; even throughout his adult life he was plagued by migraine headaches and dizzy spells. In 1894, shortly after a lecture tour of the United States, he fainted and fell, suffering a concussion. He never completely recovered, dying of complications several months later. Alfred Charles Kinsey 1894-1956 American entomologist and sex researcher who pioneered the study of human sexuality. Alfred Charles Kinsey was a well-known entomologist, specializing in the study of gall wasps, when his increasing interest in human sexuality led him in a entirely new scientific direction. Appalled by the lack of reliable scientific information on human sexual practices and problems, Kinsey began conducting extensive interviews, first with his students and then with larger populations. Kinsey's landmark studies, which emphasized both the variety of human sexual activities and the prevalence of practices that were condemned by society, led to a new openness in attitudes toward sex. His work was part of trend in which laws were liberalized and sex education for children became commonplace. Kinsey's research revived interest in the science of "sexology." Born in 1894, in Hoboken, New Jersey, Kinsey was the son of a domineering father, Alfred Seguine Kinsey, and a devoutly religious mother, Sarah Anne (Charles) Kinsey. In 1904, the family, including a younger brother and sister, moved to the more fashionable town of South Orange, New Jersey. Childhood illnesses and a misdiagnosis of heart disease kept Kinsey out of sports, but his life-long interests in classical music and field biology developed at an early age. He became an avid outdoorsman, was active in the Boy Scouts, and spent summers as a camp counselor. Although he dreamed of becoming a biologisthis high school yearbook predicted that he would become "the second Darwin"his father, who had worked his way up from shop boy to shop instructor at the Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken, demanded that Kinsey study engineering at Stevens. Breaks with father to become an entomologist Almost overnight, Kinsey went from high school valedictorian to a mediocre student at a technical college. After two years at Stevens, Kinsey announced to his father that he was transferring to Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Maine. Financing his education with his summer earnings and aid from a wealthy South Orange widow, Kinsey became the star biology student at Bowdoin, while maintaining his involvement with the local church and the YMCA. Graduating magna cum laude in 1916, Kinsey received a fellowship to Harvard University. He began studying gall wasps at the Bussey Institute under William Morton Wheeler. These tiny insects, that form galls, or growths, on roses and oaks, were the perfect subject for Kinsey's unwavering attention to detail and his love of collecting large samples in the wild. While at Harvard, Kinsey found time to write a botanical work, Edible Wild Plants of Eastern North America, although the book was not published until 1942. After earning his doctor of science in 1919, a Sheldon Travelling Fellowship enabled Kinsey to tramp across the country for a year, collecting gall wasps. Settling into the life of a college professor at Indiana University in Bloomington, Kinsey married Clara Brachen McMillen in 1921. She was a chemistry student who shared his love of music and the outdoors. Over the next few years, the couple had four children, although the oldest died of diabetes before the age of four. The publication of Kinsey's texts, An Introduction to Biology (1926) and Field and Laboratory Manual in Biology(1927), provided the family with financial security. His books on gall wasps, published in the 1930s, established him as both the leading expert on these insects and an important theorist in genetics. Studies on human sexuality bring fame and notoriety Kinsey's interests were starting to turn from wasps to people. Disturbed by the lack of scientific knowledgePage356 |  HYPERLINK "http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retrieve.do?sgHitCountType=None&isETOC=true&inPS=true&prodId=GVRL&userGroupName=masaryk&resultListType=RELATED_DOCUMENT&contentSegment=9780787677459&docId=GALE|CX3406000366" \l "contentcontainer#contentcontainer" Top of Article concerning human sexuality, as well as the profound ignorance of his students concerning sexual matters, in 1938 Kinsey began teaching a course on marriage. The Indiana students, anxious for accurate information, flocked to the course and Kinsey turned them into his initial subjects. First with questionnaires and later with private interviews, Kinsey obtained detailed sexual histories of his students and counseled them on the most intimate matters. Soon, using his own funds to expand his research, Kinsey was interviewing large numbers of subjects in Chicago, analyzing data, and training collaborators. With funding from the National Research Council's Committee on the Research in Problems of Sex and the Rockefeller Foundation, he founded the Institute for Sex Research at Indiana University. In 1984 it was renamed the Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction. With the publication of his best-selling book, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male in 1948, Kinsey became an icon of popular culture. In language reminiscent of his high school yearbook, the popular press referred to Kinsey as the successor to Darwin. "The Kinsey Report," as it became known, used straightforward and accurate language to report the findings from thousands of interviews: most males, especially teenagers, masturbated frequently without going insane; premarital and extramarital sex were common; and one-third of all men reported having had at least one homosexual experience. Predictably, Kinsey's book was attacked by religious and conservative groups. With the publication of Sexual Behavior in the Human Female in 1953, the outcry increased and the Rockefeller Foundation withdrew their support. Kinsey's studies on women's sexuality included frank and detailed discussions of female sexual response and orgasm and further reports of frequent masturbation and premarital and extramarital sex. Kinsey was accused of undermining the morals of America. Unable to obtain funding for a new large-scale study of sex offenders, Kinsey traveled to Europe and England in 1955. There he lectured and studied sexual attitudes. Despite increasingly poor health, he completed his 7,935th interview in Chicago in the spring of 1956. Ill with pneumonia and a heart condition, Kinsey fell and bruised himself in his garden. The bruise produced a fatal embolism, and he died in a Bloomington hospital in August, 1956, at the age of 62. Although both Alfred Kinsey and "The Kinsey Report" remain controversial, and later researchers have raised serious questions about Kinsey's methodologies, his work had a profound impact on sexual attitudes and beliefs. Hermann Ebbinghaus Pame (psychologie) Pame je schopnost uchovvat a pou~vat zkuaenost a sou asn proces vatpovn, uchovvn a vybavovn zkuaenosti. Pame se dl jednak podle dlky doby uchovn zapamatovanho na krtkodobou a dlouhodobou; dle podle formy ukldn informac na vizuln, akustickou, smantickou (ukldn vznamu informace) atd. Dala variantou je rozdlen pamti na mechanickou a logickou. Krtkodob a dlouhodob pame Krtkodob pame uchovv informace pYechodn, vtainou na dobu vteYin a~ minut. Vyu~vaj ji napY. dti pYi psan dikttu. Xk se j tak pracovn pame, proto~e umo~Huje Yeait aktuln problmy (pYi tom se chov jako opera n pame). M vaak omezenou kapacitu: 5 - 9 jednoduchch prvko. Samotnou kapacitu k.p. nemo~eme zvtait, dky dlouhodob pamti vaak mo~eme rozaYit jednotliv prvky (napY. si nepamatujeme slovo ko ka jako pt oddlench psmen - a tedy prvko, ale jen jako jeden). Mezi specifick typ krtkodob pamti patY senzorick pame, kter tvoY m~ikov ( asov v Ydech zlomko sekund) smyslov zsobnky pamti ( lovku to, co pYed chvilkou vidl, na krtkou dobu takzvan  zostane pYed o ima ). Dlouhodob pame ukld vznamn zkuaenosti, napY. poznatky nutn k vykonvn njak innosti i poznatky ~ivotn dole~it. Pame se dl na: 1) nedeklarativn = implicitn a) procedurln pame.: slou~ k zapamatovn dovednost b) podmnn - uchovv informace klasickm podmiHovnm c) rozntkov - tzv. primming - vybavovn si pomoc npovdy 2) deklarativn = explicitn pame. a) smantick deklarativn pame: pro obecn fakta (napY. Pythagorova vta) b) epizodick deklarativn pame: pro zapamatovn udlost z naaeho ~ivota 3) Pracovn pame - dYve zvan krtkodob - schopnost do asn udr~et informace pro pYpadn dala zpracovn. a) fonologick smy ka - do asn ukld zvukov a Ye ov informace b) vizuoprostorov n rtnk - do asn ukld vizuln prostorov informace c) centrln vkonnostn smy ka - tYd a specifikuje krtkodob informace Fze pameovho procesu Kdovn Informace do p. ukldme v rozn form, napY. vizuln, akustick, smantick (viz vae). Akustick forma bv pYi u en vhodnja ne~ vizuln. (Vjimkou jsou mal dti, pro kter je dky schopnosti pYesnho eidetickho obrazu - obrazu ukldanho do pamti - vhodnja vizuln forma. Proto tak vynikaj v hrch jako je pexeso.) K lepamu zapamatovn a uchovvn informac pamti pou~vme rozn pameov strategie. Prostm opakovnm innosti vyu~vme tzv. mechanickou pame, zatmco uspoYdme-li informace do celko, k jejich zapamatovn pou~ijeme logickou pame. Druh zposob je dlouhodob vhodnja. Pro zapamatovn novch informac je tak kl ov  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sp%C3%A1nek" \o "Spnek" spnek, proto~e pYi nm dochz ke konsolidaci (=integraci do ji~ existujcch schmat) novch pameovch stop. Uchovn (podr~en) v pamti Pro uchovn informac je efektivn, kdy~ jsou informace v njakm smysluplnm celku. Snadnji vybaviteln a reprodukovateln jsou informace, kter pro ns maj vznam a ten je dn motivac, osobnmi potYebami i spojenm se silnjam citovm z~itkem. Dle si lze lpe zapamatovat to, co se lovk u  zmrn systematicky, promalenm u iva a spojovnm s pYklady a s prax. Naopak mechanicky vatpen informace z pamti rychleji miz, nelze je vybavit, tj. dekdovat. Zapomnn samotn je vlastn vyhasnnm nervovho spoje. Nepou~vnm systematicky nedostate n zaYazen informace probh  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vyt%C4%9Bsn%C4%9Bn%C3%AD_%28podle_Freuda%29" \o "Vytsnn (podle Freuda)" vytsnnm do  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nev%C4%9Bdom%C3%AD" \o "Nevdom" nevdom. Vzkumem zapomnn se zabval nmeck  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psycholog" \o "Psycholog" psycholog  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hermann_Ebbinghaus&action=edit" \o "Hermann Ebbinghaus" Ebbinghaus. Jeho bdn v oblasti bezesmyslovch slabik vedlo k objevu tzv.