ࡱ>  svjklmnopqr bjbj .aa c%  jj8 %<"'@ &4"H4H4H46 g@3Ch,DG6^6DDyYjjH4H4ܻyYyYyYDj8H4H4yYDyYyY nL V+=:=U<!w}0"wFyYFyYq DDDyYDDD"FDDDDDDDDD 0:    Basic Winemaking - A Handbook Bruce W. Hagen September 2017 Contents  TOC \o "1-3" \h \z \u  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566513" Basics winemaking A Handbook  PAGEREF _Toc492566513 \h 1  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566514" The basics:  PAGEREF _Toc492566514 \h 1  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566515" What is winemaking?.  PAGEREF _Toc492566515 \h 1  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566516" Basic differences between reds, whites and ros wines:  PAGEREF _Toc492566516 \h 2  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566517" Sanitation  PAGEREF _Toc492566517 \h 3  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566518" Recommended alkaline cleaning products for winery cleaning:  PAGEREF _Toc492566518 \h 4  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566519" Common sanitizers:  PAGEREF _Toc492566519 \h 5  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566520" Cleaning and sanitizing your barrels:  PAGEREF _Toc492566520 \h 6  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566521" Other ways to prevent microbial spoilage:  PAGEREF _Toc492566521 \h 7  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566522" Using SO2 to ensure good quality wine:  PAGEREF _Toc492566522 \h 9  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566523" The value of SO2:  PAGEREF _Toc492566523 \h 9  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566524" Forms of SO2  free, bound, and total:  PAGEREF _Toc492566524 \h 10  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566525" What does SO2 do and why you need to and add more during the wine making process?  PAGEREF _Toc492566525 \h 10  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566526" The chemistry of SO2:  PAGEREF _Toc492566526 \h 10  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566527" Stages of winemaking and SO2:  PAGEREF _Toc492566527 \h 13  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566528" Adding SO2 and Potassium Metabisulfite:  PAGEREF _Toc492566528 \h 14  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566529" Measuring SO2:  PAGEREF _Toc492566529 \h 14  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566530" Ways to add SO2:  PAGEREF _Toc492566530 \h 14  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566531" Factors affecting how much SO2 is needed:  PAGEREF _Toc492566531 \h 15  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566532" The winemaking process - Getting Started  PAGEREF _Toc492566532 \h 16  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566533" Sourcing grapes:  PAGEREF _Toc492566533 \h 16  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566534" Cellar sanitation:  PAGEREF _Toc492566534 \h 16  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566535" Harvest:  PAGEREF _Toc492566535 \h 17  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566536" Temperature control:  PAGEREF _Toc492566536 \h 18  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566537" Testing and adjusting the juice or must:  PAGEREF _Toc492566537 \h 18  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566538" Adjusting Brix:  PAGEREF _Toc492566538 \h 18  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566539" Calculating how much water to add:  PAGEREF _Toc492566539 \h 19  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566540" Acidity: pH:  PAGEREF _Toc492566540 \h 19  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566541" Adjusting acidity (in a nut shell):  PAGEREF _Toc492566541 \h 20  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566542" Common wine acid problems table:  PAGEREF _Toc492566542 \h 21  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566543" The low down on adjusting pH:  PAGEREF _Toc492566543 \h 21  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566544" The most common wine acid problems:  PAGEREF _Toc492566544 \h 22  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566545" Making corrections:  PAGEREF _Toc492566545 \h 22  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566546" Natural pH changes during winemaking:  PAGEREF _Toc492566546 \h 23  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566547" Something to keep in mind:  PAGEREF _Toc492566547 \h 23  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566548" Other options:  PAGEREF _Toc492566548 \h 23  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566549" Problematic grapes:  PAGEREF _Toc492566549 \h 24  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566550" Acidity: TA:  PAGEREF _Toc492566550 \h 24  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566551" The nuts and bolts of Adjusting TA:  PAGEREF _Toc492566551 \h 24  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566552" Stemming/crushing  PAGEREF _Toc492566552 \h 25  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566553" To sulfite or not to sulfite? Two options for fermenting white grapes:  PAGEREF _Toc492566553 \h 26  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566554" SO2 addition: Pre-fermentation:  PAGEREF _Toc492566554 \h 26  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566555" Skin contact: white and red grapes when making ross:  PAGEREF _Toc492566555 \h 27  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566556" Pressing white grapes:  PAGEREF _Toc492566556 \h 27  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566557" Settling (clarifying) the pressed juice (whites):  PAGEREF _Toc492566557 \h 28  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566558" Fermentation tannins for white grapes:  PAGEREF _Toc492566558 \h 29  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566559" Racking (siphoning) settled juice from solids:  PAGEREF _Toc492566559 \h 29  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566560" Preemptive Fining: (white juice):  PAGEREF _Toc492566560 \h 30  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566561" Protein instability in white wines:  PAGEREF _Toc492566561 \h 30  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566562" Other fining agents that can be added before fermentation:  PAGEREF _Toc492566562 \h 31  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566563" Red grapes: Cold soak or cold maceration  PAGEREF _Toc492566563 \h 31  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566564" Fermentation tannins: red grapes:  PAGEREF _Toc492566564 \h 31  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566565" Fermentation: getting started  PAGEREF _Toc492566565 \h 32  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566566" White grapes:  PAGEREF _Toc492566566 \h 32  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566567" Red grapes:  PAGEREF _Toc492566567 \h 32  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566568" Rehydrating yeasts and adding nutrition: both red and white grapes:  PAGEREF _Toc492566568 \h 33  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566569" Adding the yeast mixture (red and white):  PAGEREF _Toc492566569 \h 33  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566570" Yeast nutrition: (red and white):  PAGEREF _Toc492566570 \h 33  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566571" Managing nutrient levels:  PAGEREF _Toc492566571 \h 34  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566572" Other yeast-based nutrients:  PAGEREF _Toc492566572 \h 36  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566573" Fermentation tannins (red and white fermentations):  PAGEREF _Toc492566573 \h 36  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566574" Managing white grape fermentation:  PAGEREF _Toc492566574 \h 37  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566575" Managing red grape fermentation:  PAGEREF _Toc492566575 \h 37  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566576" Stuck fermentations:  PAGEREF _Toc492566576 \h 39  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566577" End of primary fermentation for whites and Ross:  PAGEREF _Toc492566577 \h 39  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566578" Second SO2 addition (post fermentation  (whites and ross)  PAGEREF _Toc492566578 \h 40  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566579" Aging wines sur-lie:  PAGEREF _Toc492566579 \h 40  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566580" End of primary fermentation for red wines:  PAGEREF _Toc492566580 \h 41  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566581" Extended maceration: optional  PAGEREF _Toc492566581 \h 41  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566582" Pressing reds:  PAGEREF _Toc492566582 \h 41  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566583" Malolactic fermentation (MLF):  PAGEREF _Toc492566583 \h 42  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566584" Post MLF SO2 addition:  PAGEREF _Toc492566584 \h 45  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566585" SO2 additions during storage and aging:  PAGEREF _Toc492566585 \h 45  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566586" Limiting the loss/use of SO2:  PAGEREF _Toc492566586 \h 45  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566587" Aging and clarification:  PAGEREF _Toc492566587 \h 46  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566588" Fining:  PAGEREF _Toc492566588 \h 47  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566589" Fining agents:  PAGEREF _Toc492566589 \h 47  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566590" Racking:  PAGEREF _Toc492566590 \h 49  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566591" Topping:  PAGEREF _Toc492566591 \h 50  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566592" Pre-bottling SO2 additions:  PAGEREF _Toc492566592 \h 50  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566593" Filtering:  PAGEREF _Toc492566593 \h 51  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566594" Bottling:  PAGEREF _Toc492566594 \h 51  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc492566595" Helpful numbers: conversions  PAGEREF _Toc492566595 \h 52  Basics winemaking A Handbook Bruce Hagen Introduction: This document has undergone a major revision since I introduced it last year. For me, it is still a work in progress. My intent for writing this was 2-fold: first to help me to focus on the most important aspects of wine making, and to explore a wide varieties of resources for advice, explanations, recommendations, and solutions to complex problems, etc., and second: to help GENCO winemakers improve their winemaking skills. The two most important and difficult aspects of winemaking are managing SO2 levels and adjusting acid. There are many ways to make wine, but no single best approach. There are no rules, only guidelines and some accepted practices that have been shown by research and experience to improve success rate. What Ive done here is to present some of the basic (time-honored, as well as science-based) practices useful in making wines that meet current commercial standards. Wine can be made without using cultured yeast, SO2, or any of the currently available fermentation aids (enzymes, tannin products, fining agents, etc., or use of high tech equipment if thats what you want. But unless you really know what youre doing, the results are likely to be disappointing, to say the least. There are reason for following accepted practices, at least loosely, and areas where you have greater flexibility to be creative or to just let nature do its thing. All of our technological advancements stem from trial and error, innovation, scientific research, and the desire to make a better wine or widget, for that matter. Some people would have you think that natural-made wines are necessarily better because they are natural, but that just isnt so. Well, at least, Im not buying it. The basics: What is winemaking? Simply put, it is the art and science of making wine. To the French though, winemakers refer to themselves vignerons or winegrowers rather than winemakers. They emphasize the cultivation of grapes for winemaking, and dont make a distinction between growing grapes and making winethe two are inextricably linked. Many wineries in France still use time-honored methods, but take advantage of modern technology. In other wine growing regions, like California, there are viticulturalists and winemakers. Yes, many winemakers are very involved with the growing of grapes for their wines, others not so much. There are some winemakers who strive to make wines as naturally as possibleminimal intervention. No question, they may make very fine wines that are long-lived, balanced, and often with minerality and a sense of place terroir. While other winemakers use the latest new technologies to make big, bold, complex, well-structured, silky and opulent wines, but often overly alcoholic wines, unless adjusted downward using reverse osmosis. The question is what style do you prefer? So, its really up to you how you want to frame your style. Basic differences between reds, whites and ros wines: The pH range for white grapes for still wines is from about 3.0 to 3.5 and the range for reds is generally of 3.5 to about 3.8. The juice of both red and white grapes, with a few exceptions, is basically colorless. However, the pigments in red grapes provide the red to blue/red color that characterize red wines. Tannins, found in both red and white grapes, are readily transferred to the wine during skin contact (whites and ross) and fermentation (red grapes). In general, white grapes and red grapes used to make ross are chilled, de-stemmed, crushed, and pressed before fermentation. They are typically pressed within an hour or two, occasionally more, of crushing to prevent tannin and/or pigment extraction. The result is a fresh, fruity, and crisp wine. Too much skin contact, however, can result in a harsh finish or too dark a color. Limited skin contact, though, can add varietal character. French style ross are usually pressed within a few minutes of destemming and crushing and have just a blush of color. Whites are best fermented near 60F. The ideal range for fermenting whites is 55 to 64F Red grapes are typically de-stemmed, crushed, cold-soaked (optional), and the wine pressed-off the skins and seeds after fermentation. Skin contact is lengthy, so color and tannins are more intense. Red grapes must remain in intact with the juice during all or part of the fermentation process to make red wine. Tannins are important for developing structure and protecting the wine during cellaring and in the bottle. Fermentation temperatures range between 70 and 85F. Many red fermentation may reach 90F or higher for a short period. Grapes for Ros wines should be harvested at a lower Brix than for red wines. For the best results, pick from about 21.5 to 22.5 for crisp, fresh, fruit-forward roses. They can also be made in the traditional method by draining off a portion of red juice immediately or shortly after destemming/crushing red grapes and then fermenting separately from the rest. The objective is to increase the skin-to-juice ratio, so that the resulting red wine will have more intense aromas, flavor, pigments, and tannins. The French call this traditional method: saigne (to bleed). Ross can be a useful byproduct or done expressly for that style of wine. The juice of white and red grapes used for ross are prone to oxidation, and therefore fermented in closed containers, e.g., stainless steel tanks, carboys (glass or food-grade plastic) or oak barrels and kept under an air-lock. Red must (crushed grapes) and finished wine, due to high levels of tannins from skin contact, are more resistant to oxidation than whites. Red grapes after destemming and crushing are generally fermented in open-top fermenters to allow the cap of grapes that rises to the surface during fermentation to be punched down back into contact with the wine below. The fermenting juice can also be pumped over the cap to keep the skins moist. Long, slow fermentation are thought to produce the best red wines. Commercial fermentation often take from 5 to 7 days to complete. White grapes are typically fermented at lower (cool) temperatures to preserve varietal fruit aromas. Whites fermented at lower temperatures may take up to 2 weeks to finish. Reds typically undergo a secondary (malolactic) fermentation (MLF) that reduces the wines acidity. Chardonnay wine, however, is often allowed to undergo MLF or inoculated with a ML culture. Sanitation If youre like most home winemakers, you probably dont clean and sanitize your equipment the way you should, or as often as you should throughout the winemaking process. That can lead to problems with your wine. Careful attention to cleanliness and detail will minimize potential problems. Commercial wineries take cleaning and sanitation very seriously. They have strict protocols for doing both with all their winemaking equipment at the end of each cycle and the start of a new one. A lapse in sanitation can have significant impact on the quality and marketability of the final product. And they are usually fastidious about retarding oxidation and/or microbial spoilage and preventing accidental introduction of wild yeasts and bacteria during crush, cold-soaking of grapes, fermentation, MLF, practices, or afterward during extended maceration, as well as during racking, topping up, pumping, filtering and bottling. Cleaning involves the removal of both inorganic and organic substances from the surfaces of winery equipment. Sanitation, on the other hand, is the reduction of microbes that can cause wine defects. This is not the same as sterilization and disinfection. Water quality can be an issue in winemaking. Most municipal water that has been properly treated to keep microorganism below harmful levels is fine to use for rinsing. Well-water may however contain high levels or bacteria that could affect your wine, unless it is properly treated. Water that has been softened, pH adjusted, UV treated and filtered is generally fine to use for rinsing. Soft water, though, may leave a residue and is not good to use for