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ebbbinghausova_k%C5%99ivka_zapom%C3%ADn%C3%A1n%C3%AD&action=edit" \o "Ebbbinghausova kYivka zapomnn" Ebbbinghausovy kYivky zapomnn. Podle n nejvce zapomnme v prvnch hodinch po nau en se n emu, zatmco mno~stv zapomenutho po 5 dnech a po msci se u~ lia jen mlo. Vybaven K vybaven pou~vme asociace. Rozliaujeme dva typy vybaven: 1) znovupoznn: rozpoznn podnto a jejich odliaen od novch a neznmch 2) reprodukce: proces rekonstrukce zapamatovanho Reprodukce mo~e bt nepYesn, lid maj tendence svoje vzpomnky doplHovat.  HYPERLINK "http://zpameti.cz/" \o "http://zpameti.cz/" Zpamti - web o pamti, lepam u en a studiu  HYPERLINK "http://www.scienceworld.cz/sw.nsf/ID/5D521DA063DFF279C1256E9700492037?OpenDocument" \o "http://www.scienceworld.cz/sw.nsf/ID/5D521DA063DFF279C1256E9700492037?OpenDocument" Mozek a jeho bity - kapacita lidskho mozku Spnek Spnek je tlumov-relaxa n fze  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismus" \o "Organismus" organismu, pYi n~ se sni~uje i pYmo miz funk nost nkterch  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smysl_%28biologie%29" \o "Smysl (biologie)" smyslo, sni~uje se  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=T%C4%9Blesn%C3%A1_teplota&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Tlesn teplota (dosud nevytvoYeno)" tlesn teplota (proto se lid pYed spanm pYikrvaj dekou), dchn se zpomaluje a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krevn%C3%AD_tlak" \o "Krevn tlak" krevn tlak se sni~uje. Bhem spnku se lidem vtainou zdaj  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sen" \o "Sen" sny (kter nejsou ernobl, jak se nkdy myln uvd); i pYi span  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozek" \o "Mozek" mozek intenzivn pracuje. Spnek nm zabere pYibli~n tYetinu ~ivota, tj. asi 25 let. Ruaen nebo neumo~nn spnku vede k  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatrie" \o "Psychiatrie" psychickm pot~m (ty jej naopak tak mohou vyvolat) a pou~v se t~ jako modern metoda  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu%C4%8Den%C3%AD" \o "Mu en" mu en. PYi pokusech na  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pes" \o "Pes" psech a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ko%C4%8Dka" \o "Ko ka" ko kch odprn spnku a opakovan buzen vedlo po asi patncti dnech ke  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smrt" \o "Smrt" smrti. Fze spnku Spnek m nkolik fz, z nich~ nejdole~itja je tzv. REM fze (rapid eyes movement) HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sp%C3%A1nek" \l "cite_note-0" \o "" [1] , pYi kter dochz pod zavYenmi v ky k rychlmu pohybu  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=O%C4%8Dn%C3%AD_bulva&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "O n bulva (dosud nevytvoYeno)" bulv. Tato fze je charakterizovna pYtomnosti sno. REM fze spnku je ovlivHovna (pYesnji navozovna) st zadnho mozku -  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varol%C5%AFv_most" \o "Varolov most" Varolovm mostem. Druhou hlavn fz je spnek nREM (Non Rapid eye movement). Podrobnja analza probhu vln napovd, ~e spnek sestv z pti stdi. Tedy tyY spnkovch stadi o rozn hloubce spnku a z ptho stdia, nazvanho paradoxn spnek (spnek s rychlmi o nmi pohyby REM rapid eye movement). stadium: vlny se stvaj nepravidelnmi a jejich amplituda se sni~uje stadium: vyskytuj se spnkov vYetnka, jedn se o krtk seky rytmickch vln s frekvenc 12  16 Hz. Jejich  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplituda" \o "Amplituda" amplituda v probhu celho EEG nhle kles a narost (K-komplex) stadium: stadium: jsou charakterizovny pomalmi vlnami 1  2 Hz, kter se ozna uj jako vlna delta. V probhu tYet a tvrt fze je jedince obvykle t~k probudit. NapY. hlasit zvuk, podobn, ale pl  dtte nebo vysloven kYestnho jmna doty nho jej mohou probudit. PYesn probh spnkovho cyklu je u ka~dho jedince odlian a mn se i s vkem. Novorozenci strv asi polovinu svho spnku v REM fzi. Ve stY REM fze in 18%. Srovnnm spnku REM a noREM vedlo k tomu, ~e nkteY vdci pYestali REM stdium pova~ovat za spnek a ozna uj ho spae za tYet stav existence mimo stav bdn a noREM spnku. V probhu REM stdia dochz k nhlmu vskytu o nch pohybo, je~ trvaj 10  20 sekund, srde n frekvence a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolismus" \o "Metabolismus" metabolismus mozku se zvyauj a bl~ se bdlm hodnotm. V probhu REM spnku jsme tmY strnul, uaetYen je pouze  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srdce" \o "Srdce" srde n sval,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C3%A1nice" \o "Brnice" brnice, okohybn  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sval" \o "Sval" svaly a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hladk%C3%A9_svalstvo" \o "Hladk svalstvo" hladk svalstvo. Metabolismus mozku se sni~uje na 25%  30% a tlo relaxuje. O n pohyby jsou tmY nepYtomny. Frekvence dechu a srde n frekvence se zYeteln sni~uj, prohlubuje se svalov relaxace. Mozek je bdl a tlo je paralyzovno. Mozek je izolovn od senzorickch a motorickch spojen. Podntom z jinch st tla je brnn vstup do mozku. Dlka spnku je individuln. Obecn se uvd 7  8 hodin, ale zle~ na jedinci. NapY.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" \o "Napoleon Bonaparte" Napoleon Bonaparte spal dajn pouze 4 hodiny. Vzkum Vzkum spnku byl zahjen ve tYictch letech  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/20._stolet%C3%AD" \o "20. stolet" 20. stolet. Loomis, Harvey, Hobart v r.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1937" \o "1937" 1937, nalezli citliv techniky pro mYen hloubky spnku a pro stanoven stdi, v nich~ se vyskytuj sny. Vzkum spnku pracuje s pYstroji zaznamenvajcmi elektrick zmny na poko~ce hlavy, kter souvisej se spontnn  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozek" \o "Mozek" mozkovou aktivitou bhem spnku a s  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oko" \o "Oko" o nmi pohyby pYi snn. Grafick zznam tchto elektrickch zmn ili mozkovch vln se nazv  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroencefalogram" \o "Elektroencefalogram" elektroencefalogram, zkrcen EEG. MY se mnc se promrn elektrick potencil tisco  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron" \o "Neuron" neurono na povrchu  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozkov%C3%A1_k%C5%AFra" \o "Mozkov kora" mozkov kory. V sou asn dob dospli,  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dale_Edgar&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Dale Edgar (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Dale Edgar a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wiliam_Dement&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Wiliam Dement (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Wiliam Dement, pYedn odbornci na vzkum spnku k modelu protikladnho procesu spnku a bdn. Podle tto  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorie" \o "Teorie" teorie se v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozek" \o "Mozek" mozku odehrvaj dva protikladn procesy. Prvn z nich se nazv pud homeostatickho spnku (fyziologick proces, jeho~ elem je zajistit takov mno~stv spnku, aby byl bdl stav pYes den stl) a druh proces bdn Yzen asem (podlh kontrole biologickch hodin sestvajcch ze dvou drobnch neurlnch struktur ve stYedn sti mozku). Biologick hodiny Yd Yadu duaevnch a fyziologickch zmn v etn rytmu bdn, tzv. cirkadinnho rytmu, kter se opakuje pYibli~n ka~dch tyYiadvacet hodin. Biologick hodiny podlhaj vlivu posoben  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sv%C4%9Btlo" \o "Svtlo" svtla. Denn svtlo toti~ zastavuje sekreci  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormon" \o "Hormon" hormonu  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melatonin" \o "Melatonin" melatoninu, co~ je hormon navozujc spnek. Poruchy spnku Asi 90% dosplch sp 6  9 hodin. Sp-li takov jedinec 6  7 hodin, jev bhem dne siln znmky ospalosti. Spnkov deprivace se projevuje neschopnost pro~t den bez chvilkov ztrty  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energie" \o "Energie" energie a plnho stavu bdn, zvyauje se nepozornost, zejmna v odpolednch hodinch. PYedn vdec zabvajc se vzkumem spnku Maas tvrd, ~e ka~dodenn ztrta jedn hodiny spnku v probhu jednoho tdne se rovn jedn probdl noci. Pokud si osmihodinov spnek prodlou~me o dala dv hodiny, mo~e u ns dojt k zsadnmu zvaen bdlosti.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insomnie" \o "Insomnie" Insomnie (nespavost) zposobuje ~e jedinec nemo~e usnout nebo se v spnku asto probouz. Hlavn pY inou je  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stres" \o "Stres" stres, dle nedostatek pohybu a nesprvn u~vn lko. Vdci prokzali, ~e tito lid sp ve skute nosti vce ne~ si mysl, ale ale bud se astji ne~ zdrav lid. L ba zahrnuje sn~en stresu, zvaen pohybov aktivity, vytvoYen pravidelnho spnkovho re~imu a zkaz pit kvy pozd ve er. Teprve pot je nutn l bu Yeait medikamenty.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=N%C3%A1m%C4%9Bs%C3%AD%C4%8Dnictv%C3%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Nms nictv (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Nms nictv (Somnambulismus) - posti~en bhem spnku vstane z postele a prochz se (pYi nonREM spnku). Nms n se nemaj budit, ale maj bt odvedeni zpt do postele.