diluting must or mixing with yeast and other wine additives, like yeast nutrients, enzymes, tannins, bentonite, etc. It also has a higher sodium level that can make a wine taste salty. Bottled water that has been filtered and chlorine-free is much better to use for dilution and mixing with yeast. Sanitation begins with keeping your cellar reasonably clean, free of debris and any working surfaces clean and regularly sanitized. Event floors should be vacuumed and moped with a disinfectant, especially at the start of crush. Wild yeast and bacteria are all around us. They are in the air, on flat work surfaces, and on all your winemaking equipment. It is not easy or even necessary to remove or kill every bacteria or wild yeast cell that might spoil wine. It is important, though, to keep their numbers low to minimize development and the production of metabolites that create off-aroma and flavors. In general, anything that comes in contact with harvested grapes, must, and wine should be cleaned and sanitized, within reason, including your hands, which are a great source of microorganisms such as lactic acid bacteria. There isnt much that can be done to eliminate wild yeast and bacteria on grapes, but winemakers can pick into lugs or buckets that have been cleaned of surface cleaned of debris, dirt and staining. From that point on, grapes should be transported in clean and sanitized containers. Stemmer crushers, presses and tanks, open-top fermenters, etc., should be thoroughly cleaned and sanitized. Collection buckets, funnels, car boys, stoppers, bungs, stir rods, tools used to punch downs, etc., need to be clean and relatively sterile. Literally everything that the grapes will come into contact with need to be cleaned and sanitized. Simply rinsing winery equipment such as siphon hoses and carboys after use does not remove all of the organic material, staining, and hard to see films or microorganism. You need to use an alkaline cleaning agent to remove organic material, staining and biofilms (a slimy material containing microbes embedded in polysaccharides) that are typically not visible. Mold often grows in the residual rinse water which contains a very dilute solution of wine-based nutrient that remains following a quick rinse. It may take 3 or 4 rinses to remove all of the wine-based residue in carboys, fermenters, tanks, gallon jugs, etc., that can be slow to dry. This may result in contamination of the next batch of wine. To prevent this, use a cleaning solution to remove films and staining, followed by a sanitizer. Star San, SaniClean or Iodine-based sanitizers such as Iodophor BMP or Io Star, as well as a 10% solution of PMBS or high proof ethanol are all good sanitizers. Some cleaning agents can sanitize as well, after adequate contact time, but need to be rinsed. Scrubbing and brushing may be needed to remove stubborn residue and deposits. Avoid abrasive scrubbing pads on plastic to prevent scratching. Scratched and roughened surfaces are more difficult to clean and sanitize. Cleaned and sanitized containers like carboys and beer kegs should be allowed to drain upside down until there is no visible water. They can be stored with a paper cup inverted over the neck of the bottle, or a wadded paper towel placed in the bung hole. Other containers can be stored with the cover in place. Recommended alkaline cleaning products for winery cleaning: Sodium carbonate (also called Soda ash). Its a good cleaning agent for many surfaces, but should not be used to clean barrels because it leaches key oak compounds. Sodium percarbonate (Sodium carbonate peroxhydrate): a bleaching agent made by combining Sodium carbonate and hydrogen peroxide. When added to water it releases hydrogen peroxide, resulting in a foaming action. It is sold as Proxycarb or PeroxyClean. It has the advantage of dissolving tartrates and neutralizing acetic acid in problem barrels. Powdered Brewery Wash, (B-Bright, Straight Aspecial formulations) contain sodium percarbonate, sodium metasillicate, and a surfactant. They are safer than caustic cleaners and outperform them. Use 1 ounce per gallon for winery equipment. Soak equipment overnight in a PBW solution, and rinse the following morning - no scrubbing required. PBW can effectively clean items that can't be reached with a brush or sponge, and is strong enough to remove thick, difficult, caked-on organic soils. These cleaners also work well to remove labels from commercial wine bottles. OxyClean- Free (no fragrances added!) Contains sodium carbonate, sodium percarbonate, sodium metasillicate, and a surfactant. Good winery cleaner and sanitizer. One-Step-No Rinse sodium carbonate and sodium percarbonate which releases oxygen H2O2. Cleans and sanitizes. Requires two minutes of contact time, and no rinsing required! Use 1 tablespoon per gallon of water. Cleanskin-K (Scott) is an alkaline detergent. This potassium carbonate-based formulation also contains a proprietary percarbonate, chelating and sequestering agents for enhanced cleaning. Cleanskin-K efficiently removes wine tartar, color, proteins and organic soil. Destainex (Scott) a sodium percarbonate- based cleaning agent with sanitizing abilities. Removes wine color, protein stains, mold, mildew, and biofilms from surfaces that wine will come into contact to: stainless steel, concrete, polyethylene, polypropylene, plastics, flexible hoses, glass and other surfaces. Oak Restorer-CW (Scott) a blend of buffered carbonate, bicarbonate and proprietary surfactants. It removes tartrate crystals, wine color, protein and organic soils from barrels using cool water (68-86F). Others chemical agents: Sodium hydroxide, Potassium hydroxide, Sodium Silicate are caustic (high pH). Good for serious cleaning jobs, but they are caustic and need to be used with care to avoid skin or eye damage. Furthermore, they are not compatible with certain materials. TDC is a liquid acid cleaner for glass carboys and other glassware. It is unscented and comes in liquid form. Use at the rate of 1/2 Tbs. per 5 gallons of water and rinse thoroughly. Never use dish soaps! They are very hard to rinse and have an added fragrance that can taint any wine that comes into contact with it. Common sanitizers: Star Sanis a common no-rinse sanitizer for winery use. Its made to foam, so its ideal for most general sanitizing duties (ex: tanks and equipment, etc.) SaniCleanis similar to Star San, but has a low-foaming formulation ideal for sanitizing pumps, filters, and as a final acid rinse. Both of the above products are acid-based sanitizers and when used at their recommended concentrations are quick, odorless, tasteless and safe for glass, stainless, and plastic materials. They also dont need to be rinsed. When using Star San and Sani Clean there are no fumes and intermittent skin contact is not an issue. Ethanol: is also a good sanitizer. You can purchase high-proof Everclear or Diesel vodka to use as a surface sanitizer. IO Star Iodine sanitizer: a no rinse product used at the rate of 1 ounce per 5 gallons of water (25 ppm). Allow 1 minute of contact time to effectively sanitize equipment. Although, it has the same benefits as Star San and SaniClean there is a potential to stain vinyl tubing and plastic parts over time. BTF Iodophor: a no rinse sanitizer for most equipment: buckets, kegs, tanks, vats, bottles and more. No residual taste or odor left behind, low foaming and gentle on hand. No-rinse concentrate requires only 1 tsp per 1 1/2 gallons of cool water 12.5ppm concentration and 2 minutes of contact time to be effective. Alpet D2: Like Star San and SaniClean, HYPERLINK "http://morewinemaking.com/view_product/16034/103305/Alpet_D2_Surface_Sanitizer_-_Quart_Spray_Bottle" Alpet D2is a surface sanitizer. However, because Alpet D2 contains QUAT (a residual bacterial killer) it has the added benefit of keeping a surface sanitized even when dry. Its ideal for sanitizing work areas where yeast and bacteria are handled and winemaking additions are weighed and made-up. Chlorox (Sodium hypochlorite) although a good bleaching agent and sanitizer, it should never be used in the cellar or to clean or sanitize winemaking equipment. There is a real potential to cause a serious TCA taint (2,4,6-trichloroanisole) to wine that comes in contact with surfaces that have been cleaned with products containing hypochlorite (chlorine). Don't use hypochlorite anywhere in the winery or where wine is made, aged in barrrels, stored in case boxes, or areas where bags of corks or wine-making supplies are kept. There is a significant threat of taint from using a hypochlorite solution or its vapors that contact wood, wood pallets, paper, cardboard, or could conceivably come in contact with wine, case boxes or equipment used in wine-making. Cleaning and sanitizing your barrels: Acidify a new barrel once it is has been filled with water and it no longer leaks. Change water daily until the swelling is complete. Citric acid, because of it low pH is an effective antimicrobial. Use 1T of Citric acid per 5 gal of water. After sloshing the solution around the barrel, allow it drain out, and then fill the barrel with wine. After racking: rinse thoroughly and acidify with Citric acid at the rate of 1T per 5gal. of water. Slosh, drain and refill with wine` After bottling rinse, steam clean or fill with very hot water to remove tartates and residue  or add Proxycarb at the rate of 4g per gal of water, fill with water and allow to stand for 2 to 4 hours. Empty, rinse and acidify (see below) If you have access to hot water, fill with hot water and allow to stand for 24 hours to remove deposits and tartrates, drain and acidify. Short-term storage: clean, fill with water and then for everyliter(3.79 L per gal) of barrel volume, add 1 gram of citric acid and 2 grams ofPMBS.If you prefer to store your barrels filled with a citric acid and PMBS solution drain and replace every couple of months as the SO2 dissipates. Long term storage: drain, clean, and acidify, allow to drain upside down overnight and then burn a sulfur strip every 4 to 6 weeks until barrel is dry. It usually takes burning 2 wicks until the barrels is sufficient dry and VA organisms are unable to metabolize. The standard dosage of sulfur is roughly 1/3 of a Sulfur Stick per 60 gallon barrel - roughly a 1 x 2-3 piece or a 5 gram disc (pastille). Avoid storing barrels outside or in open areas where the lead cable borer can burrow into the wood. This is a very real issue! VA - Treat any barrel that smells of VA or has off aromas with Proxycarb (4 g per gal of barrel capacity. Allow to stand for 8 to 24 hours, depending on severity of problem. After storage, add water to swell the barrel. Turn the barrel on end and add water slowly, allowing it to trickle in to the hydrate the heads and ends of the staves, one at a time. After about ~4 hrs. Turn the barrel over and repeat. Once the ends no longer leak, turn the barrel on its side and begin filling slowly. It may take a while to fill the barrel because it may lose water nearly as fast as it leaks out. But within a couple of hours it should retain most of the water. Typically most leaking subsides within about 8 hrs. Try and keep the barrel filled until any leaking stops. Continued leaking may be the result of holes created by the lead cable borer usually in the groove where the head and staves meet, or at the edge of the metal hoops. You can use a wood matchstick or round tooth pick to plug the hole, or obtain a spiel from the Beverage People or ReCoop, a barrel repair and reconditioning company in Sebastopol. Ive had good luck stopping leaks by using barrel wax. The wax can be used to seal matchstick plugs. I usually melt the wax using a propane torch, allowing it to plug areas where there is persistent seepage. It works best when the leaky area are allowed to dry for several hours. You can expose the barrel to direct sunlight or use a hair dryer to expedite drying. Its not usual for some leaks to take as long as 48 hours to stop. Barrels with persistent leaks should be carefully inspected and repaired as needed. Its a good idea to add PMBS and Citric acid to the barrel while it is filled with water for more than 24 hours to discourage spoilage bacteria. Cleaning the exterior of mold-covered barrels: apply a solution of PMBS and citric acid in water (3 T of each in 1 gal of water). Other ways to prevent microbial spoilage: Pick grapes into clean picking lugs, buckets, or micro bins. Use an alkaline cleaning agent, such as Proxycarb or PBW and rinse thoroughly. Wash your hands thoroughly when handling sanitized equipment and before contacting juice or wine. Do your best to clean your cellar and sanitize work surfaces. Clean and sanitize all winemaking equipment used in the winemaking process. Use the recommended rate of SO2 (35 to 50ppm) after stemming/crushing reds or pressing whites. SO2 is a strong antimicrobial agent that kills or greatly inhibits most bacteria and wild yeasts. Chemical and winemaking products used in winemaking should be dispensed using a freshly sanitized transfer spoon or measuring spoon. Use a fresh piece of wax paper to hold a chemical or material when measuring it on a scale. You can lift the paper carefully and slide the material into a clean and sanitized mixing container. Use bottled (filtered) water to solubilize winemaking products and dilute must. Use yeast nutrients to ensure that your fermentation progresses to dryness and does not stick. Wines that stick are prone to oxidation and spoilage due to low SO2 levels. When doing a cold soak, make sure the temperature of the must is reduced to less than 50 F as quickly as possible by using enough dry ice or frozen water-filled plastic jugs. Yes, you have to clean and sanitize the plastic jugs. Maintaining adequate levels of SO2 throughout the entire process will usually ensure a defect-free wine. Adjusting pH levels of finished reds to less than 3.85 and 3.5 for finished whites, make them more stable. Keep open-top fermenters covered during fermentation to exclude flies out. They carry acetobacter bacteria. Rinse your punch-down tool after each use and sanitize it before use. Keep head-space to a bare minimum in storage containers, e.g., tanks, beer kegs or carboys. You may need to blend in another variety if you dont have quite enough to top-up the container. Make sure barrels are tightly bunged. You should hear a wosh sound when you break the vacuum that forms when wine evaporates from the barrel, as you remove the bung. Top barrels every couple of weeks, or at the very least, monthly, and use an inert gas (Argon) to minimize contact with air. Excess headspace increases the loss of SO2 (volatilization) into the head space. This is lost as soon as you open the bung. Acetobacter bacteria and film yeast are more likely to develop when there is ample head space, the SO2 levels are low, and when oxygen is able to enter through a poorly seated bung or leaks in the barrel. Use a good quality wine to top with, preferably additional wine of the same variety and vintage. If you have extra wine, bottle some of it, say a case or two, after it has gone through MLF and been racked. You can use it for topping a barrel as needed, instead of breaking down containers as you need the wine. You can also use an older vintage or a compatible varietal, as long as it smells and tastes fine. Another option is to buy an acceptably good wine like Two Buck Chuck to top with. If you buy a wine make sure that it acceptable. For best results, store wines at 60F or less. Spoilage organisms are less likely to develop. If this is not practical, make sure that your SO2 levels are adequate and you test for free-SO2 regularly and adjust as needed to maintain a level high enough to prevent oxidation and inhibit spoilage bacteria. When cleaning stainless fermenters after fermentation, pay particular attention to the inside surface of the top of the drum and the upper portions of drum. Use a brush to make sure the thick residue of yeast and other metabolites that accumulates there during fermentation is loosened and then rinsed away. You can also turn the sealed drum on end, so the cleaning solution remains in contact with the residue to ensure adequate cleaning. Check your SO2 level following each racking. Youll probably lose 10 to 15 ppm of FSO2 during racking, so you will need to add more SO2 to compensate for the amount that is volatilizes and to bind up with metabolites that form when the wine is exposed to air. Contrary to conventional thinking, wines with a pH greater than 3.6 only need about 30 ppm for stability. Use the standard molecular SO2 levels for wines with a pH of 3.6 and below. Clean and sterilize you bottle filler before using, and make sure your siphon hose is sanitized. Sanitize the cork compression and insertion mechanism to prevent contaminating the corks and the wine. Spray with a solution of Star-San, a 10% PMBS sol or high-proof alcohol, etc. If you drop a cork on the floor be sure to sanitize it before inserting it into a bottle. Keep you corks in sealed plastic bags and avoid handling them with your bare hands. Use disposable food-service or surgical-type gloves. At the very least, wash your hands thoroughly and refrain from touching your face or other parts to avoid contaminating them with Lactobacillus bacteria, commonly found on skin. It may be good for cheese-making but not wine! Before using a pump to transfer your wine, circulate a solution of a sanitizing agent like Star San through it for a minute or two. Even when carefully rinsed, pumps will contain some water and wine residue. A pressure washer is very effective at cleaning large equipment, such as open-top fermenters, microbins, stemmer crushers and presses. You can add a cleaner to the spray water for better cleaning. Using SO2 to ensure good quality wine: Ive included a lengthy and perhaps a bit daunting discussion here for wine geeks about the importance of SO2 or sulfites in winemaking. Sulfites smell like a lit match, while sulfides are smelly. The use of SO2 is really fundamental to successful winemaking. Since the 18th century,SO2has been one of the most commonly used wine additives due to its efficient antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. When used properly and in moderation, SO2is an efficient wine preservative and stabilizer. Although some wineries can make good wine without adding SO2, it is rather unlikely that an amateur can do so without expert guidance and some pricey equipment. Winemaking is fairly straight forward once you understand what SO2 does, how much to add, when to add it, and how to keep the levels just high enough to protect your wine. It does requires continual monitoring and testing to tell you when more is needed. SO2 (Sulfur dioxide) is commonly added to juice, must, and wine to inhibit spoilage microorganisms, prevent oxidation (browning and formation of acetaldehyde the smell of sherry or bruised apples,and formation of vinegar, ethyl acetate, and other off-odors. SO2 preserves a wine s freshness and fruity character by virtue of its antioxidative, anti-enzymatic (prevents browning) and antimicrobial properties.When added to wine, SO2 binds with aldehydes in oxidized wines and polyphenols (tannins and pigments). The remaining portion is said to be free to react. SO2 can be added by using Potassium Metabisulfite (PMBS) in the powder form, in a water-based solution, or as effervescent granules or tablets. Avoid the use of Sodium Meta Bisulfite The value of SO2: Wines with little or no SO2 typically: tend to oxidize quickly whites become more golden to brown, and reds turn brick-red to brown. lose flavor and aromas (flatten) develop a sherry-like aroma (acetaldehyde) or notes of vinegar or finger-nail polish remover (ethyl acetate). Aldehydes produced during fermentation normally bind up with free SO2 in wine, preventing these off aromas from developing. are more susceptible to wine-spoilage organisms, e.g., Acetobacter, Lactobacillus, Brettanomyces, Pediococcus, and others) that can impart disagreeable odors, e.g., sherry, vinegar, nail-polish remover, staleness, cooked, leathery, earthy, barnyard, rancid, horse sweat, mousey, dirty sweat-socks, cheesy, sauerkraut, tanky or swampy etc. Forms of SO2  free, bound, and total: A portion of the SO2 added to juice, must, or wine will bind up quickly with various components, and is therefore referred to as bound SO2. The remaining portion is free or available to perform its various functions. SO2 testing measures free SO2 or how much is actually available to do work. Testing can also measure the total. By recording each addition, you can keep track of how much has been added. The concept is to add as little SO2 as possible, yet provide adequate protection of your wine. The tested total is often not the same as the amount that has been added, as some is lost during fermentation and/or aging. Bound SO2 is the portion that is present, but largely unavailable to do work. Total is the sum of the free and bound SO2. What does SO2 do and why you need to and add more during the wine making process? It inactivates enzymes that cause browning and reacts with O2 to prevent the formation of hydrogen peroxide which reacts with alcohol to form acetaldehyde (sherry-like aroma). It kills or inhibits harmful bacteria, wild yeast, including Brettanomyces, and binds up with various wine components (tannins, s, pigments, acids, sugars, solids, and aldehyde  the precursor to vinegar It exists in both active (free) and bound forms. Once bound, though, SO2 is no longer active and can t protect your wine. Some of it though, may become free later and bind with acetaldehyde. Some free SO2 is used up every time you rack a wine, or just remove the bung to smell it, taste it, or add something to it, because you expose the wine to O2. Eventually the wine becomes unstable because there is too little remaining SO2 to prevent oxidation or inhibit bacteria. Most or all of the SO2 you add prior to fermentation is used up (bound) or lost to the atmosphere during fermentation. Some is lost to volatilization and precipitation in the sediment. Total SO2 measured in a wine is typically less than what has been added from start to finish. The chemistry of SO2: When added to must, juice, or wine, Potassium metabisulfite (PMBS) releases primarily bisulfite (HSO3-2) ions, a small amount of SO2 the active portion, and an even smaller amount of Sulfite ions. PMBS (K2S2O5) + H2O ! SO2 (gaseous) ! SO2 (molecular)+ H2O ! H+ + (HSO3-) (bisulfite) ! 2H+ + SO3 -2 (sulfite). SO2  the molecular form, exists as a gas dissolved in water, much like Carbon Dioxide (CO2) in water. The level can be as high as 6% for a wine with a pH of 3.0 and 0.5 percent for a wine with a pH of 4.0. It has powerful antimicrobial properties, inhibiting bacterial spoilage, growth of wild yeasts and bacteria, like malolactic bacteria. Bisulfite  Most of the SO2 added to wine exists as bisulfite ions that dont prevent oxidation, but bind with acetaldehyde (the precursor of acetic acid) that forms when alcohol is oxidized. Sulfite the amount in wine is extremely small, except at high pH. But, sulfite is important even in minute amounts, because it can deactivate enzymes that cause browning and remove free oxygen from wine. Sulfite reacts indirectly with free oxygen in wine. In this reaction, O2 reacts with a phenolic compound, and is converted to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). If free sulfur dioxide is present, the hydrogen peroxide reacts with sulfite, resulting in the formation of Sulfate and water: SO32- + H2O2 ! SO42- (Sulfate ion) + H2O When wine oxidizes in the presence of adequate SO2, the production of H+ causes the pH to decrease and the titratable acidity to increase, as sulfite ions are used up. This effect is small but it can be significant in high pH wines and a reduction of as much as 0.1 pH is often observed when high pH wines are aged in barrels for a year or more. SO2 is in a pH-dependent equilibrium in juice or wine: SO2 (molecular) + H2O ! H+ + HSO3 (bisulfite) ! 2H+ SO32- (sulfite) Although there is equilibrium between the 3 types of ions, the amounts are unequal and pH-dependent. For example, the lower the pH, the higher the percentage of molecular SO2. The level of SO2 decreases sharply with increasing pH. Equilibrium can shift from left to right or right to left depending on what component is being used. For example, if bisulfite binds up, some of the SO2 will shift to bisulfite and some of the sulfite converts back to bisulfite until equilibrium is reestablished. The level of free SO2 in wine is measured in parts per million (ppm). However, only a portion of it is activein the molecular form. To ensure adequate protection of your wine, you will have target a specific free SO2 level to ensure there is enough molecular SO2 to do the job. To complicate matters, the amount of molecular SO2 will depend on the pH of the juice, must, or wine its added to. The molecular level reflects the amount of free-O2 needed to protect a juice, must, or wine with a specific pH. White grapes, having less tannins than reds, need a molecular level of 0.8 ppm of SO2 to ensure adequate protection during winemaking and later in the bottle. Reds, on the other hand, have much higher tannin levels and need a molecular level of only 0.5 ppm of SO2. Tannins are natural antioxidants. As a rule of thumb, target a free-SO2 level listed in the tables below, for the type of wine (red or white) and pH. Most wineries, deviate from this rule and add less SO2 listed in the charts for wines with a pH 3.6 or greater. The new thinking is that red wines with a pH greater than 3.6 only need about 30 ppm for stability. Many wineries maintain a free SO2 of 20 to 30 ppm for their reds with higher pHs. To be on the safe side, home winemakers should consider using 35 to 40 ppm to be on the safe side for wines with a pH of 3.6 or higher. You will need to add SO2 several time during the course of winemaking: before and/or after fermentation or MLF, during cellaring, and just before bottling because it gradually dissipates. Thats why testing is so important during the process. Every time you rack a wine, open the container to taste or smell the wine or add something, you expose it to air, and free SO2 is used up. Most or all of the SO2 you add prior to fermentation is used up (bound) or lost to the atmosphere during fermentation. White and Ros wines: maintain a 0.8 molecular SO2 level throughout the winemaking process, except for wines that will undergo MLF, and keep the pH below 3.6. For example to ensure that there is 0.8ppm of molecular SO2 in a wine with a pH of 3.2, you have add 21ppm of SO2 Free-SO2 needed for a 0.8ppm molecular level: pH SO2 ppm or mg/l 3.0 13 3.1 16 3.2 21 3.3 26 3.4 32 3.5 40 3.6 50 Red wines: free-SO2 needed for a 0.5 ppm molecular level and keep the pH level below 3.85. Free-SO2 needed for a 0.5ppm molecular level: pH SO2 ppm or mg/l 3.4 25 3.5 30 3.6 30 ppm. At 3.6 and higher to a point the wine is protected by some other means*. 3.7 3.85 Red wines much above 3.85 should be acidified to lower the pH. pH and TA should be adjusted before fermentation (see Testing and Adjusting the Must below) *Contrary to older charts, at pH 3.6 the wines need less free SO2. Clark Smith (Vinovation, and WineSmith. Personal communication). Above 3.6 SO2 binds with H2O2, a precursor of acetaldehyde, forming H2SO4 (sulfuric acid) which increases acidity. Why less SO2 is needed as pH increases above 3.6 is not understood. Other considerations: To ensure that the free-SO2 levels remains near the required level between additions, add an additional 10 to 15 ppm. Thus, maintaining the SO2 level reds at about 45 ppm will ensure that your wine is adequately protected as the SO2 level dissipates. The tables above list the level of free-SO2 needed to keep a wine from oxidizing. Notice that the number goes up with pH to a point. So, it generally takes more SO2 to keep a higher pH wine safe from oxidation and bacterial spoilage than a lower pH wine. Lower pH wines are inherently more stable because they need less SO2 for protection and provide a less favorable environment for spoilage organisms. This is why adjusting pH is important. Its not just a stylistic choice. Lower pH wines are generally more acidic, brighter and sometimes fruitier, while higher pH wines are softer, smoother, or sometimes flat. For red wines, a final pH of 3.7 to about 3.85 is good. Its a good idea to do trials to see how the wine tastes at different levels of pH. Many commercial winemakers use a more moderate approach when making SO2 additions. They can do so, because they have more options and greater control over the wine-making process than home winemakers. Stages of winemaking and SO2: Pre-fermentation: The initial SO2 addition is typically done immediately after crushing or just following pressing and before yeast inoculation. In some cases, the fermentation is initiated without adding any SO2 (see below). Fermentation: once the initial dose of SO2 has been made, it is not necessary or beneficial to add any more until after the fermentation is finished. Post-fermentation: Wines, having completed their primary (alcoholic) or secondary (malolactic) fermentation are very susceptible to oxidation and bacterial spoilage. Therefore, a second timely addition is needed to keep them stable. White wines and ross will need more SO2 shortly after fermentation. Reds, with a few exceptions and traditional chardonnays, however, should not receive any further SO2 until they have completed malolactic fermentation (MLF). Wait until the MLF is done before making a second addition to avoid inhibiting MLF. During settling, after racking and aging: SO2 levels will continue to drop throughout the winemaking process. Every time you rack or open the container to smell, taste, or to add something, you expose the wine to air and SO2 dissipates. Barrel aging also exposes the wine to small amounts of air. Its critical to monitor the SO2 level and adjust periodically to maintain sufficient free-SO2 to maintain the needed molecular SO2 level. To ensure that the SO2 level remains near the desired level between additions, add an additional 10 to 15 ppm. Maintaining the SO2 level at about 45 ppm (for most reds) will safeguard your wine. Containers should be kept filled, so there is little or no head space. This is particularly important for barrels because they lose an appreciable amount of wine due to evaporation. Its also prudent to purge the air space in a contained, even when its small, with inert gas before resealing it. Check the SO2 levels at least monthly.Bear in mind that above 45 PPM, sulfite levels begin to affect the color and flavor of wine.At some point, the wine, if not disturbed much, will stabilize, and the drop in the SO2 level decreases. Bottling: Check the free-SO2 level prior to bottling and adjust as needed. Wines, even those that taste and smell fine, can go off quickly if bottled with insufficient SO2. The proper level will ensure that the wine will remain sound longer. Adding SO2 and Potassium Metabisulfite: Potassium Metabisulfite (PMBS), a concentrated powder, is commonly used to add SO2 to juice, must, or wine. It can be added directly as a powder or diluted with water in the quantities needed. PMBS) powder contains 57% SO2 (Winy, an Enartis product contains 56%). Measuring SO2: PMBS, when added to water, juice, must, or wine is measured in milligram (mg) of SO2 per Liter (L) of the liquid. There are 1000 milligrams (mg) in a gram of SO2 and a 1000 ml in a liter of water. This makes it possible to express the SO2 addition as parts per million (ppm) parts of SO2 per million parts of juice or wine. One ppm is equivalent to 1 milligram (mg) (.001 g) in 1L of water, juice, must, or wine. Ways to add SO2: 10 percent stock solution  An inexpensive and convenient way to add SO2 is make a  10 percent stock solution made by adding 100 g PMBS to a liter of water (~34 ounces), or 75 g in 750 ml bottle. This actually produces a 5.6 or 5.7% solution because the potassium metabisulfide contains 56% or 57% SO2, depending on the product used. Make sure you check the label. Use the following amounts of the stock solution to add the desired ppm of SO2: 2.32 ml of a standard 10% (5.6%) PMBS solution adds 35 ppm SO2 to 1gal of must or juice. 3.32 grams increases the SO2 to 50 ppm. 3.32 ml of stock solution raises the SO2 level about 10 ppm in 5 gal of must or wine For 5 gal of must/juice use 10 ml of a standard PMBS solution to add 30 ppm, 11.6 ml for 35 ppm, 13.4 ml for 40 ppm, and 16.5 ml for 50 ppm. Use a pipette with bulb for safety and to make precise additions. Remember to stir the wine following an addition of the SO2 solution to distribute the material throughout the juice or wine. Use the he following table to determine how much of the stock solution to add for the volume of juice/must or wine you have. SO2 addition: 10% (5.6%) solution (Winy: Enartis)  5gal 10 gal 15 gal 30 gal 60 gal10 ppm3.386.7610.1420.2840.5615ppm5.0710.1415.2130.4260.8420 ppm6.7613.5220.5840.5681.1225 ppm8.4516.925.3550.76101.3930 ppm10.4120.2830.4260.84121.6735 ppm11.8323.6635.4970.98141.9550 ppm16.933.850.7104.39202.79 Example: to add 30 ppm of SO2 to 15 gal of wine using a standard 10 percent solution use ~30 ml of the stock solution. (see below) When using a PMBS product containing 57% SO2 to make a standard 10% solution add 3.32ml to each 5 gal to raise the SO2 level to 10 ppm, add 6.64 ml for 20 ppm, and 9.96 ml for 30 ppm. Direct powder addition: To add 10 ppm of SO2 to 5 gal of must or juice use .38 g of PMBS (dissolve in water) (1.9 g to add 50ppm) For 15 gal add 3.97 g to add 35 ppm, 4.54 to add 40 ppm and 5.68 g to add 50 ppm Foil pouches containing powdered (effervescent) SO2, Offer a convenient but more expensive way to adjust SO2. One advantage is that you dont need to stir the wine as with other means of adding SO2. Pouches containing 2-g or 5-g of PMBS are available. The effervescent mixture helps to distribute SO2 in the wine. When using the effervescent form, the 2 g-packet will provide 528ppm of SO2 per gallon of juice or must. For example, if you need to treat 25 gal of must/juice divide 528 (the amount of SO2/gal in each packet) divided by 25. Therefore the packet will add 21 ppm of SO2 to 25 gal. Two 2 full packets will add 42 ppm. Thats fine for most reds or whites. For 10 gal of must a 2g packet will add 52.8ppm. One 2g-pkg of (Efferbarrique or Inodose granules) will raise the free SO2 level of a 59 gal barrel ~ 9ppm, at least temporarily. A 2 g-packet will add about 21ppm to 25 gal (about 1hL) of must in a 32 gallon fermenting bin. (This is very helpful if you use 32 gal food-grade bins to ferment in). So, two 2g pkts per 25 gal of must will provide roughly 42 ppm of SO2. If you divide the packages, remember that there is actually 5 grams of PMBS in a 2 g-packet  so 2.5 g of the granules will provide 1g of SO2, enough to add 10.5 ppm to 25 gal. A 5 g-packet of Effergran or a 5 g Inodose Tablet will raise the free SO2 level in a 59 gal barrel to 23 ppm. Factors affecting how much SO2 is needed: color of grape: white or red? More for whites. conditions of grapes: moldy, bird pecked, etc. temperature of grapes when harvested, crushed, and/or pressed stage of winemaking pH of the must, juice, or wine sanitation practices handling (number of rackings, topping practices, how often you expose the wine to air) bung or etc.) number and types of additions: an oak insert will introduce a lot of air, requiring additional SO2 wines aged on the lees (sur lie) can get by with less SO2 type of storage container used, oak barrel, glass or plastic carboy or stainless tank how often you top whether or not you use inert gas cellar temperature, etc. 17. Calculating how much SO2 to add: You can use the formula listed below to calculate how much PMBS to add, or the easy to use calculator:  HYPERLINK "http://www.winebusiness.com/tools/?go=winemaking.calc&cid=1" http://www.winebusiness.com/tools/?go=winemaking.calc&cid=1 (make sure you enter 5.6% or 5.7 when using a stock 10% solution) or  HYPERLINK "http://winemakermag.com/1301-sulfite-calculator" http://winemakermag.com/1301-sulfite-calculator  Formula for PMBS addition gal of wines x 3.785 x desired ppm = grams of PMBS to add  1000 x 0.56 3.785 converts gal to liters 0.56 is the fraction of SO2 in PMBS 1000 converts mg/L ppm to g/L A simplified version is: gal of wine x desired ppm x .0066 = g of PMBS The winemaking process - Getting Started Sourcing grapes: Grapes that are