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Narkolepsie&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Narkolepsie (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Narkolepsie se projevuje opakujcmi se nezvladatelnmi zchvaty ospalosti a tak mo~nost kdykoli usnout. Jedn se tedy o vskyt REM epizod v denn (bdl) dob.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Narkolepsie&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Narkolepsie (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Narkolepsie je ddi n a jsou dokazy pro to, ~e sklon k tto chorob zvyauje ur it  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen" \o "Gen" gen nebo soubor geno. Posti~en mohou trpt halucinacemi a pro~t i spnkovou obrnu.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=No%C4%8Dn%C3%AD_d%C4%9Bs&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "No n ds (dosud nevytvoYeno)" No n ds - nhl probuzen s pocity strachu, vyskytuje se hlavn u dt v nonREM spnku. Dt se obvykle bud s kYikem, otupl a zmaten, ale brzy opt usn a na pYhodu si nepamatuje.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/No%C4%8Dn%C3%AD_m%C5%AFry" \o "No n mory" No n mory jsou dsiv, ~iv sny bhem REM spnku. Po probuzen si posti~en no n moru jasn pamatuje. No n mory se vyskytuj obvykle u dt a dosplch, kteY pro~ili njak trauma.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Posun_sp%C3%A1nku_p%C5%99i_dlouh%C3%BDch_letech_letadlem&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Posun spnku pYi dlouhch letech letadlem (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Posun spnku pYi dlouhch letech letadlem - Posun normlnch tlesnch rytmo zposoben lety na dlouh vzdlenosti. pYi kterch jsou pYekonvan  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Casov%C3%A9_p%C3%A1smo" \o " asov psmo"  asov psma. Normln spnkov re~im je naruaen a posti~en sp pYes den a je il v noci. Dalami pYznaky je nava a sn~en duaevnch schopnost. PYizposoben novmu rytmu trv nkolik dn.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sp%C3%A1nkov%C3%A1_apnoe&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Spnkov apnoe (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Spnkov apnoe periodicky se opakujc krtkodob do asn zstava dechu, dojde-li k n u kojenco ve spnku, mo~e mt bez zsahu za nsledek  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smrt" \o "Smrt" smrt. U dosplch je zpravidla spojena s chrpnm. PY inou mo~e bt nadmrn uvolnn svalo  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hltan" \o "Hltan" hltanu nebo nedostate n vysln  dechovch instrukc z mozku. Posti~en si tchto dechovch pauz nejsou vdomi, ale nsledujc den se ct ospale a nevkonn. Ve vyaam vku se tato choroba stv zva~nou a mo~e zposobit vzestup krevnho tlaku, srde n infarkt nebo mozkovou mrtvici.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sp%C3%A1nkov%C3%A1_derivace&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Spnkov derivace (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Spnkov deprivace je nedostatek normlnho mno~stv spnku, asto pou~van jako druh  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mu%C4%8Den%C3%AD" \o "Mu en" mu en. Zposobuje ospalost, nemo~nost soustYedn a halucinace.  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sp%C3%A1nkov%C3%A1_obrna&action=edit&redlink=1" \o "Spnkov obrna (dosud nevytvoYeno)" Spnkov obrna je dsiv pocit, nkdy spojen s halucinacemi, pYi nm~ se posti~en pYi usnn nebo probouzen do asn nemo~e hbat. Nej astji se vyskytuje u lid s narkolepsi. Lky na span Jsou pYedepisovny lidem se stlou nespavost, jen~ jim st~uje ka~dodenn ~ivot. Tyto lky zposobuj tlum t sti mozku, jen~ ns dr~ v bdlosti a navozuje spnek, pYi nm~ je vce lehk spnek (nonREM stadia 1 a 2), ale mn hlubok spnek (nonREM stadia 3 a 4) a mn sno (REM spnek). Pou~it tchto lko je tedy vhodn jen pro obnoven spnkovho rytmu, pokud vaechny pYedchoz pokusy.metody selhaly. Podvn mus bt velmi opatrn, proto~e dlouhodob u~vn mo~e vyvolat lkovou zvislost. Nkter lky na span: Chloralhydrt Nitrazepam Chlormethiazol Promethazin Dichloralphenazon Temazepam Flurazepam Triazolam Hermann Ebbinghaus 1850-1909 German psychologist whose work resulted in the development of scientifically reliable experimental methods for the quantitative measurement of rote learning and memory. Hermann Ebbinghaus (Corbis-Bettmann. Reproduced with permission.)  HYPERLINK "http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retrieve.do?retrieveFormat=PDF_FROM_CALLISTO&sort=&docLevel=&inPS=true&prodId=GVRL&userGroupName=masaryk&tabID=&resultListType=RELATED_DOCUMENT&searchId=&docId=GALE%7CCX3406000208&searchType=¤tPosition=1&callistoContentSet=Gale&workId=gep_01_00213-p.pdf" View PDF Born in Germany, Hermann Ebbinghaus received his formal education at the universities of Halle, Berlin, and Bonn, where he earned degrees in philosophy and history. After obtaining his philosophy degree in 1873, Ebbinghaus served in the Franco-Prussian War. For the next seven years following the war, he tutored and studied independently in Berlin, France, and England. In the late 1870s, Ebbinghaus became interested in the workings of human memory. In spite of Wilhelm Wundt's assertion in his newly published Physiological Psychology that memory could not be studied experimentally, Ebbinghaus decided to attempt such a study, applying to this new field the same sort of mathematical treatmentPage204 |  HYPERLINK "http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retrieve.do?sgHitCountType=None&isETOC=true&inPS=true&prodId=GVRL&userGroupName=masaryk&resultListType=RELATED_DOCUMENT&contentSegment=9780787677459&docId=GALE|CX3406000208" \l "contentcontainer#contentcontainer" Top of Article that Gustav Fechner (1801-1887) had described in Elements of Psychophysics (1860) in connection with his study of sensation and perception. Using himself as both sole experimenter and subject, Ebbinghaus embarked on an arduous process that involved repeatedly testing his memorization of nonsense words devised to eliminate variables caused by prior familiarity with the material being memorized. He created 2,300 one-syllable consonant-vowel-consonant combinationssuch as taz, bok, and lef to facilitate his study of learning independent of meaning. He divided syllables into a series of lists that he memorized under fixed conditions. Recording the average amount of time it took him to memorize these lists perfectly, he then varied the conditions to arrive at observations about the effects of such variables as speed, list length, and number of repetitions. He also studied the factors involved in retention of the memorized material, comparing the initial memorization time with the time needed for a second memorization of the same material after a given period of time (such as 24 hours) and subsequent memorization attempts. These results showed the existence of a regular forgetting curve over time that approximated a mathematical function similar to that in Fechner's study. After a steep initial decline in learning time between the first and second memorization, the curve leveled off progressively with subsequent efforts. Ebbinghaus also measured immediate memory, showing that a subject could generally remember between six and eight items after an initial look at one of his lists. In addition, he studied comparative learning rates for meaningful and meaningless material, concluding that meaningful items, such as words and sentences, could be learned much more efficiently than nonsense syllables. His experiments also yielded observations about the value of evenly spaced as opposed to massed memorization. A monumental amount of time and effort went into this ground-breaking research. For example, to determine the effects of number of repetitions on retention, Ebbinghaus tested himself on 420 lists of 16 syllables 340 times each, for a total of 14,280 trials. After careful accumulation and analysis of data, Ebbinghaus published the results of his research in the volume On Memory in 1885, while on the faculty of the University of Berlin. Although Wundt argued that results obtained by using nonsense syllables had limited applicability to the actual memorization of meaningful material, Ebbinghaus's work has been widely used as a model for research on human verbal learning, and ber Gedachtnis (On Memory) has remained one of the most cited and highly respected sourcebooks in the history of psychology. In 1894, Ebbinghaus joined the faculty of the University of Breslau. While studying the mental capacities of children in 1897, he began developing a sentence completion test that is still widely used in the measurement of intelligence. This test, which he worked on until 1905, was probably the first successful test of mental ability. Ebbinghaus also served on the faculties of the Friedrich Wilhelm University and the University of Halle. He was a cofounder of the first German psychology journal, the Journal of Psychology and Physiology of the Sense Organs, in 1890, and also wrote two successful textbooks, The Principles of Psychology (1902) and A Summary of Psychology (1908), both of which went into several editions. His achievements represented a major advance for psychology as a distinct scientific discipline and many of his methods continue to be followed in verbal learning research. Gordon Willard Allport 1897-1967 American humanist psychologist who developed a personality theory that emphasized individuality. Gordon Willard Allport was one of the great personality theorists of the twentieth century. His work was a synthesis of individual personality traits and the traditional psychology of William James, which emphasized psychological traits that are common among humans. He also examined complex social interactions. As a humanistic psychologist, he opposed both behavioral and psychoanalytical theories of psychology. Above all, Allport believed in the uniqueness of the individual. A prolific and gifted writer, he was the recipient of numerous professional awards. Allport, born in 1897 in Montezuma, Indiana, was the youngest of four sons in the family of John Edwards and