moldy, bird-damaged, over-ripe, under-ripe, or otherwise of poor quality, seldom produce good wines. Buy your grapes from growers or other sources in areas known for producing the variety you want, for example, Pinot noir from the Russian River appellation. Consider vineyard practices and look at the quality of the fruit. Check to see if the vines appear healthy and properly managed. Cellar sanitation: Basic sanitation of all winemaking equipment, including fermenters and storage containers, presses, etc., is important: clean all equipment used in winemaking to remove surface debris, dirt, staining, and residue, and then sanitize it. For more information regarding cleaning and sterilization, se the discussion above in section 2. Harvest: Ideally, grapes should be picked when they are ripe. Ripeness is usually expressed as percent sugar or Brix (B). California grapes are typically picked when the sugar levels are about 23 to 26B (17.5 to 19 for sparkling) and 21 for some crisp and austere whites). A refractometer is usually used to check grape sugar in the field. Grapes or clusters can be collected and tested later using a hydrometer. The larger the sample, the more accurate the test. For greater accuracy, select whole clusters from different parts of the vineyard and different sides of the rows - say one cluster per every 10th vine. Place the grapes zip-lock bags and crush to release the juice for testing. The bags with their contents can be frozen and added to the fermenting juice after youve harvested. Its best to pick early in the morning when the grapes are cold. Transport the grapes in food-grade trash bins that can be cooled by adding dry ice or frozen water jugs. You can also picking lugs or a microbin. Its also a good idea to tarp the containers while in transit and when exposed to direct sunlight. Frozen water-filled jugs should also be used if you have a long way to go or have to pick later in the day Harvest only the clusters that appear ripe and those that are free of mold. For whites  a green to yellow or golden appearance, depending on grape variety. Most red grapes are dark navy-blue. Avoid clusters with grapes that have a reddish cast. If in doubt, taste the grapes. To determine the approximate yield of juice in gallons, divide the weight of the fruit by 15. Targeting a specific B level is not the best way of ensure ripeness. Grapes can have a high B and still be unripe, and grapes can be ripe, even though their sugar level is seemingly low  say 22.5. There are many variables that influence ripeness, so relying solely on B can be a mistake. Color and taste are better indicators of ripeness, as well as seed and stem maturityboth should be brown and the seeds should be crunchy and have a nutty flavor. Grapes are often left hanging even after they are obviously ripe in hopes of increasing fruitiness and pigment content. This can result in very high B and low acidity (high pH and low TA, creating problems for the winemaker. First, overly ripe grapes produce high alcohol wines unless diluted with water to reduce the sugar content. Too much alcohol can make a wine taste hot (sense of burning in the mouth). Furthermore, the fermentation may stick, resulting in a sweet wine or bacterial spoilage. Another major consideration is that pH of high Brix grapes is usually too high and the TA too low to make a good wine without having to make significant adjustments. Correcting this problem can be difficult for amateur winemakers. Wines made from grapes that are ripe but that have reasonably good acid levels are much less problematic and more stable. Grapes harvested much above 25B, typically should be diluted to lower the resulting alcohol level (see Adjusting the Brix below). To estimate potential alcohol, multiply the B by .57 (common conversion factor). For example: 26B x .57 = 14.8%. If the B level is 27, the resulting alcohol level will be 15.4 very hot! If you dilute to 25, the alcohol will be 14.25%. If you dilute it to 24B, the alcohol will be 13.7% quite acceptable. If you dont dilute the must, select a yeast that can tolerate high alcohol to prevent sticking when fermenting high B juice that has not been diluted. Overly ripe grapes are also low in nutrients essential for vigorous yeast development. Temperature control: Warm grape are prone to microbial spoilage, particularly during the cold soak phase (see Cold Soak below). Try to pick early in the morning so the grapes are relatively cool. Warm-grapes should be cooled to <60F using dry ice, frozen water-filled jugs, or refrigeration. Early SO2 additions will also help minimize microbial spoilage. For best results, ferment white juice at <60F. The upper limit to maintaining fruit and freshness is about 64F. Red wines are allowed to ferment at room temperature and temperature control is seldom needed, except to cool a particularly warm fermentation, or to raise the temperature to a desired level or when the fermentation is sluggish. Be aware that higher temperature may harm some yeasts, depending on the selection. Check the ideal temperature range for the yeasts you use and try to keep the temperature in the stated range. Testing and adjusting the juice or must: Start by testing the sugar content (Brix). You can do that readily using a hydrometer. Reserve a sample to test for pH and TA if you cant test right away. Once youve crushed your grapes, start chilling the must during skin contact or cold soak (red grapes). You may also want to save a sample for a nutrient analysis to determine the amount of nitrogen in the grapes available for the yeast (YAN Yeast Assimilable Nitrogen) Adjusting Brix: Brix is a measure of sugar content in grapes. It measures soluble solids, mostly sugars. 1B is about the same as one percent sugar (wt/vol), or 1 gram sugar in 100 mL of water. Measure B by using a hydrometer or refractometer. You may need to compensate for temperature. -0.2B on a hydrometer equals 0 g/L sugar in wine that has finished fermenting. To raise B (This is seldom necessary in Californias winegrowing regions, but if needed, you can raise the sugar level of a juice or must by adding about 60g per gal to raise the juice by 1B. When adding sugar to must you have to reduce the amount of sugar to account for the volume occupied by the skins and seeds. For example: 1000 #s of grapes usually produces about 100 gal of must or 70 to 75 gal of wine using a standard basket press, so the amount of sugar needed will be about 25 percent less. To lower B, use bottled water because its chlorine-free. This will reduce the amount the alcohol in the finished wine. Thats a good thing! Alcohol produces a hot sensation in the mouth, detracting from the wine. Higher B wines are also more difficult to ferment. When you harvest very ripe grapes (28B or greater), consider draining off a portion of juice, equal to the amount of water that is needed to dilute the must to the desired level, because adding water will dilute flavor to some extent. This will compensate for the added water by increasing the skin to juice ratio. You end up with the same liquid to skins ratio as you had before the water addition. The net effect is that the resulting wine will have better balance. The juice that is bled off can be used to make a decent Ros. PH typically doesnt change when you add water because of the buffering effect of the juice. If by adding 6 grams of tartaric acid for every liter of water used (thats 23 grams of tartaric acid per gallon to avoid lowering the TA (total or titratable acidity). If the you TA) is much higher than normal, you may opt to omit adding acid. This will result in a modest lowering of TA Calculating how much water to add: Equation 1: (V1 x SB) / DB = V2 Equation 2: V2 V1 = X SB = starting Brix (B) Vl = volume (in liters) of undiluted must* DB = desired Brix V2 = volume (in liters) of the diluted must X = volume of water in liters to dilute the must to the desired Brix *To convert gal to liters, multiply by 3.79 For example, if you had 60 gal (228L) of must at 27B and you want to dilute it to 25B, you would need to add 18.24L of water: 228L x 27 = 6156 / 25 = 246.24 246.24L 228 = 18.24 L of water To convert to gallons, divide 18.24 L by 3.79 (L per gal.) = 4.8 gal Reference: 1hL (hectoliter) contains 100 liters (L) or about 26 gal (100 3.79) Acidity: pH: is a measure of the H+ (hydrogen ions) concentration in a solution. is expressed as g/L of H+ ions, based on a logarithmic scale. Acidity increases 10-fold for each whole number on a scale of 14 to 0. It decreases 10-fold for each whole number from 0 to 14. For example, the acidity of pH 3 is 10 times greater that of pH 4 and a 100 times greater than a pH of 5. A sparkling wine with a pH near 3 is more acidic than a red wine with a pH close to 3.8. A pH of 7 is considered neutral, neither acidic nor basic. Above 7, solutions are considered alkaline (basic), and below 7, they are acid. The thing to remember about pH is that the higher the pH, the lower the acidity, and the lower the pH, the higher the acidity. pH measures the relative strength of the of the acid content of grape or wine, while TA is a measure of the total amount of acid in a wine. Some acids are weak, yet others are strong. The pH of grape must and resulting wine depends on grape variety, type of soil, viticultural practices such as irrigation, as well as the climate and the Brix at harvest. For example, soils rich in potassium or grapes harvested during heavy rainfalls and grapes harvested with high Brix tend to have a higher pH. pH determines the amount of SO2 needed to keep a wine stable. The lower the pH  the less SO2 is needed! It does this by influencing how much molecular SO2 is present pH also influences color, aroma, taste, and texture, as well as growth of undesirable microorganisms. Spoilage bacteria, including ML bacteria don t thrive in low pH wines. Malolactic fermentation (MLF) will lower total acidity (TA) and raise pH of a wine. Its hard to prevent MLF in a white wine with a relatively high pH, unless it has a very low pH or the SO2 level is kept high. Test pH using a calibrated pH-meter. GENCO offers this service. Measure the pH of juice after it has settled for greater accuracy. The ideal pH range for most white juice is 3.2 to about 3.4. Very ripe grapes are often can be a bit higher. A wine with a pH of 3.2 tastes crisp or slightly tart, depending on structure and balance. A white wine with a pH higher than 3.4 is softer in the mouth, but less fresh. The ideal range for red must is 3.4 to 3.6. Remember that pH will go up 1 to 2 units after fermentation, due to the leaching of potassium ions from the skins,MLF, and cold stabilization that results in the precipitation of tartaric acid as Potassium Bitartrate. For finished red wines, a pH of 3.7 to 3.8 is best. Wines within this range are fairly stable due to their tannic structure. Very ripe red grapes range from are 3.7 to 4.0, occasionally higher. In general, its a good idea to adjust the pH of red musts to about 3.5 before fermentation. In general, the higher the Brix, the higher the pH (less acid). This can create problems leading to high alcohol, bacterial spoilage, and oxidation. High pH wines (>3.85) can taste quite good but are relatively short-lived. In general, they should be adjusted to a more favorable level. Its critical to keep SO2 levels high enough to avoid spoilage or oxidation. Oxidation occurs more rapidly at high pH (>3.85) Tartaric acid can be added to high pH musts to lower pH to the desired range. Below 3.6, cold stabilization causes some of the tartaric acid to precipitate as tartrates (Potassium Bitartrate), lowering pH and TA. Adding tartaric acid will also increase TA (see below). Adjusting acidity (in a nut shell): If TA is above 10.5, determine if the cause is excess Malate or Tartrate. Have a commercial lab determine if the cause is Tartrate. If so, proceed with the correction listed below. If not, a double salt- process will be required (contact Enartis or Scott Labs for advice) Common wine acid problems table: Must/Juice Acidity Treatment Result pH TA pH TA High Low Tartaric acid (3.8 g/gal) ! ! 0.1-.2 1.0g/L Low High Potassium Bicarbonate ! ! 2.54 g/gal 0.1 1.0g/L High >3.6 High Calcium carbonate ! little change High >3.6 High Potassium carbonate little change ! >3.6 High fermentation & cold stab.* ! ! <3.6 High fermentation & cold stab.* ! ! ________________________________________________________________________Compiled by Dave Schaefer *Alcohol formed during fermentation causes Bitratrate and Potassium (K+) ions to combine and precipitate as Potassium Bitartrate, a relatively insoluble salt, lowering TA, while raising or lowering pH, depending on the wines pH. Its important to understand that potassium in grapes or wine contributes to a higher pH. When it precipitates with Bitratrate ions during cold stabilization, it lowers the pH. This effect actually happens at around pH 3.6 and below, because of the relative high concentration of Bitrartrate and potassium in the wine. Above 3.6, cold stabilization will actually cause the pH to rise because Potassium Bitartrate does not form much above pH 3.6. The low down on adjusting pH: pH and TA are interrelated, any acid adjustment will typically affect the other. pH adjustment is typically done to stabilize a wine and/or improve its taste. The ideal pH and TA range for whites and ross: pH: 3.2 to 3.5, TA: 6 to 9 g/L. For reds, the range is pH: 3.4 to 3.6, TA: 6 to 7 g/L Adjusting pH and/or TA of juice/must can be difficult. Each batch of grapes is unique and may respond differently to acid addition or to acid reduction. Adding Tartaric acid will, in most cases lower pH and raise TA. Adding Potassium Bicarbonate raises pH by reducing tartaric acidity, it is recommended for low-pH wines and high -TA musts or wine. Adjusting acidity (pH and TA) should be done before fermentation to help preserve fruit aromas. Minor adjustments can be made later. Adjust the pH of whites to around 3.3 to 3.4 prior to fermentation. Adjust red must to about pH 3.5 prior to fermentation. The wine may go up as high as pH 3.9 by the end of MLF and cold stabilization. The best range for most finished red wines is 3.7 3.8). Stability suffers above pH 3.85. When adjusting pH or TA for red must, consider that 65 to 70% of the must is actually juice when calculating how much Tartaric acid to add. In cold years or cool climate zones there may be an inordinate amount of malic acid that greatly complicates acid adjustment. The most common wine acid problems: Low pH and high TA (pH <3.0 and TA > 9g/L) High pH and low TA (pH >3.5 and TA < 6g/L) (common in warm areas, and with extended hang-time) High pH and high TA (pH> 3.5 and TA >9g/L) (usually the result of excessive tartrate and excess potassium. Such wines may resist adjustment and you may need to seek technical advice. High malate is best remedied in the vineyard. Making corrections: Make acid adjustments incrementally to avoid excess acidification or deacidification. After each addition, taste the juice/must and measure pH to see the result. Then determine if more acid improves or diminished taste. Tartatic acid is commonly used for high pH and low TA musts to lower pH! and increase TA! by and adding acid and increasing the H+ level. Add 3.8g per gal of juice/must or 1 g/L (liter) to lower pH by 0.1 to 0.2 pH units, and raise TA by about 1.0 g/L. Add the tartaric gradually to see how the must responds. You dont want to lower the pH too much. Potassium bicarbonate (KHCO3) or Potassium carbonate is commonly used to adjust for wines with low pH and high TA. It lowers TA! and raises pH! by removing tartaric acid. This happens because it neutralizes 2 H+ and the K+ ion which increases Bitratrate precipitation, effectively removing tartaric acid. Carbon dioxide is released. Add 3.8 g/gal (1 g/L) Potassium Bicarbonate or Potassium carbonate to increase pH by about 0.1 pH unit. Make the addition gradually, say one third or one half the calculated amounts and to see how the wine responds. Below pH 3.65, Potassium Bitartrate precipitation lowers both pH! and TA!. This works because potassium ions (K+) in the must combines with Bitartrate ions (HTa-) to form a precipitate (Potassium Bitartrate: KHTa). This removes tartaric acid from the juice, lowering TA!. The additional H+ ions that are released lower pH!. The loss of Bitartrate ions, shifts equilibrium in the reaction below to the right, to replenish Bitartrate ions lost to precipitation: H2Ta (tartaric acid) ! + H+ + HTa- (bitratrate ion) ! 2H+ + Ta2- (tartrate ion) (! indicates equilibrium) Above pH 3.65, Potassium bitartrate precipitation lowers TA! but raises pH! because the equilibrium reaction shifts left to replenish the HTa- lost to precipitation, resulting in the loss of one H+ : H+ + HTa- !- H+ +Ta 2 Potassium bitratrate does not form readily when pH is well above 3.6. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) can also be used to deacidify wine. The Ca++ ions bind with tartrate ions, precipitating some of tartaric acid and lowering TA! Calcium carbonate is mainly recommended for large acid (TA) adjustments of more than 3 g/L (TA above 9 g/L). Calcium carbonate provides a minimal increase in pH provides but the maximum TA reduction. It does take longer for the reaction to occur and for the Calcium Tartrate to settle out. Natural pH changes during winemaking: Diluting high B grape must with water reduces TA, but not pH due to the buffering capacity of the juice. Depending on the starting TA, this may be beneficial. Skin contact, which releases K+ ions, raises pH approximately 0.2 units. TA remains the same Primary fermentation causes pH to increase by 0.1 to 0.2 pH units, and TA to drop by about 1g/L as tartaric acid binds with K+ ions, forming Potassium Bitartrate. Chilling wine (cold stabilization) maximizes the precipitation of Potassium Bitartrate, lowering TA. Cold stabilization also lowers pH if it takes place below a pH 3.65, but increases pH if the medium is much above 3.65. MLF and acidity changes: pH! by 0.2 units and TA! by 1 to 2 g/L. Something to keep in mind: Adding acid, can solve a high pH and high TA must problem, no way! Yes, it actually works. If you add 2 g/l of Tartaric acid to a grape must with a high pH of  say 3.9 and a high TA  say 9.0 g/L, the pH may drop to about 3.55 (changes are not always linear). But as you would expect, TA would increase to 11, but because the pH is now below 3.6, tartrate precipitation will act to lower the TA to about 7 Hallelujah! This wine, following cold stabilization could wind up with up with a pH of 3.4 and a TA of 6.3 Other options: Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4) is used in the production of sherry in Spain and is legal in Canada to lower the pH in wine without increasing TA CaSO4 + H2Ta (tartaric acid) ! CaTa + SO4 2- + 2H+ " The CaTa precipitates, allowing a further ionization of these H+ ions. This lowers the pH ! and TA remains unchanged. Problematic grapes: High TA musts in California typically have high levels of tartaric acid and potassium. The potassium is often the result of high ripeness stress conditions. If acid addition doesnt help high pH and high TA wines, the problem might be lots of Potassium and tartrate or high Malic acid (cold years). Such wines are difficult to fix. You really should get technical advice from either Scott labs or Vinequiry. Problems can also result when there is too much malic acid (a low tartrate: malate ratio). Youll need to test for this condition) and will require more drastic steps such as double-salt treatment. It is frequently linked to over-cropping, dense canopy, and low flavor and color. You may need to add Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) mixed with calcium tartrate and calcium malate to correct the problem. It will cause calcium maleate and calcium tartrate to precipitate at high pH. This is usually done by adding an excess of CaCO3 to 20 to 30% of the wine and then recombining the 2 lots. This will lower TA and pH. The wine can then be acidified with tartaric acid a necessary. Allow the salts to precipate and settle out and rack off the crystals and lees. This is a difficult process and you need expert advice. If malic acid is high, some strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (e.g., Lalvin 71B or Lalvin AC) can metabolize 20 40% of the malic acid present in a must, producing alcohol instead of lactic acid. Acidity: TA: Total or more correctly, titratable acidity (TA) is a measure of the total amount of acidity in a wine dissociated (ionized) and un-dissociated acids and the hydrogen ions (H+). In essence, it is the tartness of a wine. It can be measured at a wine lab or with standard equipment sold at wine-making supply outlets. GENCO offers this test as well. is expressed as grams (e.g., tartaric, malic, citric, etc.) per L (liter) of juice, must, or wine A TA of 6 g/L can also be also be expressed as 0.6% TA) TA is the best indicator of taste. The higher the TA, the tarter the wine TA ranges from 6 to 9 for most white grapes, and 6 to 7 for most reds. Most finished red wines are best when TA is close to 6. TA may be a little higher for Pinot noirs. Fresh and crisp whites are best in the range of 3.3 to 3.4 and for softer, richer whites 3.4 to 3.5 High TA is a problem for red wines. Excessive acidity (tartness) accentuates astringency and bitterness. Low TA wines taste flat and are unstable Because TA will drop during fermentation and MLF, its a good idea to adjust red must to 7 or 7.5. If the TA of a must is higher than 7.5 g/L consider deacidification. When adjusting TA for red grape must, consider that 60 to 70% of the must is actually juice when calculating how much Tartaric acid to add. The nuts and bolts of Adjusting TA: Adjust TA only as needed, preferably before fermentation. Small acid corrections (around 1 g/L) can be done in wine after alcoholic or malolactic fermentation, and even just before bottling. It can, however, result in tartrate instability if cold stabilization has already occurred. TA typically drops from 1 to 3 g/L during fermentation. To raise TA, add 1g/L or 3.8 grams of Tartaric acid per gal of wine to raise the TA! of juice/must by 1 g/L. It will also lower pH by 0.1 to 0.2 units. (Clark Smith, Vinovation) To lower TA, use Potassium Bicarbonate (KHCO3). Add 2.55g/gal (.67g/L) or 2.35 grams/gal (.62g/L) of Potassium Carbonate (K2CO3) per gal 2.55 g/gal (.67g/L) Potassium Bicarbonate or 2.35g/gal (.62g/L) Potassium Carbonate (K2CO3) reduces TA by 1g/L. The addition of .67g/L of calcium carbonate theoretically will yield a reduction in TA of 1 g/L. This reaction commonly produces calcium tartrate, a precipitate over time. For convenience, see Acid Calculator: http://www.winebusiness.com/tools/?go=winemaking.calc&cid=24 If the pH of a wine is greater than 3.6 after MLF, an addition of tartaric acid will lower pH without much change in TA. Adding water will reduce TA, so water should be acidified if the TA is considered low. Adding bottled water will not cause pH to change due to wine buffering. Adding acidified water will, however, cause pH to drop a bit. This may be desirable. Stemming/crushing Once your grapes have been harvested, keep them as cold as practical until youre ready to crush and destem them. Its best to do so without delay. Warm grape are prone to microbial spoilage, particularly during the cold soak period if you choose to do so. (see Cold Soak below). Chill grapes using dry ice, frozen water-filled jugs, or refrigeration. Dry ice is ideal because it also releases CO2, displacing air and preventing oxidation. You can also blanket the must with argon, and then cover the fermenter. Avoid direct exposure to sunlight. Make sure that all your equipment has been cleaned and sanitized, as well as practical. Red grapes can be destemmed without crushing using a de-stemmer rather than a stemmer-crusher. In this manner, whole berries are collected and allowed to ferment. The fermentation occurs primarily within the grape skin (carbonic maceration), resulting in a fruiter and less tannic wine. Red grapes can be crushed directly into open-top stainless steel fermenters, plastic food-grade containers, or microbins, depending on the quantity of grapes. Plastic food-grade bins are convenient because they can be easily cleaned, stored, and moved around when attached to the available wheel dollies. Punch-downs are easier and the containers can easily be covered with something like a beach towel to exclude fruitflies. The solid plastic lids dont provide a good seal against fruit flies, and you want the cover to be porous to allow CO2 and water vapor to escape. For whites, its most convenient to crush/destem the grapes into 32-gal white plastic food-grade trash bins. The available wheel dollies allow them to be wheeled under the stemmer/crusher and away from it once theyre filled. Another consideration is that they can be moved around the work area to free up space as needed. Various winemaking additives such as SO2, enzymes, fermentation tannins, etc., can easily be added and mixed during skin contact. Four to five 32-gal plastic bins will handle about 1000#s of fruit. In most cases, youll want to add SO2 to the holding/fermenting container immediately after crushing  usually 30 to 40 ppm. Keep the must or whole berries chilled while measuring pH and B, during skin contact (whites and ross) and when cold-soaking reds. Skin contact (see Skin Contact below) enhances varietal character, but too much may increases astringency and darken color. To sulfite or not to sulfite? Two options for fermenting white grapes: First: add the SO2 (say 40 ppm) immediately after crushing to prevent browning and oxidation. The benefit is that there will be less color and acetaldehyde formation in the wine. The drawback is that more SO2 (50 to 75ppm) will be needed after fermentation because virtually all of it will be bound up during fermentation. Second: withhold the SO2 until after fermentation. This will allow the juice to turn brown (enzymatic browning). The browning, however drops out after fermentation. The upside is that there will be less total SO2 at bottling. The downside may be a higher VA (volatile acidityvinegary or like nail-polish remover). Harvesting and crushing the grapes when they are still cool and attention to sanitation will help minimize the formation of VA. There is also some risk of bacterial spoilage if grape quality is poor, temperature control is lacking, you have no means of blanketing the must/juice with argon or CO2, or the fermentation is sluggish or sticks. This method is most successful when the condition of the fruit is good and temperature can be maintained below 60F, and the grapes are not overripe. Wines made in this manner may lose some fruitiness but gain in complexity. Your choice SO2 addition: Pre-fermentation: For home winemakers, this can be very confusing. The amount of SO2 to add should be based on the total volume (gal) of must after stemming and crushing, even though grape must contains skins and seeds which will be removed at pressing. About 30 to 40 ppm of SO2 after crushing is adequate to minimize microbial problems and retard native yeast for both reds and whites. Higher SO2 levels are recommended for warm grapes and those with bird damage and rot. Levels much above 50 ppm at fermentation are likely to inhibit malolactic fermentation (MLF), see MLF below). If the intent is to make a fresh, fruity, and crisp white, you can add up to 75 ppm SO2 to effectively inhibit MLF. Chilling your grapes will reduce the amount of SO2 needed. For each 5 gal of must: ~10 ml of a standard 10% (5.7%) PMBS solution will add 30 ppm SO2 11.6 ml adds 35 ppm 13.4 ml adds 40 ppm 16.5 ml adds 50 ppm 25.0 ml adds 75 ppm If you use powdered PMBS you will need to add 0.33 grams to provide 50ppm of SO2 for each gallon or 1.65g/5gal. Mix well to disperse Some professional winemakers use as little as 20 ppm of SO2 before fermentation. Home winemakers, however, would do well to use a higher rate because they generally lack the experience, technical know-how, specialized equipment, temperature control, and access to sophisticated testing equipment. Commercial winemakers also have greater control over grape quality and harvest temperature. Note: not all of the SO2 you add will remain in the finished wine, some will bind up with solids that settle out. In reds, some of the SO2 is lost to the atmosphere during open-top fermentation and racking. Skin contact: white and red grapes when making ross: Crushed grapes that have been chilled to at least 60F can be pressed immediately or allowed to sit for 2 to 8hrs before pressing. If you want to make light colored, French-style rose, press shortly after crush. Red wines can be presses within minutes of crushing if you want to make a blush wine or get the more classic pale peach or salmon color. Skin contact enhances varietal character, but too long will increase astringency and darken color. Its important to keep the grapes cold, preferably 50F or less during skin contact. Use dry ice, frozen water-filled jugs or refrigeration. Blanket the container with inert gas, such as Argon. Dry ice, which releases CO2, can provide additional protection. If youre unable to chill the grapes sufficiently to protect them from spoilage bacteria, e.g., Lactobacillus, Pediococcus, etc.), you can use Lysozyme or Enartis Stab Micro M (expensive). Both can be uses in high pH wines to prevent spoilage or prevent MLF later. If you add Lysozyme you will need to fine the resulting wine with Bentonite for to prevent a protein haze from forming. Pressing white grapes: Press after the desired period of skin contact to remove skins and seeds. The juice that flows out of the press before any pressure has been applied, and the juice that flows under relatively low pressure is called free-run. Some people prefer to keep the juice produced under high pressure, separate from the free-run juice because it can be more astringent. Bladder presses apply less pressure and there is little difference between the wine that flows early-on and the wine that flows later. Its not until you get down to a very narrow stream and the cake (skins and seeds) is relatively hard-packed. Another option is to use a fining-agent like Clargel (Enartis) or Colle Perle (Scott) to remove harshness and astringency from the hard-press juice due to seed tannins. See Take your time when pressing and avoid extreme pressure. Fill your basket press about 80% full. Bladder presses should be filled to capacity, but dont pack the grapes, even if there is only a small amount left. These can add later after an initial press to create the needed space. If you dont have enough grapes to fill a bladder press completely, inflate the bladder to reduce the space around the bladder until the grapes just fill the void. Its not a good idea to run the bladder press unless the basket is filled. The bladder is more likely to fail if does not inflate uniformly. Bladder pressing is gentler than a basket pressit generally results in wines that are less harsh and bitter. Bladder presses which normally use water pressure can be easily converted to using compressed air to do the work. Youll need a few pipe fittings, and a small, portable air compressor with an accurate pressure regulator to prevent damaging the bladder and screen. That could be very dangerous, and of course, you would lose the wine or juice. You dont need much air pressure to press the grapes 8 to 10 pounds (per square inch will do the job. Using a basket press can be tedious and labor intensive. Although expensive, bladder presses are well worth the cost in terms of convenience and reduced labor and time involved. If you are serious about making wine, put one on your wish list, and then figure out how to pay for it. I recommend going in with several others to purchase one. Settling (clarifying) the pressed juice (whites): Allow the solids (gross lees) in the pressed juice to settle out for at least 12 hours before racking the relatively clear juice into car boys, beer kegs, variable-capacity stainless steel fermenters, oak barrels, etc. Removal of solids minimizes harshness, astringency, herbaceous notes, and the likely development of reduced (stinky or sulfury) smells). Enzymes are commonly added during skin contact to facilitate clarification (settling of solids) with high levels of unstable protein, like Sauvignon blanc, Pinot gris, Gewrztraminer, and muscat, increase maceration (skin breakdown) to release varietal aromas, increase color in reds, and increase yield by breaking down gummy pectins. For maximum effect allow juice to settle for at least 12 hours, then rack off the thick, cloudy sediment for fermentation. This is particularly useful for grapes high in unstable proteins. You can get good clarification in 4-6 hours using (Enartis ZYM RS(P) and ZYM AROM MP, Cuvee Blanc or Color Pro. (Scott) Make sure the SO2 has been added and well dispersed before adding enzymes. Various gelatins can be used to facilitate settling, as well, e.g., Clargel, Hydro Clar 20, Hydroclar 30, Pulviclar S ( if you use gelatins you will need to counter fine with Silica gel or Bentonite). Either will facilitate the settling process. For some grapes, like chardonnay, settling occurs rapidly and without the need for additions. Consider a preemptive fining agent Bentonite or preemptive-fining agents (see Preemptive Fining below), should be added 6 to 8 hours after inoculation. it may however, inactivate an enzyme If added before it has had had a chance to work. Allow juice to settle until the solids have dropped to the bottom and the juice is reasonably clear. This may take up to 24 hours in carboys in a cool room <60F. Other options for cooling: cover carboys with wet tee-shirts and moisten them periodically. You can also or immerse carboys in cold water. Fermentation tannins for white grapes: Fermenting tannins are intended to reduce oxidation, enhance aromatics, improve mouth-feel, remove unstable proteins, and bind with anthocyanins (pigments) to create more stable color. Allow 6 to 8 hours for enzymes to work before adding fermentation tannins. Tannins can be added to must treated with ZYM RS(P) within 30 min. Some choices for whites: Tan Blanc (whites and roses), Tan Clar (good for Sauvignon blanc, Pinot gris and Gewrztraminer), Tan Arom (aroma enhancement), Tan Elegance (Enartis) (enhances flora notes and improves mouth feel). FT Blanc Soft or FT Blanc (Scott)  also good for moldy or high protein grapes, e.g., Sauvignon blanc, Pinot gris, Gewrztraminer). Add to crushed grapes or settled juice of white grapes or to red grape must during cold soak. Important: if you are planning on using an enzyme, add the tannins about 6 to 8 hours after the enzymes have had a chance to work. Racking (siphoning) settled juice from solids: Once the juice is relatively clear, rack as cleanly as practical into fermentation container(s). Use a siphon hose with a baffle on the end to draw wine from just above the solids (heavy lees). Tilt the bottle toward you as the level drops to raise the level above the siphon tip to increase yield and minimize uptake of solids. A little solid material is not a problem. Discard the remaining sediment. Its convenient to use recently sanitized 5-gal carboys to rack into, preferably those made from of food-grade plastic, for settling and handling. Some grapes like Sauvignon blanc do not settle well or form a compact layer of lees. So there is still a lot of juice mixed in with the sediment. In this case, you can reserve the mixture after you rack the clarified juice, and ferment it separately using a preemptive fining agent, such as Bentolact S or Claril SP. You may also want to use either of the two fining agent: Clargel (Enartis) or Colle Perle (Scott) after fermentation to remove any harshness or vegetative notes. In my experience, the result has generally been good. Sometimes the quality is not as good as the clarified juice. Depending on aroma and taste, it can be bottled separately, blended into the rest of the wine, used to make a white blend, or discarded if need be. Ive found that certain fining agents can significantly improve the wine. Preemptive Fining: (white juice): is done after cold-settling of white juice and at the start of fermentation, or mid-way through the fermentation. The purpose is to help remove unstable protein, settle solids, reduce bitterness and harshness, remove browning, improve aging potential and aromas, and minimize oxidation. It can greatly improve the quality of hard-press juice. In addition, it