Nellie Edith (Wise) Allport. He was educated in Cleveland, Ohio, where the family moved when he was six years old. John Allport was a physician with a clinic in the family home and, as they were growing up, his sons assisted him in his practice. Gordon Allport's mother, a former school teacher, maintained a home environment that emphasized religion and intellectual development. As a teenager, Allport ran his own printing business and edited his high school newspaper. Following graduation in 1915, scholarships enabled him to join his brother Floyd at Harvard College. Although his education was interrupted for military service during the First World War, Allport earned his A.B. degree in 1919, with majors in philosophy and economics. Following a year of teaching English and sociology at Robert College in Istanbul, Turkey, Allport returned to Harvard with a fellowship to study psychology. He was influenced both by his brother Floyd and by the noted experimental psychologist Hugo Mnsterberg. He coauthored his first publication, "Personality Traits: Their Classification and Measurement," with his brother in 1921. Allport received his M.A. degree in 1921 and his Ph.D. in 1922, for his study of personality traits under the direction of Herbert S. Langfeld. A Sheldon Traveling Fellowship enabled Allport to spend two years studying in Berlin and Hamburg, Germany,Page29 |  HYPERLINK "http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retrieve.do?sgHitCountType=None&isETOC=true&inPS=true&prodId=GVRL&userGroupName=masaryk&resultListType=RELATED_DOCUMENT&contentSegment=9780787677459&docId=GALE|CX3406000031" \l "contentcontainer#contentcontainer" Top of Article and in Cambridge, England. He then returned to Harvard as an instructor in social ethics from 1924 to 1926. Allport married Ada Lufkin Gould in 1925. Their son, Robert Bradlee Allport, grew up to become a pediatrician. After four years as an assistant professor of psychology at Dartmouth College, Allport returned to Harvard where he remained for the rest of his career. He became an associate professor of psychology in 1937 and a full professor in 1942. He served as chairman of the Psychology Department and helped found Harvard's Department of Social Relations. In 1939 he was elected president of the American Psychological Association and, in 1964, received the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award of that society. In 1963, he was awarded the Gold Medal of the American Psychological Foundation. Publishes theory of personality Allport's first major book, Personality: A Psychological Interpretation (1937), distinguished between traits that are common to many people, such as assertiveness, and personal dispositions which are traits that are characteristic of the individual. The latter were classified according to their degree of influence on an individual personality. Allport also identified how individuals develop self-awareness throughout childhood and adolescence. One of Allport's most important concepts, functional autonomy, encompassed his theories of motivation. Finally, he attempted to define the mature personality. Personality: A Psychological Interpretation remained the standard text on personality theory for many years. In 1961, following years of study and research, Allport published a major revision of this work, Pattern and Growth in Personality. He also helped to develop methods of personality assessment, including the A-S Reaction Study (1928), with his brother Floyd Allport. Examines the nature of prejudice Allport was a man of diverse interests. During World War II, as a member of the National Research Council, he began studying the social problem of spreading rumors. In 1947 he published The Psychology of Rumor with Leo Postman. Allport also was concerned with racial and religious prejudice. His 1954 book, The Nature of Prejudice, was a milestone study. As a visiting consultant at the University of Natal in South Africa in 1956, Allport predicted that the white supremacist cultures of both South Africa and the American South would be overthrown. Like his predecessor William James, Allport also examined the psychology of religion in The Individual and his Religion: A Psychological Interpretation (1950), in which he warned of the prejudices that could be fostered by institutionalized religions. Gordon W. Allport (Archives of the History of American Psychology. Reproduced with permission.) During his career, Allport published 12 books and more than 200 papers on psychology and held important positions in American and foreign psychological associations. Allport was editor of the Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology from 1937 until 1949. Boston University awarded him an honorary L.H.D. degree in 1958. He also held honorary doctorates from Ohio Wesleyan University, Colby College, and the University of Durham in England. He died of lung cancer in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1967. Allport, G. W. "Autobiography." In A History of Psychology in Autobiography, edited by E. Boring and G. Lindzey. Boston: Beacon Press, 1967. Evans, Richard I. Gordon Allport, the Man and his Ideas. New York: Dutton, 1971. Maddi, Salvatore R. and Paul T. Costa. Humanism in Personalogy: Allport, Maslow, and Murray. Chicago: Aldine Atherton, 1972. Arthur Janov Arthur Janov (born  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_21" \o "August 21" August 21,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1924" \o "1924" 1924) is an American  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist" \o "Psychologist" psychologist,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychotherapist" \o "Psychotherapist" psychotherapist, and the creator of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primal_therapy" \o "Primal therapy" Primal Therapy. Janov directs a psychotherapy institute called the Primal Center in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Monica%2C_California" \o "Santa Monica, California" Santa Monica, California,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" \o "United States" U.S.. He is the author of many books, most famously  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Primal_Scream" \o "The Primal Scream" The Primal Scream, which claimed that mental illness can be eliminated by a therapy that consists of repeatedly descending into, feeling, and expressing supposedly long-repressed childhood pain. His writings were the inspiration for the names of British  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop_music" \o "Pop music" pop bands  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tears_for_Fears" \o "Tears for Fears" Tears for Fears and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primal_Scream" \o "Primal Scream" Primal Scream. Experience of the therapy inspired  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lennon" \o "John Lennon" John Lennon and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoko_Ono" \o "Yoko Ono" Yoko Ono's  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970" \o "1970" 1970  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_Ono_Band" \o "Plastic Ono Band" Plastic Ono Band albums. Life Arthur Janov was born in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles" \o "Los Angeles" Los Angeles and received his B.A. and M.S.W. in psychiatric social work from the H I K L A B Q R T U q   ! # $  4 6 7   ! 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HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California%2C_Los_Angeles" \o "University of California, Los Angeles" University of California, Los Angeles and his Ph.D. in psychology from  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claremont_Graduate_School" \o "Claremont Graduate School" Claremont Graduate School in 1960. Janov originally practiced conventional psychotherapy in his native California. He did an internship at the Hacker Psychiatric Clinic in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beverly_Hills" \o "Beverly Hills" Beverly Hills, worked for the Veterans Administration at Brentwood Neuropsychiatric Hospital and has been in private practice since 1952. He was also on the staff of the Psychiatric Department at Los Angeles Childrens Hospital where he was involved in developing their psychosomatic unit.  HYPERLINK "http://www.primaltherapy.com/SEO/primal_arthur_janov.shtml" \o "http://www.primaltherapy.com/SEO/primal_arthur_janov.shtml" [1]. Janov claims that his professional life changed in a single day in the mid-1960s with the discovery of what he calls Primal Pain. During a therapy session, Janov heard what he describes as, an eerie scream welling up from the depths of a young man who was lying on the floor. He developed  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primal_Therapy" \o "Primal Therapy" Primal Therapy, in which clients are encouraged to re-live and express what Janov considers repressed feelings. Janov's first wife was Vivian Glickstein, with whom he opened the Primal Institute, of which she remains the Executive Director. He had two children from this marriage: Ellen Lisa Janov (22 April 1953 - 7 January 1976) and Richard Janov (born 26 April, 1956). In her teens, Ellen showed talent as a singer and actress, recording Portobello Road and Theme, under the name Ellie Janov and going on to play a supporting role in a Disney movie, The Horse in the Gray Flannel Suit.[ HYPERLINK "http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0417899/bio" \o "http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0417899/bio" [2]]. Later she became a therapist at the Primal Institute until her untimely accidental death. HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Janov" \l "cite_note-WOLF-0" \o "" [1] Richard Janov also formerly practiced as a Primal Therapist. Arthur and Vivian Janov, already separated, divorced on 25 July, 1980.[ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" \o "Wikipedia:Citation needed" citation needed] Arthur Janov married France A. Daunic,(who came to the Primal Institute several years earlier), on November 15, 1980.[ HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" \o "Wikipedia:Citation needed" citation needed] Bibliography  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Primal_Scream" \o "The Primal Scream" The Primal Scream (1970)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0349118299" ISBN 0-349-11829-9 - (revised 1999) The Anatomy of Mental Illness (1971) The Primal Revolution: Toward a Real World (1972)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0671216414" ISBN 0-671-21641-4 The Feeling Child (1973)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0349118329" ISBN 0-349-11832-9 Primal Man: The new consciousness (1976)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/069001015X" ISBN 0-690-01015-X Prisoners of Pain (1980)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0385157916" ISBN 0-385-15791-6 Imprints: The Lifelong Effects of the Birth Experience (1984)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0399510869" ISBN 0-399-51086-9 New Primal Scream: Primal Therapy 20 Years on (1992)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0942103238" ISBN 0-942103-23-8 Why You Get Sick and How You Get Well: The Healing Power of Feelings (1996)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0787106852" ISBN 0-7871-0685-2 The Biology of Love (2000)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1573928291" ISBN 1-57392-829-1 Grand Delusions -- Psychotherapies Without Feeling (2005); unpublished manuscript available at the Primal Center's website  HYPERLINK "http://primaltherapy.com/GrandDelusions/GDcontents.htm" \o "http://primaltherapy.com/GrandDelusions/GDcontents.htm" [3] Sexualit et subconscient: Perversions et dviances de la libido (2006)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2268057208" ISBN 2-268-05720-8 (original English manuscript titled Sex and the Subconscious unpublished as of May 2006) Primal Healing: Access the Incredible Power of Feelings to Improve Your Health (2006)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1564149161" ISBN 1-56414-916-1 The Janov Solution: Lifting Depression Through Primal Therapy (2007)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1585011118" ISBN 1-58501-111-8 See also  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primal_Therapy" \o "Primal Therapy" Primal Therapy Notes  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Janov" \l "cite_ref-WOLF_0-0" \o "" ^ Theresa Sheppard Alexander, Facing the Wolf: Inside the Process of Deep Feeling Therapy References Books Alexander, T.S. Facing the Wolf: Inside the Process of Deep Feeling Therapy (1997), Plume.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0452275210" ISBN 0452275210. External links  HYPERLINK "http://www.primaltherapy.com/SEO/primal_arthur_janov.shtml" \o "http://www.primaltherapy.com/SEO/primal_arthur_janov.shtml" Dr Arthur Janov's Primal Center Paul J. Meehl 1920-2003 American clinical psychologist and pioneer in the field of learning theory. Minnesota professor influenced the world Paul Everett Meehl, born on January 3, 1920, is a renowned expert in various aspects of clinical psychology. He earned his A.B. from the University of Minnesota in 1941, where he remained throughout his entire professional career. In 1945 he was awarded his doctorate from the same institution. His career as a faculty member at Minnesota has included his position as chair of the Department of Psychology from 1951 through 1958. In 2000 Meehl remains actively engaged in research and is the Regents' (Emeritus) Professor. His scholarship led also to a post as a professor in the medical school's Department of Psychiatry, in the Minnesota Center for the Philosophy of Science, and on the faculty of the Department of Philosophy. Among his many roles is his seat on the Advisory Board of Philosophy, Psychiatry, & Psychology, published by The Johns Hopkins University Press. Meehl's pursuits since his early career have reached a broad spectrum of interests and concerns. He has focused on the field of clinical psychology, in particular clinical assessment, and in personality, learning, psychometrics, and the philosophy of science. Meehl's exploration into the learning process led to his influence in the field of assessment. Traditionally, using subjective clinical judgment was used to perform psychological assessments. Meehl's work changed this approach. He developed ways to make assessments on an actuarial basis in line with quantitative standards. This approach was instrumental in the eventual computerized evaluation of psychological tests and revolutionized testing forever. Respected by colleagues Meehl's work in testing was as significant among his own colleagues as it was with the general population. For the American Psychological Association (APA), he served as a member of the Committee on Test Standards and as chair for the Special Committee on Certification and Licensure of Psychologists. His professional contributions have represented a continually evolving passion for the scientific treatment of psychological study. Perhaps Meehl's most significant contribution to his field was the fact that he helped prepare many of the most prominent practicing psychologists in the United States. He has been a leader in psychotherapy, behavior genetics, the philosophy of science, and forensic psychology, authoring over 160 publications. One of his first major studies was published in Modern Learning Theory in 1954. In 1958 Meehl published What, Then, Is Man? Active as a Lutheran layman, he co-authored this monograph exploring the relationship between behavioral science and Christian faith. Three of his works published in the 1990s reflected his current area of research. As Meehl himself noted, that work covers three areas; first, the development of testing of taxometric (assigning objects to appropriate classes) statistical procedures for the classification and genetic analysis of mental disorders and personality types, second, cliometric (the use of mathematical and statistical methods, often using computers, in order to analyze historical data) metatheory, and third, philosophical and mathematical contributions to the significance test controversy. His later publications include Meehl's impact throughout psychology, philosophy, and medicine was significant enough to earn him numerous awards from his professional associations throughout his career. One of his earliest awards was that for Distinguished Scientific Contributions from the APA in 1958. Meehl was awarded the "Centennial Award" on August 9, 1996, from Division 12 of the APA in honor of 100 years of clinical psychology. This award honored the pioneering work he had done when the study of psychology was only beginning to gain scientific recognition. He has served as a member and Diplomate on the American Board of Professional Psychology (Clinical). Meehl's major contributions to the field of psychology were his systematic and mathematical methods of research. He pioneered this systematic approach to diagnosis and evaluation. In addition to research, Meehl operated a private practice where he performed psychotherapy using both psychoanalytical and rational approaches. Dr. Jacob Levy Moreno Dr. Jacob (Jakob) Levy Moreno (18 May 1889 - 14 May 1974) was a leading psychiatrist, theorist and educator. During his lifetime Dr. Moreno was recognized at Harvard University as one of the greatest social scientists in the world. Dr. Moreno grew up in Vienna at time of great intellectual creativity and political turmoil. The founder of Psychodrama, Sociometry and the foremost pioneer of Group Psychotherapy, Moreno studied medicine, mathematics, and philosophy at the University of Vienna, becoming an M.D. in 1917. He had rejected Freudian theory while still a medical student, and became interested in the potential of group settings for therapeutic practice. In his autobiography, Dr. Moreno recalls this (now classic) encounter with Freud in 1912. I attended one of Freuds lectures. He had just finished an analysis of a telepathic dream. As the students filed out, he singled me out from the crowd and asked me what I was doing. I responded, Well, Dr. Freud, I start where you leave off. You meet people in the artificial setting of your office. I meet them on the street and in their homes, in their natural surroundings. You analyze their dreams. I give them the courage to dream again. You analyze and tear them apart. I let them act out their conflicting roles and help them to put the parts back together again. Indeed, Dr. Moreno picked up where Freud left off, with his theory of interpersonal relations, and the development of his work in psychodrama, sociometry, group psychotherapy, sociodrama, and sociatry. Moving to the U.S. in 1925, Dr. Moreno began working in New York City. In his autobiography he states that of all the places in the world, that "Only in New York, the melting pot of the nations, the vast metropolis, with all its freedom from all preconceived notions, could I be free to pursue sociometric group research in the grand style I had envisioned"(Journal of Group Psychotherapy, Psychodrama & Sociometry. Vol. 42, No. 1, spring 1989). He held positions at Columbia University and the New School for Social Research. In 1932 Dr. Moreno first introduced group psychotherapy to the American Psychiatric Association. For the next 40 years Dr. Moreno developed and introduced his Theory of Interpersonal Relations and tools for social sciences he called sociodrama, psychodrama, sociometry, and sociatry. In his monograph tilted, The Future of Mans world, Dr. Moreno describes how he developed these sciences to counteract the economic materialism of Marx, the psychological materialism of Freud, and the technological materialism of our modern industrial age. His autobiography describes his position as threefold: 1. Spontaneity and creativity are the propelling forces in human progress, beyond and independent of libido and socioeconomic motives [that] are frequently interwoven with spontaneity-creativity, but [this proposition] does deny that spontaneity and creativity are merely a function and derivative of libido or socioeconomic motives. 