is reported to have a minimal stripping affect. The objective is to remove proteins that can precipitate later when wine is warmed. Bentonite, which has been traditionally used for this purpose, can also be added before or after fermentation. It is thought however, that fining the must results in significantly less stripping of aroma and flavor, and reduces the amount needed later. Protein levels are largely dependent on the grape variety, vineyard location and practices, the vintage, and how the grapes are handled during pressing and crushing. The longer the juice is exposed to the skins and the more the skins are manipulated, the greater the protein content of the wine. Precipitation of unstable proteins can happen quickly when the wine is exposed to warm temperatures. It usually takes longer to develop under good cellar temperatures. Although, the sediment detracts from the appearance, it does not affect flavor. Protein instability in white wines: Unstable proteins can be problem in whites, particularly those that are not aged in oak. White varieties contain variable amounts of proteins that can in settle out in time or exposure to warm temperatures and diminish appearance. There are a number of products that can remove the unstable proteins, as well as reduce astringency, bitterness, oxidation, off aromas, improve clarity and manage other concerns: Bentonite is very commonly used and widely recommended to remove proteins (heat stabilization) that can precipitate in the bottle during storage, particularly when the wine is warmed. Bentonite (Calcium- or Sodium-based). . Silica gel a counter-fining agent, can be used to settle any fine particles that are slow to settle once the main deposit has dropped out. Rate: 20 to 100 ml/hL Pluxcompact (Enartis) a calcium-based form of bentonite produces more compact lees., Rate: 20 to 120 g/hL in 20 times its weight in cold water Pluxcompact N (Enartis) a sodium-based bentonite. Rate: 20 to 120 g/hL in 20 times its weight in cold water Bentolact S (Scott) Bentonite plus Potassium Caseinate, which reduces astringency and bitterness, binds with excess phenolic compounds and mitigates oxidization. Rate: 20-100 g/hL Claril SP (Enartis)includes Bentonite, PVPP, casein, and silica gel. It is also used to remove unstable protein, and oxidized polyphenols, increase clarity, and reduces bitterness, and. Rate: 50 to 150 g/hL, Protomix (Enartis) Bentonite, PVPP, plant protein and cellulose. It is used for clarification of must and removal of polyphenolic cmpds. Rate: 50 to 100g per 25 gal of must. Other fining agents that can be added before fermentation: PVPP  to move browning or bitterness in juice. Potassium Caseinate  to reduce astringency and bitterness by binding with excess phenolic compounds and treat oxidized must. Silica gel or Silica dioxide (SiO2) is used as a counter-fining agent. It is commonly used in conjunction with Bentonite, gelatins, Isinglass and other organic fining agents. It helps compact lees and reduces the risk of over-fining. Red grapes: Cold soak or cold maceration Unless you are making a ros, red grapes are fermented on the skins and seeds. Red grapes, prior to fermentation, are often allowed to soak (cold soak) while being chilled on the skins before fermentation. Cold soaking is widely practiced within the industry and thought to improve the extraction of color (anthrocyanins) flavor, and aroma. There is some debate among enologistsabout the overall benefits of the practice. It may be more applicable for pinot noir and zin than other reds. One drawback is that it exposes the juice to bacterial spoilage unless carefully managed. Some winemakers argue that extended (post-fermentation) maceration (the practice of letting grape solids soak in wine for an extended period of time following end of fermentation) is more beneficial than cold soaking because it softens tannins, making the wine more approachable when young. Many home winemakers skip this step because its difficult to chill large quantities of juice adequately without a natural fermentation starting or wine spoilage bacteria getting started. If you do plan to cold-soak the must, keep it cold, 50F or less, preferably closer to 40F until you are ready to inoculate with yeast. Chill the must with dry-ice, frozen-water-filled jugs, or refrigeration. Replace frozen water jugs twice a day to prevent complete thawing. The cold will prevent natural yeasts from starting to ferment the juice, and spoilage bacteria from developing. Allow the must to soak for 2 to 3 days or longer to enhance color and flavor extraction. Add 30 to 40 ppm of SO2 to prevent spoilage. In red grapes: enzymes increase the rate of skin maceration (breakdown), releasing more pigments, flavors, and aromas. It can also reduce herbaceousness and stabilize color : Color Pro, Lallzme EX or EX-V Scott Zym color, Zym color plus Enartis Important tip: Make sure that the SO2 has been added and well dispersed before adding the enzyme. If for some reason you are planning to add a fining agent containing Bentonite, do so after the enzyme has done its work. Fermentation tannins: red grapes: to reduce oxidation, enhance aromatics, improve mouth-feel, remove proteins, and bind with anthocyanins (pigments) to create more stable color. They bind with grape proteins, preserving more of the softer skin tannins. Some tannins available for reds: Tan Color, Tan Fermcolor, Tan Rouge (Enartis). FT Rouge or Rouge Soft (Scott). Add to the must during cold soak or at the start of fermentation. Important: if you are planning on using an enzyme, add the tannins about 3 to 4 hours after the enzymes have had a chance to work. Websites:  HYPERLINK "http://www.scottlab.com/products" www.scottlab.com/products;  HYPERLINK "http://www.enartisvinquiry.com" www.enartisvinquiry.com Fermentation: getting started White grapes: Keep juice or must cool: <60F is preferable Use closed-containers such as carboys, beer kegs, stainless steel barrels, variable capacity fermenter, etc., fitted with airlocks. Allow plenty of head-space, at least 6 inches, to avoid leakage due to vigorous foaming. Select a yeast appropriate for your grapes and one with low to moderate nutrient needs. Add yeast at the rate of 1 to 1.25 g/gal. (for higher B must) Experienced winemakers may allow their wines to ferment using the natural yeast on the grape skins. If you choose to barrel ferment your juice, use one that is fairly neutral, unless you really like the aroma and flavor of oak. Wine made in new barrels, will need to be transferred to stainless steel or food-grade plastic containers once the desired level of oak has been extracted. Most used commercial barrels will be contaminated with ML bacteria, so MLF is likely to start on its own. For ros, keep SO2 levels high or you can add Lysozyme or Stab Micro (Enartis) to prevent MLF. MLF will soften white wines by reducing acid. Although this may be ideal for chardonnay, it may not be what you want for a sauvignon blanc, pinot gris, viognier, etc. Red grapes: If you did a cold-soak, allow the must to warm up to above 55F and then inoculate with the yeast of your choice. You can also allow the natural yeast on the grapes skins to ferment the juice. Natural fermentations, though, may be slow to start (several days), and bacterial spoilage may begin if you havent added enough SO2 to the must or the temperature is much above 55F. You have to be patient and ignore the smell of VA (volatile acidity), recognized as the smell of vinegar and ethyl acetate (finger nail polish-remover) that may develop before the fermentation becomes vigorous. VA nearly always goes away once the fermentation begins in earnest. One novel approach to facilitate a natural fermentation is to place 5 to 10 pounds of grapes in large ziplock bag several days before harvesting or soaking red grapes. Store them in a cool room. You will need to open the bags occasionally to release pressure, otherwise they may burst due to the buildup of CO2. The native yeast on the grapes will build up in these bags and can serve as a starter for the bulk of the juice, assuming it smells good. Rehydrating yeasts and adding nutrition: both red and white grapes: Most yeast cultures are freeze-dried and should be rehydrated as directed, rather than added directly to the fermenter. Follow instructions on the package. You can rehydrate the yeast in 10 to 20 times its volume in chlorine-free bottled water, like Geyser Peak, but not distilled water. You need water that contains minerals. Heat the water to 102 to 104F, (a microwave oven work well) add the yeast and allow to stand covered for no longer than 20 minutes. Make sure that the water is not hotter than 104F. Youll need a good insta-read electronic thermometer (about $25) Adding the yeast mixture (red and white): After 20 minutes, add a small amount of the must to the yeast mixture to cool it, and allow to stand for another 20 minutes. Next, add more juice to yeast mixture (about the volume to the yeast solution to acclimate the yeast. Allow rehydrated yeast to cool to about 70F before adding to juice. A temperature difference greater than 15F is detrimental to yeast. Once the yeast mix is sufficiently cool add it to the must and stir. Add nutrients, such as Fermaid K, within a few hours of yeast inoculation Yeast nutrition: (red and white): Yeast often requires more nitrogen, amino acids, vitamins, micro-nutrients, etc., than is available in the grapes, particularly very ripe grapes. This can result in the production of H2S (rotten-egg smell), VA, and a stuck fermentation. Adding yeast nutrients: some people add DAP (diammonium phosphate), an inorganic form of N, containing ammonium ions (commonly used in agriculture as a fertilizer. Many commercial wineries favor organic forms of N., DAP is best used when the Nitrogen level of the grapes is very low. Nitrogen availability: YAN (yeast assimilable nitrogen)  a measure of Nitrogen availability. It s an important consideration for managing fermentations. YAN is the amount of N available in the must or juice that the yeast can assimilate. It is expressed as mg per liter (L). The range of YAN in grapes is wide. It can vary from year to year and from vineyard to vineyard. Low YAN juice/must typically results in the production of H2S (rotten-egg smell) during fermentation, or the fermentation stops before all the sugar is converted to alcohol. This can result in a sweet wine, the proliferation of spoilage bacteria or oxidization while you try to get the fermentation back on track. Getting the fermentation restarted can be challenging. Must with a YAN <125 mg N/L is considered N deficient Must with a YAN >150 but <225 is considered moderate. Must with a YAN greater than 250 mg N/L generally doesnt need any nutrients. The higher the initial sugar concentration, the more YAN required. Nitrogen requirement increase with temperature which stimulates yeast activity and fermentation rate. When juice is over-clarified, many nutritional factors for yeast are removed, making it necessary to supplement with balanced nutrients. Yeast selection is also a consideration because their nutrient needs can vary widely Managing nutrient levels: Unless you have your juice/must tested, you will not be able to manage yeast nutrition accurately. Having the testing done is expensive, so most amateurs wing it, and things often work out OK. Low-nutrient levels can, however, result in H2S production or a stuck fermentation. Fixing the H2S problem is relatively easy, but restarting a stuck fermentation is not. Even though youre made wine from a vineyard before without H2S issues, Nitrogen levels can vary year-to-year and with ripeness. N levels tend to be significantly lower in high B grapes and environmental stress may influence nitrogen content as well. If you buy grapes from a grower. You may be able get this information from one of the wineries he/she sells to. Some winemakers simply add a set amount of nutrients and hope for the best. Another approach is to select a yeast that has a low nutrient demand, and use modest amounts of nutrients. Another approach is to harvest grapes when they display all the indications of ripeness: color, taste, brown stems and crunchy brown seeds. Grapes exceeding 24B are often low in YAN. Ive outlined 2 reasonable approaches below for managing N levels of juice/must when you dont know the YAN: Method 1: using Nutriferm Energy or Nutriferm Arom and Nutriferm Advance (Enartis) For a LOW YAN, add Nutriferm Energy or Nutriferm Arom (Enartis) at yeast inoculation. Rate: (Nutriferm Energy) at the rate of 15 g/hL (~26gal), or Nutriferm Arom at the rate of 40g/hL For MODERATE YAN add Nutriferm Energy at the rate of 10 g/hL or Nutriferm Arom at the rate of 30g/hL DAP may be needed when Brix of the juice/must is 24B or greater. Add DAP 12 hours after inoculation at the rate of 10 to 25 g/hL (.4 to 1g/gal DAP addition for grapes at 24B and above low YAN) moderate YAN) 24 B add 10g/hl 5g/hL 25 B add 15g/hl 10g/hL 26 B add 20g/hL 15g/hL 27 B add 25g/hL 20g/hL 28 B add 30g/hL 25g/hL Note: 1g of DAP in 1hL (~26 gal) will provide 2mg N/L per gal, therefore 1g DAP will add ~50mg N/L to 1 gal of juice or must. Although DAP stimulates yeast growth because it contains high levels of Ammonium Nitrogen, it provides no additional nutrients. Therefore, it cant solve nutrient deficiency problems. It is recommended for higher sugar and if the YAN, is low <125mg N/L. ad At 1/3 sugar depletion, add Nutriferm Advance (20 to 30g/hL). Enartis (Vinquiry) has a Yeast Nutrient Guideline sheet. The use of this information is dependent on testing to determine the actual YAN. If you dont want to spend the money to test for YAN, you can assume that the YAN is low to moderate, depending on B, and use a yeast with low nutrient requirements. Then use low to moderate amount of nutrients. In this manner, you wont add excess nutrient. If H2S develops, your YAN levels were probably very low, and you can then add DAP to raise the YAN. Dont add nutrients, including DAP after the fermenting must/juice drops below about 12 Brix, as the yeast are unable to absorb it, but bacteria can. You will just have to deal with the hydrogen sulfide (H2S) by using CuSO4 or Reduless (Scott) To convert millimeters (mll) to ounces divide by 29.6), Millimeters (ml) are roughly equivalent to grams. Method 2: Fermaid K and Go-Ferm (Scott). Fermaid K is a yeast nutrient containing amino acids, organic and inorganic N, minerals, DAP, and other chemicals. It is added after yeast inoculation or as soon as the fermentation is visibly active. Yeast inoculation: In general, below 24.5 B, use one gram of yeast per gal of juice or must. Above 24.5 add 1.25 to 1.5 g per gal, depending on B. Rehydrate the yeast using Go-Ferm, a yeast-rehydration nutrient. Use 1.25 grams of Go-Ferm mixed in 25 mls (.85 oz) of bottled, chlorine-free water for each gal. For example: if you are fermenting 15 gallons of must you will need to add 18.75 grams of Go-Ferm mixed into 375 ml (12.75 oz) of water. To convert ml to ounces divide by 29.6 Dont use municipal or distilled water, use bottled water instead. For Brix over 24.5  use 1.25 g yeast per gal of juice/must. You ll also need to use 1.5 g of Go-Ferm in 30 mls of water for each gal of juice/must. For example: for 15 gal of juice add 18 g of yeast, 22.5 g of Go Ferm in 450 ml (~15 oz) of water. Heat (microwave) the Go-Ferm solution to 104 F, add the dry yeast and allow it to rehydrate for about 20 minutes. Temperature much above 104F will kill or stress the yeast. Allow the mixture to cool before adding to the must. See Adding the yeast mixture above. Add Fermaid K at yeast inoculation or within a few hours. Rate: 25 g/hL (~1g/gal). Add 0.5g/gal at start of fermentation and another 0.5g/at S! sugar depletion (usually an 8-10 Brix drop). You can also add the full -1g/gal at the onset of fermentation. Avoid adding nutrients when the fermenting juice is below 12B. Other yeast-based nutrients: Other nutritional products can be used at the start of fermentation to improve mouth feel, reduce astringency and bitterness, improve aroma and balance, reduce the perception of alcohol and dryness, reduce the potential for H2S, and reduce oxidation. In general, these products increase the levels of polysaccharides. For whites, Scotts OptiMUM White or Booster Blanc. Enartis: Pro Arom, Pro R, Pro Blanco, and Pro Round. For reds: Scotts: Booster rouge or Opti-Red at start of fermentation: Enartis: Pro R, Pro Tinto, Pro Blanco, or Pro Round Nobless can reduce the production of S-based compounds in white or red juice, reduce the perception of alcohol in the resulting wine and impart a perception of sweetness. See Aging wines Sur-lie (below) Fermentation tannins (red and white fermentations): Grape skins, seeds and stems are rich in tannins (polyphenol). Wine tannin is a very important textural element, making it taste dry, astringent (harsh) or bitter, but with age and proper handling add a lush, rounded and rich mouth feel.In the right amount they increase body, enhance fruitiness, stabilize color, protect against oxidation, enhance clarification, and reduce vegetal characteristics (Think of a smooth, round and aged high-end cab). One particularly effective method to add tannins to a wine is to ferment with untoasted oak chips or granules, added 6 to 8 hours after an enzyme addition. During wine fermentation, compounds derived from the un-toasted oak stabilizes color and helps develop better structure and generally improves the wine. Un-toasted oak chips can be added at the start of cold soak or later during fermentation. Adding untoasted oak chips does not impart an oak aroma. Toasted oak chips, if used, should be added later during storage to enhance aroma and taste. The rate, depending on the type of wine, is: 0.5-1 g/L for most fresh whites (sauvignon blanc, pinot gris, viognier, etc. 1 -1.5 g/L for chardonnay, pinot blanc, etc. 2.5 3 g/L for fruity reds such as Pinot noir, Zin, Grenache, etc., up to 4 g/L for cab, petite sirah, syrah, etc. Powdered tannins can also be used during fermentation (6 to 8 hrs. after an enzyme addition: Enartis: Color, Tan Fermcolor, Tan Rouge). (Reds) Scott: FT Rouge or Rouge Soft (). (Reds) Enartis: Tan Blanc (whites and roses), Tan Clar (Whites) Scott: FT Blanc Soft or FT Blanc (Whites) Managing white grape fermentation: Periodically stir or vigorously rock the inoculated juice to keep the yeast in suspension until the fermentation is visibly active  12 to 24 hrs. Try to keep temperatures below 65F. Less than 60F is preferable to retain fruitiness and freshness, if that s your objective. Household air conditioners can be used to cool a garage or other fermentation area. This will help reduce the fermentation temperature a bit. Most air conditioners, however, dont cool much below 64F. So, its necessary to use a specialized electronic device (CoolBot) to override the thermostat. Set to device to maintain the temperature to the desired level. Evaporative cooling can be used to significantly lower fermentation temperatures. For carboys, place small-sized T-shirts over the container and them keep the cotton fabric wet. Use large-size T-shirts for beer kegs, or wrap stainless steel tanks in fabric. Heat is removed from the fermenting juice as the water evaporates. Cooling can be enhanced by using a fan to increase evaporation. But the cooling effect is less for larger containers due to the small surface area relative to the volume. Smaller fermenters can be placed in low, flat tubs or trays, like those used under plants to catch excess water and act as a reservoir, allowing water to wick-up the material. Carboys and beer kegs can also be immersed in large open containers like galvanized live- stock tanks. Add frozen water-filled jugs to keep the fermenting juice cool. Stir daily or vigorously rock carboys to keep the yeast and other solids suspended, release volatile sulfur-based compounds, and to lightly aerate the fermenting juice. The yeast need some oxygen. Managing red grape fermentation: Red grapes are fermented in open-topped containers: macrobins, 32-gal food-grade containers, open-topped stainless, or plastic tanks. They are fermented on the skins, seeds, and sometimes a portion of the stems (for tannin). Once the fermentation is active, temperatures generally remain between 75 to 85 F. The optimum temperature for growth of common wine yeast is about 77F. According to yeast producerWyeast,red wines should be fermented between 70 and 85F.Color and tannin extraction are better at the higher end of this range. Allow the temperature to rise naturally after yeast inoculation. Temperatures often reach or exceed 85 for a short time. Check the temperature range of the yeast youre using. There are a few that perform well up to 93F Fermentation at higher temperatures may have a deleterious effect on the yeast, or result in the loss of desirable aromas. Once the fermentation becomes active, the skins rise to the top, carried by the CO2 gas released by the yeast. This forms a cap that floats on the juice. The extraction of pigments, fruit aromas, and tannins is dependent on adequate skin and juice contact. Therefore, its necessary to break up the cap by punching it down) to remix it with the developing wine, 2 to 3 times a day throughout the entire fermentation. A commercial grade potato masher, available from restaurant supplies and the Beverage People, works quite well to do the punching. Another method is to pump the juice over the cap 2 to 3 times a day. Punching down is a good way to keep the yeast in suspension and to introduce some oxygen needed by the yeast. It also helps extract color and aroma, develop a supple tannin structure, reduce the production of stinky sulfide problems, and allows undesirable fermentations aromas to blow off. Mix up the sediment that collects at the bottom of the fermenter by pulling up the punching tool quickly. This creates an updraft that carries it to the top, helping to aerate the wine and release off-aromas. Another approach to ensure adequate aeration is to splash the fermenting wine by bucketing it into another similar container, once or twice, during the fermentation. This can be done when the juice is vigorously fermenting and evolving lots of CO2 to protect it from excess oxidation. This also minimizes the chance of H2S production. If you detect a rotten egg smell (Hydrogen sulfide or H2S) early in the fermentation, its probably due to a low nutrient level. The quick solution is to increase nutrient levels with DAP, Fermaid K or Nutriferm Energy/Nutriferm Advance.But dont add nutrients once the B level is below 12. H2S is likely to form if the grapes were sulfured close to harvest. Dont mash or grind the seeds that collect on the bottom, this will release astringent tannins. Temperatures in the wine under the cap (floating grape skins) should generally not exceed 75 to 78F. The temperature within the cap, however, should reach 85F or slightly higher, for a short time, depending on the yeast. Yeast tolerance to high temperature ranges from 80 to 90+F. High temperatures can stress the yeast, leading to a sluggish fermentation, or causing the fermentation to stick. Longer, cooler fermentations are thought to produce better red wines as long as the wine reaches the optimal temperature for a short period. Monitor for off-odors or sluggishness. Some wine-makers press at around 3B and finish the wine in a barrel or aging container to produce softer, less tannic reds. This also serves to reduce bitter seed tannins. Tannins can be augmented later if need be. At this point, an airlock is needed. Avoid bucketing the bulk of the seeds on the bottom of the fermenter. Separate them from the wine by using a large sieve. This helps prevent harsh tannins that results when the seeds are crushed by hard pressing. The extraction of bitter seed tannins and phenolic compounds can also be minimized by removing the bulk of the seeds from the fermenter once the fermentation is 3B or a little less. Transfer the skins in the cap and juice to another container to finish fermentation. The seeds at the bottom of the original container and the remaining wine can be separated by pouring it through a large kitchen sieve (restaurant supply). Exposure to air when bucketing and splashing a wine near the end of fermentation allows O2 to bind with the tannins and pigments, helping to build supple structure. Wine that is finishing fermentation can absorb a lot of O2 without oxidizing When the cap settles back into the wine on its own, fermentation is usually done. The wine can be pressed at this point, or more advanced wine-makers may want to consider extended maceration  leaving the finished wine in contact with the skins for up to several weeks. The goal is to is to improve tannin structure making the wine richer, more supple, while increasing longevity, and minimizing bitterness (see Extended maceration below) Stuck fermentations: If you notice that the cap is diminishing or doesnt resurface after punching and the wine is noticeably sweet, the fermentation has stuck or is very sluggish. If so, you will need to re-inoculate with a special yeast that tolerates high levels of alcohol, and add some nutrients. Consult with Vinequiry, Scott Labs, or the Beverage People for a protocol and products to resolve this problem. Lysozyme or Stab Micro M can be used to manage stuck fermentations by preventing Lactobacillus bacterial spoilage. Stab Micro will also prevent the growth of most bacteria including Brett. End of primary fermentation for whites and Ross: When the hydrometer reads 0Brix, the wine still has some remaining sugar. A reading of -1.5 to -2 indicates the wine is essentially dry. Add SO2 to whites or ross that will not undergo MLF. (See Second SO2 addition (post fermentation  (white and ros wines) below. Check for off-odors, such as sulfides, for example, H2S (rotten egg, boiled egg, cooked cabbage, etc., and correct as needed. Add CuSO2 or Scott s Reduless and then rack the wine several days later, leaving the precipitate behind. If H2S is not removed from the wine, it can react to form mercaptans  think skunk!  and other nasty smells can form, making the wine rather disagreeable. Much of the spent yeast (lees) will settle to the bottom of the container within a few days. If a wine has been treated with Cu, rack it off the lees. You can leave a white or ros on its lees after fermentation for a while as long as there are no off odors. This is referred to as aging a wine sur-lie. Stir the lees and top the container to remove most of the head-space. (see Aging wines on the lees below) Eliminating head space in the storage containers, ensures that the wine retains most of it aromatic components and that there is less loss of SO2 to the void above the wine. If you dont want the wine to remain on the lees, rack it. Check pH and TA and adjust if needed. Small adjustments can also be made later after cold stabilization. Second SO2 addition (post fermentation  (whites and ross) By the end of fermentation, little or no free-SO2 remains, and the total is about of the original addition. What remains is bound to various components. Some volatilizes and some precipitates out in the sediment. Add 50 ppm to 70 ppm of SO2 when the alcoholic fermentation is done before racking to protect against oxidation, prevent  HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malolactic_fermentation" \o "Malolactic fermentation" malolactic fermentation, or bacterial spoilage. About of the SO2 added post-fermentation, will bind up quickly and become unavailable to do work. After the SO2 addition, check in about a week and adjust to meet the adequate level to meet molecular level of SO2 for the pH level of the wine. After the second post-fermentation addition, 70 to 75% of the SO2 added will be free. How much additional SO2 is needed will depends on pH, alcohol content, and sugar level. The higher the alcohol, the higher the B, the higher the pH the greater the SO2 requirement. Aging wines sur-lie: The intent of aging wines on the lees (yeast sediment) is to increase the level of polysaccharides and mannoproteinsnon-fermentable sugars derived from grapes and dead yeast. Polysaccharides have been shown to reduce oxidation, to improve wine stability, aroma, body (mouth-feel), protein stability, and to reduce astringency. Aging wines sur-lie is unsuitable for wines with off-aromas. Such wines should be treated with and CuSO4 or Reduless and racked off the lees within a few days. If you prefer to rack the wine off the lees immediately after fermentation or the wine develops an off-aroma, you can increase the polysaccharide content by adding various products, such as Pro R, or Pro Arom (Enartis) or Booster Blanc, Optimum White, Opti-White, or Nobless (Scott) at the start of fermentation. Nobless has the added advantage of Imparting a sensation of sweetness, reducing off-odors, and the sensation of dryness and hotness from too much alcohol in the final wine. Enartis Surli Elevage, Surli Round, and Surli One can be added to racked wines during maturation to increase polysaccharides. Surli Elevage works quickly and can be added just before bottling to soften a wine. You can age the wine in the original container (carboy, keg, or stainless tank). If you plan to transfer the wine, stir up the lees, add 10 ppm SO2, and allow it to settle for an hour or two and then rack (siphon) into the new container, leaving the heaviest sediment behind. Stir the lees 3 to 4 times a week for the first month to prevent the development of reduced odors (sulfides). The lees will absorb O2 for about 6 weeks, reducing oxidation potential. Stir 1 to 2 times a week thereafter. Length of time the wine spends on the lees will depend on the complexity desired. Carefully smell and taste the wine at each stirring to make sure the wine is progressing as intended. Rack if wine develops off-aromas or the desired character is achieved. Maintain proper SO2 levels at all times during sur-lie aging unless the wine is undergoing MLF. End of primary fermentation for red wines: Do not add any more SO2 to until the wine completes MLF. Extended maceration: optional Finished red wine can be left in contact with the skins for several weeks or longer to soften the tannins. It seems counterintuitive, but the additional time on the skins, can actually soften the tannin structure of varieties that are typically tannic or astringent (cabs and syrah, etc.). Blanket the finished wine with CO2 or Argon, and seal the container with plastic wrap. Keep the temperature warm  68F or higher ideal for MLF. If you intend to inoculate, this is the time to do so. This technique is best suited for advanced home winemakers because problems are more likely to develop. It does not always result in a better wine. Some wines may become too tannic and color may be negatively affected somewhat. Do some research before you give it a go. Pressing reds: Red wine that has completed primary fermentation are pressed to separate thje wine from the skins and seeds. Pressing red grapes following fermentation is easier and faster than pressing whites because the grape contents have been converted to wine and the skins are soft and easily compressed. Pressing red grapes is much same as pressing white grapes (see Pressing White grapes above. Some people use the hard press wine in blends or even discard it  quell dommage!. Many people simply combine all the wine into one lot and make the best of it. Remember, tannins are not necessarily the enemy, they are indispensable for developing supple structure in red wines. Its how you manage them that makes all the difference. If you have more wine that necessary to fill your barrel or storage container. You can keep the hard-press wines separate, allowing you to decide what to do with it or how to resolve high astringency  usually fining. Bladder pressing is gentler than a basket press it generally results in wines that are less harsh and bitter. There is little difference between the wine that flows early on with that that flows later. It s not until you get down to a very narrow stream and the cake (skins and seeds) is hard packed that the wine may be considered overly astringent. Hard press wines can be fined with Clargel (Enartis) or Colle Perle (Scott) to remove harshness and astringency. Youll need to rack the wine from the sediment that collects on the bottom of the container. Excess bitterness can be removed with Claril SP, Combistab AF or Protoclar (Enartis). Isinglass with silica gel is also good for bitterness. Take your time when pressing and avoid extreme pressure. Fill your basket press about 80% full. When you get down to the bottom of the fermenter, scoop up the seeds and remaining juice and run through a large sieve to collect the wine. Discard the seeds. This is thought to minimize harsh tannins in the wine. The solids in the free run and pressed wines will settle out quickly. Allow the wine to settle for 8 to 24 hours before racking into oak barrels, beer kegs, carboys, etc. If you pump the wine directly from the fermenter into a barrel or holding tank, youll need to rack the wine off the heavy sediment (gross lees) within a few days. The solids that settle out in the first 24 hours impart harshness and bitterness, and can result in the formation of smelly sulfur-based compounds if left in contact with the wine for an extended period. Its convenient to use 5-gal carboys to rack into, preferably those made from of food-grade plastic, for settling and handling. Rack the wine off the solids into barrels or other aging-containers as cleanly as possible. Use a siphon wand with a baffle to rack without picking up much lees. Malolactic fermentation (MLF): MLF is typically done at the end of the primary fermentation in a closed container or barrel fitted with an airlock to minimize oxidation. Although MLF is referred to as a secondary fermentation, it is not a true fermentation. Fermentation involves the conversion of sugar to alcohol. ML bacteria convert malic acid to lactic acid, a weaker acid, effectively lowering the wines acidity. TA may drop by as much a 2 g/L and pH will increase. Depending on the ML culture used, or the naturally occurring strains, it may impart a buttery (lactic acid) quality, particularly in Chardonnay. It also improves mouth-feel or body. ML bacteria are generally intolerant of low pH, high levels of SO2 and alcohol, and they are largely inactive below 60F. Adding SO2 after the primary fermentation, even if SO2 was initially withheld, is not recommended because it could inhibit MLF. MLF is inhibited by more than 50 ppm of bound SO2, or more than 10ppm free SO2. (FSO2). Its important to understand that if you add SO2 at the start of fermentation to an open top fermenter, much of it will bind up, some will be lost to the atmosphere, and some will remain in the free form. Lysozyme or Stab Micro can be used to prevent MLF or stop it at some point to maintain acidity at a desired level. White wines above pH 3.3 may start on their own in the bottle if the SO2 level is not kept high enough. Note: You will need to use Bentonite to remove proteins that will settle out, when wines treated with Lysozyme are exposed to warming. Other clarifying agents do not perform this function. Wines with partial MLF can be sterile filtered (membrane filter) for stability. Although MLF often starts spontaneously, many winemakers use commercial cultures because they are convenient to use, take less time, start working quickly, and have been selected for specific attributes, such as tolerance to alcohol, SO2, and pH, or dont produce a buttery quality in chardonnay. Some whites, like Chardonnay may benefit from MLF. For other wines like Sauvignon blanc, pinot gris, viognier, etc. maintaining a low pH and a relatively high SO2 will prevent MLF. MLF is usually started at the end of the alcoholic fermentation. This is referred to as a sequential fermentation. It allows the yeast to complete the alcoholic fermentation without having to compete with the ML bacteria for nutrients. There is some concern that ML bacteria could convert some of the sugar to acetic acid if the alcoholic fermentation sticks. This is more of a problem with high Brix juice/must. Sequential fermentations are slow because the culture is added when nutrients are low and alcohol is high. Thats why ML bacteria have been selected for their tolerance to high alcohol and why ML nutrients are used. The ideal pH range for MLF is 3.2 to 3.5, and the free SO2 should be <10 ppm free and < 50 ppm total. For wines with a