2. Love and mutual sharing are powerful, indispensable working principles in group life. Therefore, it is imperative that we have faith in our fellow mans intentions, a faith which transcends mere obedience arising from physical or legalistic coercion. 3. That a superdynamic community based on these principles can be brought to realization through new techniques" The Psychotherapy Networkwer identifies the methods of J.L. Moreno to have held up respectably over the last 100 years (Psychotherapy Networker, Clinician's Digest, Jan/Feb 2007). New research out of the University of Vienna by Dr. Robert Waldl shows the enormous influence that Dr. Morenos theory of the Encounter (Invitations to an Encounter, 1914) had on the development of Martin Bubers I-Thou philosophy, and Bubers influence on philosophy, theology, and psychology. Dr. Moreno's wife Zerka Moreno writes, While it is true that Buber broadened the idea of the Encounter, he did not create the instruments for it to occur. Morenoproduced the various instruments we now use for facilitating the human encounter, sociometry, group psychotherapy, psychodrama, and sociodrama (Zerka Moreno, Psychodrama Network News, Winter 2007). His wife Zerka Moreno continues his work today. His students include the Swede Leif-Dag Blomkvist (Psychodrama, Surplus Reality and the art of Healing. Zerka Moreno, Blomkvist, & Rtzel, 2000) and with training centers and institutes on nearly every continent, there are many thousands of others who are expanding and developing training and teaching the Morenean Arts & Sciences across the disciplines, to more fully realize Dr. Morenos vision to make these social sciences available for "the whole of [hu]mankind." The Association of Group Psychotherapy and Psychodrama (ASGPP) has held an annual conference for more than 60 years, and is an excellent starting point for further investigation of Dr. or Zerka Moreno, with many resources and links. In 2006 a book of Zerka T. Moreno's pioneering efforts were published to illlustrate Zerka's (and of course to underline Dr. Moreno's) extraordinary lifetime of dedication to the development of group psychotherapy, psychodrama, sociodrama and sociometry. The book is titled "The Quintessential Zerka: Writings by Zerka Toeman Moreno on Psychodrama, Sociometry and group Psychotherapy." Edited by Toni Horvatin and Edward Schreiber. Zerka Toeman Moreno  INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.morenoinstituteeast.org/images/bio%20zerka%204.0.jpg" \* MERGEFORMATINET Zerka T. Morenos contribution to the field of group psychotherapy and psychodrama began immediately upon meeting Dr. Moreno. Within a year of their meeting J.L. and Zerka founded the Sociometric Institute on Park Avenue, New York City. They established the Psychodramatic Institute in New York in 1942. They began producing the journal Group Psychotherapy (originally called Sociatry) in 1947, publishing a volume of research documenting their application and refinement to the social sciences of sociatry, psychodrama, and sociometry. Zerka Moreno was J. L. Morenos partner and co-creator for over thirty years until his death in 1974. Zerka has continued training and teaching the psychodramatic theory and method for more than 30 years since Dr. Morenos death, training psychodramatists worldwide. Zerka Moreno is recognized as a leader in further realizing Dr. Morenos vision in bringing this method to the lives of communities worldwide. A collection of her many years of research and writing is now available in  HYPERLINK "http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1583917284/ref=sr_11_1/002-3101267-9069669?_encoding=UTF8%22" \t "_blank" The Quintessential Zerka: Writings by Zerka T. Moreno on Psychodrama, Sociometry and Group Psychotherapy (Routledge), co-edited by The Moreno Institute East Director Edward J. Schreiber, T.E.P and colleague Toni Horvatin, M.S.W.. This new book is the first book of its kind; a textbook and a rare reference to the written history and development of group psychotherapy and psychodrama. Zerka now lives and teaches in Charlottesville, VA. The Zerka T. Moreno Foundation for Education and Training This foundation, now in the first phase of its development, is dedicated to the teachings of Zerka T. Moreno, co-founder of psychodrama, sociometry and group psychotherapy. The foundation's work is dedicated to making these instruments available in collaboration with other psychodramatists, other practitioners of other disciplines, and those interested in benefiting the human condition. Edward J. Schreiber, EdM, MSM, MAC, LADC, TEP Ed Schreiber was trained by Zerka T. Moreno. He also studied for many years with Mel Bucholtz, Director of the Stillness Institute in Cambridge, MA. Schreiberserved as clinical coordinator of the addiction treatment program at Harvard Medical School for many years, and has designed and implemented a number of intensive outpatient addiction treatment programs. Schreiber is a past recipient of the Zerka T. Moreno Award and the Neil Passariello Award through the American Society of Group Psychotherapy and Psychodrama. Schreiber and colleague Toni Horvatin are co-editors of The Quintessential Zerka: Writings by Zerka Toeman Moreno on Psychodrama, Sociometry and Group Psychotherapy(Routledge). Schreiber is an adjunct professor at Lesley University teaching psychodrama in the graduate program of Expressive Therapies. Schreiber Directs the Moreno Institute East and the Zerka T. Moreno Foundation for Education, Training and Research in the Morenian Arts and Sciences. Schreiber has served on the American Board of Examiners in Psychodrama, Sociometry and Group Psychotherapy and teaches internationally. The current focus of Schreiber's work is to bring forward a Zen approach to the teaching of Morenean tools, bringing psychodrama, sociodrama, sociometry to their essence and teaching that essence. His research focus is in the area of Sociatry, which is the application of Morenean arts and sciences to the healing of society. Schreiber brings this work into education, organizations, businesses both corporate and community non-profit, and to individuals and families as an educator and trainer. Adam M. Barcroft, MS, MA, NCC Adam Barcroft has provided professional education and mental health services for teens, individuals, families, businesses, and schools for 18 years. Barcroft has worked in Vermont, Colorado, and Massachusetts as a wilderness counselor, substance abuse counselor, group counselor, resource consultant for the  HYPERLINK "http://visionhcp.org/" Western Colorado Vision Home & Community Program, mentor, storytelling coach, and a teacher of creative writing, poetry, and psychology. Barcroft has been with the  HYPERLINK "http://www.MorenoInstituteEast.org/" Moreno Institute East since its inception in the winter of 2003. Barcroft brings more than a decade of business experience to the management of the MIE, grounded in his work as a shareholder of  HYPERLINK "http://www.merseyriverchalets.ns.ca/" Mersey River Chalets and Nature Retreat, a wheelchair accessible wilderness retreat adjacent to a biosphere reserve located in the heart of Nova Scotia, Canada. Since taking leadership as Associate Director for The Moreno Institute East in the Spring of 2004, Barcroft has been influential in the editing and completion of  HYPERLINK "http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1583917284/ref=sr_11_1/002-3101267-9069669?_encoding=UTF8" The Quintessential Zerka: Writings by Zerka Toeman Moreno on Psychodrama, Sociometry, and Group Psychotherapy, published in 2006, edited by Toni Horvatin and Edward Schreiber. Since 2005 Adam has been training with  HYPERLINK "http://www.hvpi.net/" The Hudson Valley Psychodrama Institute at Boughton Place, in Highland, NY. From 2005-2007 Barcroft has worked with a regional New England therapeutic boarding school in the co-development and application of therapeutic structures that adds the Stages of Change together with Morenean sciences, Bowen Family Systems and elements of brain science. In 2006, Barcroft and Schreiber initiated the formation of a non-profit charitable entity called The Zerka T. Moreno Foundation for Education, Training, and Research. In April 2007 Barcroft co-presents at the  HYPERLINK "http://www.asgpp.org/" 65th annual Psychodrama and Group Psychotherapy Conference a workshop titled, From Psychodrama to Sociodrama to Sociatry. Barcroft is currently editing a new book on Sociodrama called Sociodrama for Our Time by Rosalie Minkin, MSW, LCAT, TEP. In August 2007, Barcroft and Schreiber will present The Zen of Psychodrama to China, where they are co-facilitating training in sociodrama, sociometry, and psychodrama. In late September, 2007 Barcroft and Schreiber present a workshop at  HYPERLINK "http://www.rowecenter.org/" Rowe Conference Center titled Facing Ourselves, The World, & Each Other: Psychodrama, Spontaneity & Creativity. Stanislav Grof Stanislav Grof (*  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/1._%C4%8Dervenec" \o "1. ervenec" 1. ervenec 1931 v  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praha" \o "Praha" Praze) je  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA" \o "USA" americk psychiatr eskho povodu. Je jednm ze zakladatelo  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transperson%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_psychologie" \o "Transpersonln psychologie" transpersonln psychologie, zkoumal vyu~it zmnnch stavo vdom pYi l en. Je objevitelem  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holotropn%C3%AD_d%C3%BDch%C3%A1n%C3%AD" \o "Holotropn dchn" holotropnho dchn. Zavedl termn  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychospiritu%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_krize" \o "Psychospirituln krize" psychospirituln krize. 5. Yjna 2007 obdr~el za rozvinut metody holotropnho dchn cenu  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/VIZE_97" \o "VIZE 97" VIZE 97 man~elo  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagmar_Havlov%C3%A1" \o "Dagmar Havlov" Dagmar a  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Havel" \o "Vclav Havel" Vclava Havlovch. Dlo Grof, Stanislav: Nov perspektivy v psychiatrii a psychologii: pozorovn z modernho vzkumu vdom. Praha, Moraviapress, 2007, ISBN: 978-80-86181-83-7 (bro~.) Grof, Stanislav: Dobrodru~stv sebeobjevovn. Praha, Gemma89, 1992, ISBN: 80-85206-15-3 Grof, Stanislav; Grof, Christina: Krize duchovnho vvoje. Praha, Chvojkovo nakladatelstv 1999, ISBN: 80-86183-09-2 Grof, Stanislav; Grof, Christina: Nesnadn hledn vlastnho j. Praha, Chvojkovo nakladatelstv 1999, ISBN: 80-86183-10-6 Souvisejc lnky  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transperson%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_psychologie" \o "Transpersonln psychologie" Transpersonln psychologie  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holotropn%C3%AD_d%C3%BDch%C3%A1n%C3%AD" \o "Holotropn dchn" Holotropn dchn  HYPERLINK "http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychospiritu%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_krize" \o "Psychospirituln krize" Psychospirituln krize Extern odkazy  HYPERLINK "http://www.stanislavgrof.com/index.htm" \o "http://www.stanislavgrof.com/index.htm" Stanislav Grof homepage  HYPERLINK "http://www.holotropic.com/" \o "http://www.holotropic.com/" Holotropn dchn  HYPERLINK "http://www.erowid.org/culture/characters/grof_stanislav/grof_stanislav.shtml" \o "http://www.erowid.org/culture/characters/grof_stanislav/grof_stanislav.shtml" Grofova biografie Stanislav Grof 1931 - Summary Stanislav Grof, born in Prague, Czechoslovakia, is best known for his work in the field of consciousness studies. He was trained as a Freudian Psychoanalyst at Charles University (M.D.) and the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (Ph.D.). He explored the clinical and therapeutic uses of LSD at the Psychiatric Research Institute in Prague until the mid-1960s, then at Johns Hopkins University as a research scientist and professor of psychiatry 1967-1973 and as Chief of Psychiatric Research at the Maryland Psychiatric Research Center (1969-1973) where he worked with  HYPERLINK "http://www.erowid.org/culture/characters/pahnke_walter/pahnke_walter.shtml" Walter Pahnke and  HYPERLINK "http://www.erowid.org/culture/characters/richards_bill/richards_bill.shtml" Bill Richards among others. During the 60s, he worked closely with LSD and conducted more than 4,000 sessions of psychedelic therapy. In 1973 Grof was invited to Esalen Institute where he lived as Scholar-in-Residence until 1987, writing, lecturing, and developing (with his wife Christina) Holotropic Breathwork. He also served on the board of trustees of Esalen. He was the founding president of the International Transpersonal Association (ITA), which has organized major conferences on transpersonal psychology. Over the years he has written a number of books, first about LSD and its use in psychotherapy and later about other methods of conducting deep psycho-spiritual work. Author of (Books) The Ultimate Journey; Consciousness and the Mystery of Death (2006) Psychology of the Future (2000) The Cosmic Game (1998) Books of the Dead (1994)  HYPERLINK "http://www.erowid.org/library/books/holotropic.shtml" The Holotropic Mind (1993)  HYPERLINK "http://www.erowid.org/library/books/stormy.shtml" The Stormy Search for Self (1992) Spiritual Emergency (1989) Human Survival and Consciousness Evolution (1988)  HYPERLINK "http://www.erowid.org/library/books/adventure_of.shtml" The Adventure of Self Discovery (1988) Beyond the Brain (1986) East & West : Ancient Wisdom and Modern Science (1985) Beyond Death (1980)  HYPERLINK "http://www.erowid.org/library/books/lsd_psychotherapy.shtml" LSD Psychotherapy (1980) Dimensions of Dying and Rebirth (1977) The Human Encounter with Death (1977) Realms of the Human Unconscious: Observations from LSD Research (1975) Author of (Articles) The Great Awakening, in  HYPERLINK "http://www.erowid.org/library/books/higher_wisdom.shtml" Higher Wisdom (2005)  HYPERLINK "http://www.erowid.org/references/refs.php?A=SearchAll&SField=Author&S=grof+s"  MORE  Interviews  HYPERLINK "http://www.healthy.net/LIBRARY/Interviews/DiCarlo/grof.htm" Health World - The Multi-Dimensional Psyche  HYPERLINK "http://www.lightparty.com/Spirituality/LSD.html" Has Psychology Failed the Acid Test? Links  HYPERLINK "http://www.infoasis.com/people/grof/HBinternet.html" Grof Transpersonal Training  HYPERLINK "http://www.atpweb.org/" The Association for Transpersonal Psychology  HYPERLINK "http://www.breathwork.com/" The Association for Holotropic Breathwork International  HYPERLINK "http://www.aljardim.com.br/english/Grofs.html" The Grofs Vladimr Vondr ek (1895 - 1978) Profesor MUDr. Vladimr Vondr ek se narodil 23. 2. 1895 v rodin pra~skho obchodnka s lahodkami na Novm Mst pra~skm. Po studiu na akademickm gymnziu vystudoval medicnu v Praze a promoval v r. 1919. VystYdal intern kliniku profesora Ladislava Syllaby, stav pro choromysln profesora Antonna Heverocha, farmakologick stav profesora Emanuela Formnka, lzn LubochHa a Tatransk Lomnica, pak znovu farmakologii u Formnka a Velicha, kde byl habilitovn v r. 1933 a jmenovn profesorem v r. 1938. Docentem psychologie se stal v r. 1939. Potom opt nsledovala interna u profesora Bohumila Pruska, a nakonec psychiatrie profesora ZdeHka Myslive ka. Profesorem psychiatrie se stal v r. 1946 a pYednostou kliniky po Myslive kovi r. 1957. Zde posobil a~ do sv smrti. Byl nekompromisnm bojovnkem za jednotu psychiatrie a neurologie, a to i proti svmu pYteli Hennerovi, i kdy~ nakonec neuspl. Jeho jmno se stalo symbolem esk psychiatrie. Jako se dYve Ykvalo "ten patY k Heverochovi" nebo pozdji "k Myslive kovi", tak se pozdji Ykalo "patY k Vondr kovi". Prof. Vondr ek je pokldn za zakladatele nkolika oboro u ns - lkaYsk psychologie, psychofarmakologie, dietetiky (spolu s prof. Pruskem) a psychiatrick sexuologie. I pYes svou ur itou odta~itost v b~nm ~ivot dovedl bt ne ekan empatick v zva~nch okam~icch. Byl laskavm a moudrm pYednostou kliniky. Dole~itou udlost pro kliniku bylo zYzen vzkumn laboratoYe. Po tkem roku 1958 byla laboratoY aspoH de facto vytvoYena, obsazena vzkumnmi pracovnky a potYebnmi aparty. V dob nejvtaho rozsahu mla laboratoY oddlen patofysiologie CNS, biochemick a EEG, vytvoYila se skupina kybernetick a v roce 1963 jeat elektronick laboratoY, zpo tku spole n pro katedru psychiatrie a neurologie. Profesor Vondr ek byl vysok, huben s neodmyslitelnm vousem. Byla to snad nejnpadnja postava v profesorskm sboru lkaYsk fakulty. Pro jeho postavu mu studenti Ykali Ibis a karikaturista Bidlo se o nm vyjdYil, ~e: "kdy~ ten v zim nastydne od nohou, ta:%&'cdvw*+=>?PXY*+=>?PXY?ƿƶ׮׮׿׿׮׮׿׮׮׿׮׮׿׮׮׿׮ hkB0JjhkBUhkB0J6] hkB6]jhkB6U] hkB0JhkB hkBH*hkB0J6H*]jhkB6H*U]hkB6H*]B?@RST,45~   ?     P X Y        ^ f g         T U g h i q r s         , - . / L hkB0J5\ hkB5\jhkB5U\ hkB0J hkB6]hkB hkB0JjhkBUN   i r      Q `   pgd_gd_HH]H^Hgd}l & Fsdd[$\$gdkBgdkBgdkB & Frdd[$\$gdkB & Fqdd[$\$gdkBgdkB & Fpdd[$\$gdkB & Fodd[$\$gdkBL          > ? N O Q _ ` a       #pZZg9L"#34ǸǸǸǸǸݓ h0J!hjhUmHnHuh_h_6]o(h_h_CJaJo(h_h_o( h_5\h_h_5\o(h_ h_0Jbo(h}l hkB0JjhkBU hkB0JhkB hkB6]6p. !"#C$%&'@)6,, xx]x^xgd xx]x^xgd ,],^gdiaVHH]H^Hgd}lgd_gd_,|//1n2434<< CC-CMMMMVVX & F2dd-D`M [$\$gd -D`M gd -D`M gdd-D`M gd xx]x^xgd xx]x^xgd344444448899|9}9:;<<>k?CCbDcDDDDD-E.E_E`EuEvE$F%FWFXFFFGGHHtHuHHHII+I,II JJ+J-JAJJ K4K5KXKYKKKDMEMmMnMMMMMMjh:7UmHnHu h0J!jhUmHnHu h0J h0Jj :hUhjhUHMMMMNNNNNNNNNJOLOVOXObOdOOOOONPPP2Q4QjQlQQQdReRyRzRRRRR STTT UUUU0U2UUUUUUUVVVVVVY.YY(ZZZZZ[[[[[[`\a\s\t\v\w\ h6] h0J h0JjhU h5\hjhsUmHnHuPXXYZZ[v\\ ]]]^^^^deed -DM μgds & F4dd-D`M [$\$gd & F3dd-D`M [$\$gd -D`M gd & F2dd-D`M [$\$gdw\\\\\\ ] ] ]k]l]]]]]]]]]]]^^^^^^^^``VaWadaeajakaaaaadeӾ~~n~~~n~hs0JCJOJQJ^JaJ,jhsB*CJOJQJU^JaJph#hsB*CJOJQJ^JaJph,hs5>*B* CJOJQJ\^JaJph )hs5B*CJOJQJ\^JaJph)hs5B* CJ$OJQJ\^JaJ$ph h0J h0JjhUh*eeeeeeffNfPfTfVfffgggggggggggg"h$hhhhhi iliniritiii j"jPjRjVjXjjjkk"k$kxkzkkkbllջջջջջջջջՑ,hs5>*B* CJOJQJ\^JaJph $hs0J5CJOJQJ\^JaJ2jhs5B*CJOJQJU\^JaJph)hs5B*CJOJQJ\^JaJph)hs5B*CJOJQJ\^JaJph9eefNfgg"hhrii jPj"kxkkbll~mjnnvoHpTpqqr2s4sgdmd -DM μgdsllllNmPmjmlm~mmmm:n*B* CJOJQJ\^JaJph $hs0J5CJOJQJ\^JaJ2jhs5B*CJOJQJU\^JaJph)hs5B*CJOJQJ\^JaJph)hs5B*CJOJQJ\^JaJph9rrrrrss,s.s2s8s:shjl&(*,.0껨ꤖn]V hBh jFho4 h _|<CJUaJ jho4 h _|<CJUaJ jho4 h _|<CJUaJhUjhmUmHnHuhm$hs0J5CJOJQJ\^JaJ2jhs5B*CJOJQJU\^JaJph)hs5B*CJOJQJ\^JaJph)hs5B*CJOJQJ\^JaJph4s6s8s|suvwy{ڣ20&@Ъbhj̷&(0 ,],^gdiaV xx]x^xgdgdmgdmk teprve v lt dostane rmu". Byl nesmrn vtipn, pohotov s bYitkm suchm humorem, kterm uml okam~it reagovat na otzky jak studento, tak i novinYo. Jako ukzka je zde nkolik jeho odpovd, kter mly takYka charakter aforismo: Co si pYeji k narozeninm? K narozeninm je ustlenm zvykem pYti si pYedevam zdrav. J si vaak myslm, ~e je lepa bt mrn churav a aeasten, ne~ bt zdrv a neaeasten. Pro  jsem se do~il takovho vku? Proto~e jsem byl stle nemocn. Vaichni m pYtel, kteY byli stle zdrav, jsou u~ mrtv. Jak sportuji? J pYlia nesportuji. Mm jedinm sportem jsou takov smutn prochzky. Pro  smutn? Proto~e se jdu v~dy projt na pohYeb nkterho ze svch pYtel, kteY pravideln sportovali, nebo je jedu navatvit do nemocnice, kde le~ s nohou v sdYe. Vesel ve er je prospanja ne~ tuba lko na uklidnn. Prce je krsn vc, nesm se vaak stti vhradnm elem ~ivota. Padestka je vk, kdy se lovk v pomrnm mld do~v ctyhodnho stY. Zkouael jsem lk na nejlevnjam pokusnm zvYeti, toti~ na sob. Lzn? Nejsem natolik zdrv, abych mohl absolvovat cel lzeHsk re~im. Byl svrzn i pYi vuce mladach kolego. Jednou mu Yekl pozdja docent Frantiaek Hanzal, kter byl u nj na st~i: "Pane profesore, j vs obdivuji. Jak jen dok~ete po cel den poslouchat ty nesmysly, co vm ti vaai pacienti povdaj." Vondr ek se na mladaho lkaYe podval udiven: "A kdo vm Yekl, kolego, ~e poslouchm?" Prof. Vondr ek byl vynikajc publicista. Psal velmi poutav a srozumiteln. Jeho kn~ky byly pYstupn aira veYejnosti, zvlat ty populrn vchovn. Tch vyalo nkolik: O psychiatrii, psychiatrech a blzincch (1925), fejetony ten o zdrav a nemocech (1941), kde se stav skepticky k nkterm uznvanm axiomatom o ~ivotosprv, O tle, duai a duaevn hygien (1949) a Fantastick a magick z hlediska psychiatrie (1968). Tak miloval historii a zvlat historii svho oboru. Velmi si v~il svch u itelo a napsal o nich povabn monografie, v nich~ se vyznv ze sv lsky a obdivu k nim: Profesor Dr. Antonn Heveroch (1927), Profesor Dr. E. Formnek, farmakolog (1929) a Profesor Dr. Ladislav Syllaba (1931). Vrchol jeho literrn tvorby pYedstavuj tYdln memory, kter nazval LkaY vzpomn 1895-1920 (1973), LkaY dle vzpomn 1920-1938 (1978) a Konec vzpomnn 1938-1945 (vyalo posmrtn v r. 1988). Vzpomnky ukazuj jednak jeho fenomenln pame a dokresluj jeho ~ivotn osudy, jednak je v nich zachycena prvn polovina 20. stolet se vaemi reliemi. Autor v nich vyslovuje otevYen mno~stv soudo o lidech, kter znal, zvlat ze svho povoln. Sv memory ukon il v roce 1945, proto~e o nsledujc dob se tak otevYen a kriticky za jeho ~ivota pst nemohlo. Prof. PhDr. Zdenk Matj ek, CSc. (1922 - 2004) Profesor Matj ek se narodil 16.srpna 1922 v Kladrubech nad Labem, kde byl jeho otec Yeditelem slavnho hYeb na. Bhem vlky nemohl studovat, a tak pracoval v hYeb n jako zemdlsk dlnk a pozdji u Bati ve Zln. Po vlce vystudoval filozofii a eatinu na Filosofick fakult Univerzity Karlovy a ml se povodn stt kantorem. Proto~e vaak po komunistickm pYevratu v roce 1948 musel ka~d, kdo chtl vyu ovat, projt provrkami, ani se o to nepokusil. V letech 1950-51 posobil jako klinick psycholog ve vchovnm stavu  Dobr pastY , v letech 1951-53 v Sociodiagnostickm stavu. Od roku 1953 pak pracoval v Dtsk psychiatrick ambulanci KNZ Praha, a to a~ do roku 1969, kdy nastoupil jako odborn asistent do Institutu pro dala vzdlvn lkaYo a farmaceuto na katedru pediatrie. Od roku 1991 a~ do sv smrti pracoval jako vzkumn pracovnk v Psychiatrickm centru Praha. ZroveH od roku 1994 posobil v dtskm centru PAPRSEK v Praze. Byl lenem mnoha profesnch organizac v esk republice (U en spole nost, esk lkaYsk akademie, eskomoravsk psychologick spole nost, esk lkaYsk spole nost J.E.Purkyn, esk spole nost DYSLEXIE) i v zahrani  (International Academy for Research in Learning Disabilities, International Dyslexia Association, International Reading Association, International Association on Human-Animal Interaction, International Study Group on Children with Special Education Needs, aj.). Za svoj ~ivot obdr~el mnoho ocenn, napY. medaili J.E.Purkyn esk lkaYsk spole nosti; cenu za vzkum  Distinguished Contribution to Research in Public Policy Americk psychologick asociace;  First International Award Dyslexia Association, USA; estn doktort University of Saskatchewan (Kanada); medaili  Za zsluhy od prezidenta esk republiky; medaili Ministerstva akolstv, mlde~e a tlovchovy R  Za celo~ivotn tvor  pedagogickou innost a cenu Pangea udlenou za mimoYdn zsluhy o npravu vc lidskch. Prof. Matj ek je autorem mnoha lnko a knih o vchov. Za svoj nejvta spch pova~oval to, ~e jeho kn~ka Psychick deprivace v dtstv vyala nejen v USA, ale i v Sovtskm svazu, kolbce socialistickho myalen a socialistick vchovy. Pro tohoto vYcho kYeseana byl charakteristick laskav a citliv pYstup k dtti a k lidem vobec. Byl bez rozdlu milovn vaemi, se ktermi pYiael do styku. Svmi publikacemi a svm osobnm kouzlem oslovoval nejenom studenty a kolegy, ale tak rodiny dt, kter se ocitly v ~ivotnch nesnzch. Prof. Matj ek vznamn pYispl ke zdravmu vvoji naa spole nosti, k rozkvtu svho oboru a k vzkumu v oblasti, kter je z hlediska badatelskho u ns a~ na vjimky zanedban: v oblasti rodiny a zdravho vvoje nastupujcch generac. Ml neutuchajc schopnost dodvat odvahu a za vaech okolnost vyzvat k nadji. Vaichni v Psychiatrickm centru si v~me toho, ~e jsme po jeho boku mohli lta pracovat a tait se z jeho pYtelstv. Jeho odchod je pro ns nenahraditelnou ztrtou. Prof. Matj ek zostane nav~dy v naaich srdcch uchovn jako nedosti~n vzor laskavosti, charakteru a profesionlnho charismatu.  21h:piaV. 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Reproduced with permission.)"`$ 1 s A Úhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/G._Stanley_Hall.jpg/180px-G._Stanley_Hall.jpgyK yK nhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:G._Stanley_Hall.jpg#"X`L"Granville Stanley Hall, circa 1910." 2 s A(* http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark_1909.jpg/180px-Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark_1909.jpgyK yK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark_1909.jpg#"\`P"Group photo 1909 in front of Clark University. Front row: Sigmund Freud, Granville Stanley Hall, C.G.Jung; back row: Abraham A. Brill, Ernest Jones, Sandor Ferenczi."  3 s A) æhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/Freud_at_Clark_Statue.JPG/180px-Freud_at_Clark_Statue.JPGyK yK zhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Freud_at_Clark_Statue.JPG#"`"Statue at the center of campus of Sigmund Freud, commemorating his 1909 visit to the University by invitation of G.S. Hall" B S  ?@30w#w0A7HtDP*_ўPrbvDMM I q   Yf  r H X P L\ TD tTT T/,zT@ T,\ T T1 T2 &T3uHT- T. TF T` T 0< T+}TL T GT T0>@T*xF T L T ` aT  TB T B T H T T T T'Q T(< T$I@ T%Y TN TT4T dTi w T"TT#>T Pr.C3.A1ceMetody_a_Hypot.C3.A9zy _Hlt193562814 _Hlt193562815 _Hlt193562830 _Hlt193563590EgoSuperegoId _Hlt190107327(P.C5.99.C3.ADpad_Anny_O._.28Chorobopis_ANejasnosti_a_zaj.C3.ADmavosti D.C3.ADloV.C3.BDvoj_libidaDefiniceObrann.C3.A9_mechanismyThe_Vienna_Year1938_and_Later:_Anna_in_London%Major_contributions_to_psychoanalysis(Anna_Freud_about_essential_personal_qualPublications_by_Anna_Freud: Biographies(Spolupr.C3.A1ce_a_p.C5.99.C3.A1telstv.C3(Charakteristika_Jungovy_hlubinn.C3.A9_ps%V.C4.9Bdom.C3.AD_a_nev.C4.9Bdom.C3.AD(Symbolismus_nev.C4.9Bdom.C3.BDch_projekcBytostn.C3.A9_J.C3.A1Kritika(Pokra.C4.8Dov.C3.A1n.C3.AD_Jungov.C3.BDcMy.C5.A1len.C3.ADVliv_a_d.C4.9Bdictv.C3.ADP.C5.99.C3.ADnos_psychologii Na_internetu Literaturagep_01_img0120.jpg EducationAcademic_careerResearch _Hlt197620778 Life_and_work(Eysenck.27s_model_of_personality_.28P-E-Comparison_with_other_theories(Psychometric_scales_relevant_to_Eysenck.Eysenck.27s_later_workSelected_works _Hlt197623195 _Hlt194047593.C5.A0koln.C3.AD_studiaMan.C5.BEelstv.C3.AD_a_rodina&Sexu.C3.A1ln.C3.AD_.C5.BEivot_Kinseyho _Hlt192095242 _Hlt192095243Osobn.C3.AD_n.C3.A1zoryV.C4.9Bdeck.C3.A1_dr.C3.A1ha EntomologieU.C4.8Debnice_biologie(Lidsk.C3.A9_sexu.C3.A1ln.C3.AD_chov.C3.AV.C3.BDznamn.C3.A9_publikace.C3.9Amrt.C3.AD(Kinsey_v_um.C4.9Bn.C3.AD_a_m.C3.A9di.C3. _Hlt194047216 _Hlt194047155 BackgroundLife_and_career_in_the_US ControversiesTheoretical_controversyPersonal_controversyPopular_culture CitationsSpisy.C4.8Cesky_vy.C5.A1lo Cit.C3.A1ty _Hlt215822644 _Hlt215822645Literary_activitiesReferences_and_external_links(Maslowova_pyramida_lidsk.C3.BDch_pot.C5.gep_01_img0123.jpgPojemPobyt_ve_filosofiiSelect_Bibliography(St.C3.A1dia_kognitivn.C3.ADho_v.C3.BDvoj(Piagetova_p.C5.99edstava_o_d.C4.9Btsk.C3V.C3.BDvojov.C3.A9_procesyGenetick.C3.A1_epistemologieVlivV.C3.BDvojov.C3.A1_psychologie V.C3.BDchova(Historick.C3.A9_studie_my.C5.A1len.C3.ADEvoluce_lidsk.C3.A9_inteligence Primatologie FilozofieUm.C4.9Bl.C3.A1_inteligence(Hlavn.C3.AD_pr.C3.A1ce_a_.C3.BAsp.C4.9BcHlavn.C3.AD_pr.C3.A1ceOstatn.C3.AD_pr.C3.A1ce(Piagetovsk.C3.A9_a_post-piagetovsk.C3.A9CitaceOdkazy Pozn.C3.A1mky ReferenceExtern.C3.AD_odkazyTheory InventionsAir_cribCumulative_recorderOperant_conditioning_chamberTeaching_machinePigeon_Guided_MissileRadical_behaviorismVerbal_behaviorInfluence_on_education(Walden_Two_and_Beyond_Freedom_.26_DignitSchedules_of_reinforcementPolitical_viewsSuperstition_in_the_pigeonAwards CriticismJ.E.R._Staddon Noam_Chomsky Written_worksArticles_by_B._F._SkinnerZ.C3.A1kony_gestalt.C5.AF _Hlt190106819 _Hlt197704164Pod.C3.ADvejte_se_taky_na PublicistikaOcen.C4.9Bn.C3.ADKnihy P.C5.99ekladygep_01_img0033.jpggep_01_img0107.jpg _Hlt202350918 _Hlt202350919 _Hlt202351835Mlad.C3.BD_Chomsky&P.C5.99isp.C4.9Bn.C3.AD_do_lingvistikyGenerativn.C3.AD_gramatikaChomsk.C3.A9ho_hierarchieChomsk.C3.A9ho_politika _Hlt190105137 _Hlt190105138Charakteristika_dav.C5.AF&Faktory_ovliv.C5.88uj.C3.ADc.C3.AD_dav _Hlt197615707 _Hlt197615708Scientific_work&Luria-Nebraska_Neuropsychological_Test ReferencesHolonomic_modelOther_contributionsBooksEdited_by_PribramArticles BiographyYouth_and_collegeWork_and_doctorateManhattan_Project_Contributions(McCarthyism_leads_to_Bohm_leaving_the_Un!Quantum_theory_and_Bohm-diffusionThe_Aharonov-Bohm_effect(Bridging_science.2C_philosophy.2C_and_co The_holonomic_model_of_the_brainThought_as_a_System Bohm_Dialogue Later_years PublicationsSee_alsoWork&Cultural_mediation_and_internalizationPsychology_of_playThinking_and_Speaking(Influence_and_development_of_Vygotsky.27(In_the_Soviet_Union.2C_Russia.2C_and_Eas In_the_WestCritics_of_VygotskySecondary_literatureVygotsky.27s_texts_online Clinical_work IntuitionTransactional_analysis"Transactional_analysis_of_drinkingThe__role_of_the_addict(Cure_due_to_his_theory_--_critical_revie Personal_life Footnotes BibliographyFurther_readingExternal_links Early_life&Psychoanalytic_experience_and_trainingAmerica#Theories_of_development_and_the_ego!Erikson.27s_theory_of_personalityScientific_support Major_works Collections Related_worksgep_01_img0085.jpggep_01_img0098.jpg(Kr.C3.A1tkodob.C3.A1_a_dlouhodob.C3.A1_p(F.C3.A1ze_pam.C4.9B.C5.A5ov.C3.A9ho_procK.C3.B3dov.C3.A1n.C3.AD _Hlt196205165 _Hlt196205166(Uchov.C3.A1n.C3.AD_.28podr.C5.BEen.C3.AD _Hlt200731814 _Hlt200731815 Vybaven.C3.AD _Hlt196205871 V.C3.BDzkumPoruchy_sp.C3.A1nkuL.C3.A9ky_na_span.C3.ADLifeNotes&Souvisej.C3.ADc.C3.AD_.C4.8Dl.C3.A1nky_PictureBullets,8::;;>@CIFLWltw/B3 & .('.r/>CJLNp[`F;JLRRaUWWZ[Ch/mm~||}e,:TkGkJqt$"! |<c#-4u48j9G2 tb۵  qpRYf5+'a55'%.>>Wlp+6`N~ U]do|M|>0  T B& . 1 F3 N6 7 > M? 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