pH greater than 3.5 use a MLF culture that is designed for high pH wines. Another approach, referred to as co-inoculation, involves inoculating with ML bacteria 24 to 48 hours after yeast inoculation. It is most appropriate for juice/must under 25B and with relatively high nutrient levels or that have been adjusted to moderate level. The advantage is that MLF finishes shortly after the alcoholic fermentation. Furthermore, the wine does not need to be kept warm and SO2 can be added shortly after primary fermentation. So, there is less potential for oxidation and bacterial spoilage, such as Brett. High Brix must/juice should not be co-fermented. Fermentation temperatures should be kept between 59F to 77F to avoid stressing the ML bacteria. This range works well for whites, and light reds but is not ideal for heavy reds. There is a concern that by inoculating with ML before alcoholic fermentation is done, the bacteria will consume the remaining sugar instead of malic acid, resulting in the formation of volatile acidity. Stuck fermentations often result in the formation of volatile acidity, but this is typically the result of the natural lactic acid bacteria present on the grapes. Commercial ML bacteria typically dont produce VA. One advantage of co-fermentation is that you inoculate when the alcohol is low and nutrient levels are reasonable, so there is greater ML activity. ML inoculation for Co-Fermentation should be done 24 to 48 hours after yeast inoculation, depending on the initial SO2 addition. This gives the SO2 added after crushing, time to bind up. Co-inoculation typical produces a fresh, fruity wine style with minimal buttery notes which may or may not be not be desirable in whites and ross. Sequential inoculation enhances the spiciness, texture and complex fruit notes, while minimizing the vegetative and herbaceous flavors. One issue with co-fermentation is that fermentation temperatures must be kept below 77F to avoid harming the bacteria. This may result in wines with less color extract. However, the fermentation will take longer so there is greater skin contact. It is most applicable for lighter, early-release reds. Use selected and reliable strains of ML that will dominate the MLF and complete the process. Scott Labs makes several freeze dried bacterial cultures for inoculating wine. Alpha works on wines up to 15.5% alcohol, and up to 50 ppm (total) SO2. It also works at temperatures > 57F. Beta work on wines up to 15 alcohol and up to 60 ppm total SO2. Enartis products include Enoferm ML Silver (alcohol to 15+, pH >3.1, 45 total and 10 free SO2) and Enoferm ML One (alcohol level to 14, pH >3.2, 40 total and 10 free SO2). Nutrients contained in the light lees that remains after the gross lees is removed at the end of the primary fermentation can often provide adequate nutrients for the developing bacteria. It is important, though, to stir the lees 1 to 2 times a week until MLF is done to keep the dead yeast in suspension allowing them to release their bound nutrients. If the spent yeast settles and forms a compact cake at the bottom, nutrient availability is reduced. To ensure that the MLF goes quickly and finishes, use an ML nutrient such as Acti ML or Nutriferm ML, particularly if the MLF is sluggish, or you had a H2S problem during the primary fermentation, or the grapes were very ripe. Use Acti-ML at the rate of 20g per 60 gal wine. Mix in 5 times its weight in chloride-free water at 77F, and add bacteria. Wait 15 minutes before adding to the wine. If using Nutriferm ML, add 20 to 30 g of per hL (~25 gal) and dilute in 100 mls of chloride-free water, mix and add to the wine. Hydrate the ML bacteria in the foil packets as recommended by the manufacturer, and add to the wine. The packets contain 2.5g of ML bacteria,enough to treat 66 gallons of wine. Ideally, the temperature of the wine during MLF should be 68 to 70 for a quick ML conversion. This may require heating a room for several weeks or using an electric blanket to keep the barrel/container warm. Some amateur winemakers use a small aquarium heater inserted into the wine. Its important that the wire attached to the unit can be securely sealed to prevent oxidation. CO2 bubbles are released from the wine during the conversion process. If you put your ear to the bung hole you can hear the popping or pinging as the bubbles break the surface. As long as the fermentation is active, CO2 gas is being releases and the wine is protected from oxidation. But when the reaction is slowing down and the airlock is being removed frequently to check on the progress, oxidation can occur. Its a good idea to purge the air in the head space in the tank or barrel with Argon, CO2 or Nitrogen gas every time you remove the airlock to stir or check progress. Also keep the container topped to minimize air space. When you can no longer hear the bubbles popping, test the wine to see if the MLF is done. It usually takes 3 to 4 weeks to complete, depending on temperature. The warmer it is, the faster the process. Wines that have not completed MLF will generally start again in the bottle, resulting in a carbonated wine and off-aromas. A test reading of 30ppm or less indicates completion. Sulfite the wine as soon as the wine tests negative for ML. Check the free SO2 a few days after the addition to see what your FSO2 is. (see Topping below) Eliminate any head space in barrels and other storage containers. This often means breaking the wine down into smaller containers. This will ensure that the wine will retain most of it aromatic components and that there is less loss of SO2 to the void above the wine. You may want to rack after MLF if the wine is clear or you may opt to age the wine sur lie. See: Aging wines (red or white) on the lees (sur-lie) above. Post MLF SO2 addition: Add 50 ppm SO2 at the end of MLF for reds and whites. Add 75ppm to whites with a pH above 3.5. Check the pH and TA and adjust as needed. Wait a couple of weeks, check the SO2 level and adjust, if necessary, to the targeted number. To avoid an MLF in storage for wines above pH 3.3, consider using Stab Micro M. SO2 additions during storage and aging: Refer to the recommended FSO2 levels based on the wines pH listed above in: use of SO2 to ensure good quality wine. Determine the baseline (molecular SO2) and avoid deviating from it too much. Measure FSO2 every 2 to 3 weeks initially, and then monthly for a couple months. Once SO2 levels appear to stabilize test every six weeks. If your SO2 levels are well below the recommended molecular level every time you test, you may not be adding enough SO2 of you need to test and adjust more often. Keeping the SO2 levels a little higher than whats recommended for the pH will help avoid levels dipping significantly below the desired level between SO2 testing. A little cushion will ensure that the wine is adequately protected between additions. Fewer, larger additions are better than many small ones (it shocks the bacteria more, and the free/total ratio is more favorable. Keep barrels topped-up to minimize head-space in containers. Wines in cellars with low humidity need to be topped more frequently due to evaporation. Top every 2 to 3 weeks if evaporative loss is more than a 6-8 ounces. If your barrels are tight and develop a strong vacuum when the wine evaporates, you can top less frequently (less exposure to air). Barrels that dont develop a vacuum, are leaky. Perhaps the bung is not seated firmly. It also a good idea to look for leaks in cellars that are open, allowing the lead cable borer to bore into the barre usually the crevice where the head (top or ends of the barrel) joins the staves. Because stainless steel tanks and plastic fermenters are essentially air-tight, FSO2 levels decrease more slowly than in porous oak barrels, unless there is lot of head-space, or the containers are opened frequently Purge air that enters a container with inert gas such as Argon each time its opened. Wines can easily lose 10 to 15 parts of SO2 during racking, so its important to add additional SO2 before racking or check the free SO2 level a few days afterward to see how the wine responded. Limiting the loss/use of SO2: Use clean barrels: steam clean and rinse with citric acid and antimicrobial. Top frequently Purge headspace with inert gas every time you open a barrel or container, or add anything. Sanitize tools, hoses, stir-rods, pumps, etc. Add a little SO2 when you add fining agents, other wine-making products to your wine, or oak products. Oak cubes, sticks, or inserts add a lot of air to the wine Air condition your cellar. A temperature of 58F is ideal for whites and 60 to 63 is ideal for reds. There is at least one electronic device, e.g., CoolBot that can override the thermostat in most air conditioners, allowing them to refrigerate small rooms to the programmed temperature. Aging and clarification: Consider using oak barrels to age and store reds wines and complex white wines like Chardonnay. Used barrels are readily available and inexpensive. They will need to be sanitized and properly stored. Because a 60 gal barrel holds about 24 cases of wine, you may want look for some partners, so you dont have more wine than you can deal with. Some used barrels have been cleaned and treated with sulfur gas or sometimes ozone  a sanitizer. Others may simply been drained and rinsed. If they smell  off , you need to clean them (See Sanitation above). To clean a used barrel, soak with Proxycarb: 16 oz / barrel and fill with water and let soak for 4 to 24 hrs. If the barrel smelled of VA, let it sit for up to 48 hrs. After soaking, drain, rinse carefully, and add 1T Citric acid in 2.5 gal of water and slosh around the barrel before draining. This will prevent mold and bacteria from growing inside. When storing a used barrel, rinse thoroughly and drain it. Next, youll need to burn a sulfur wick in the barrel. Its best to use a special stainless steel basket to hold the wick/pellet that can be lowered into the barrel, preventing it from breaking apart and falling into the barrel. Elemental sulfur inside a barrel can result in H2S problems later. Use a silicon bung to prervent the SO2 form escaping. In a couple of weeks check to see if the barrel is dry. If not burn a second wick. You can occasionally a purchase a used 30-gal barrels or you can order a reconditioned 30-gal barrel from ReCoop. In Sebastopol or Barrel Builders in Napa. The problem is that a new or reconditioned barrel will impart too much oak in the wine, so it will have to come out early and be stored in another container, preferably a neutral barrel. Avoid racking too often. (see Racking below) Do your final racking just before bottling. Minor adjustments in pH and TA can be done a week or two before bottling. Smell wines every time to remove the bung to test the wine or to add something, or youre just curious. In this manner, off aromas that develop can be resolved. Reduction in wines is one of the most common problems in winemaking. Hydrogen sulfide and other volatile sulfur-containing compounds are commonly produced during alcoholic fermentation, but they can also develop during storage and ageing, as well as after bottling. The aromas generated by these sulfur compounds are usually described as rotten egg, burnt rubber, skunky, burnt match, asparagus, onion, and garlic, cooked cabbage, etc. Reduced (stinky, sulfury smells can develop in aging wine that havent been racked, or if H2S was not completely removed after fermentation. Sometimes copper or Reduless (Scott) can be used to remedy the problem. Occasionally mercaptans  think skunk!, will form, making the wine rather disagreeable. Ethyl mercaptan, the odorant added to natural gas to warn of gas leaks, may develop. Thankfully, CuSO4 works to remove mercaptans. Mercaptans can oxidize to form disulfides which can smell like onion, garlic and chopping block, cabbage, canned asparagus, corn, rubbery or burnt rubber, stagnant water, etc. These chemicals are very difficult to remove. Disulfides require the use of ascorbic acid (10 to 100ppm) and CuSO4 (0.1 to 0.6ppm) and carbon (steam activated). Ascorbic acid acts only as an antioxidant to prevent the mercaptan from oxidizing back into disulfides and requires the presence of SO2 as the means to cleave the disulfide back into a mercaptan. Maintain adequate free-SO2 levels. Keep barrels topped, and purge air space in storage or aging containers with argon gas or other inert gas every time you open to smell, taste, or test for free SO2. Whites can be aged in barrels, but will probably undergo MLF, unless the barrels are new or ML-negative or the pH is very low and SO2 levels are high. Oak cubes, chips, sticks, and barrel-inserts can be used to impart the desired level of oak in the wine. Use fining agents as necessary to clarify wines, remove haze, browning, or heat-unstable proteins (whites), or reduce sulfur defects, astringency or bitterness. Do this well before bottling. You may want to use a polysaccharide product, like Surli Elevage (Enartis) at this point to improve mouth feel, or use a cellaring tannin to improve structure, improve aging potential, lower sensation of alcohol, add a sensation of sweetness, or a note of vanilla or toasty oak. Cellaring or finishing-tannins such as Riche (Scott) can be used to add a note of French oak, vanilla, and sweetness, and reduce sensation of alcohol. Enartis has a number to choose from: Tan Nature, Tan Rich, Tan Extra, etc. Theyre not cheap. Cold stabilize wine over the winter. Allow temperature to drop below 40F degrees in cellar for 4-5 days. Aging bottle fruity whites aged in stainless after 6 to 8 months. Barrel-aged chardonnay is best after 10-12 months of barrel time. Big reds are best after 18 to 24 months. Pinot noir needs 12 to 14 months in wood. 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phS5hshJ'OJQJ\^J hOJQJh,$OJQJhM Lh,$H*OJQJhM Lh,$OJQJ">cVc^cbcrctccccd-dwd|dddddddd eeeeeeeeeff鮦鮒vfvXhwhwOJQJ\^J hshJ'H*OJQJ\^J hshJ'OJQJ\^J hshz~OJQJ\^J hM Lhz~H*OJQJhz~OJQJhOJQJhM Lhz~OJQJhz~OJQJ^JhH*OJQJ^JhhOJQJ^JhM Lhz~H*OJQJ^JhM Lhz~OJQJ^JhOJQJ^Jfffffffg.g0g?gLgRgSgYg[gggjhhhhhii=j\jkkd,d-d.dȽȢȢȢȆshss][]hUhPOJQJ\^JhR{HOJQJ\^J$hwhJ'B*OJQJ\^JphDrhshJ'OJQJ\^JhshOJQJ\^J hOJQJ\^J hPhPH*OJQJ\^J hPOJQJ\^J hshJ'OJQJ\^J hwhJ'H*OJQJ\^J hwhJ'OJQJ\^J hwOJQJ\^J Sterile filtering of reds is not recommended! Fining: Fining can be done to make a wine more appealing. It can improve brilliance, aroma and flavor, reduce astringency, bitterness, herbaceousness, and off-aromas, protect from oxidation (browning), enhance aroma, and improve filtratability. Its a bit of a tradeoffyou may lose a bit of character to improve appearance or overall quality. Fining agents: Each agent has a specific purpose of removing something from a wine: Bentonite: is the recognized treatment to remove unstable proteins in white juice or wine that may settle out later when the wine is warmed or is being cellared. Bentonite is commonly used in low levels for Chardonnay, but at higher levels for wines such as Sauvignon blanc, Pinot gris, Gewrztraminer, and a few others. Add bentonite to the juice/must at the start of fermentation. This method causes less stripping of flavors than when added after the wine has reached dryness. Rate: 20 to 120 g/hL (25 gal.) (see discussion on Preemptive fining above). Red wines and those high in tannin (polyphenols) are generally stable. White wines, and low tannin reds may have protein instability issues. Wines fermented or stored in barrels have far less problems with protein stability compared to those held in stainless steel because tannins bind with unstable proteins. You can test for protein stability by heating a small capped wine-sample vial with a funnel-shaped bottom, filled with wine.Allow the vial to cool 1 to 2 hours. If the wine contains unstable proteins they will coagulate and settle to the bottom of the cone. Turn the vial on end to check for sediment. If you ssee sediment youll need to add bentonite to remove it Mix the bentonite in water. Allow it to swell and hydrate for 2 to 3 hrs, depending on the formulation. When added to wine, any unstable protein will settle out to the bottom of the container. Add the slurry slowly while vigorously stirring your wine. Make sure it is well mixed because bentonite works on contact. Stir the treated the following day to keep the material in suspension to increase contact time. Add Silica gel immediately after the Bentonite to facilitate precipitation. It may take a week or more for the bentonite and protein to settle out. Silica gel: is a counter-fining agent used to speed the precipitation of Gelatins, Isinglass and other fining agents. It goes in immediately after the other agent. Rate: 25 - 75 ml/hL. You can rack off the sediment after several weeks or leave it until you ready to rack. Isinglass (Finecoll: Enartis): a gentle clarification agent that removes bitterness, oxidative and herbaceous character. Highly recommended. Rate: 1 to 4 g/hL (25 gal). PVPP: Stabyl (Enartis): removes bitterness, oxidized color. Sparkolloid (Scott) can be used to create brilliant white wines, it does not remove heat-unstable proteins. It does not strip character if used in moderation. It can be used after bentonite as a counte-fining agent to help compact lees or to remove haze left by other fining agents. Rate: Hot Mix: 12-48 g/hL/ (26.4 gal) or 2.5-10g/5gal wine or .5g to 2g per gal. Egg white: used to remove excess tannins and reduce astringency. Rate: I to 3 eggs. Potassium caseinate: milk protein used to treat oxidized and bitter wines. Fine early in the cellaring prcess. Clargel (Enartis): removes excessive astringency. Rate: 50 to 150ml/hL. Fine early in the cellaring process. Claril SP (Enartis): bentonite, PVPP, potassium caseinate, and silica gel. Use for pre-emptive fining. Added at start of fermentation. Rate: 50 to 150 g/hL. Colle Perle (Scott): a gelatin that removes excessive astringency. Fine early in the cellaring process. Copper sulfate: when added to wine, the copper ions chemically bind with undesirable sulfides, e.g., H2S, and settle to the bottom as a precipitate. The reaction occurs quickly and the deodorized wine can then be racked off the lees. Gum Arabic: more of a stabilizing agent than a fining agent. Use to reduce tartrate formation in refrigerated wines, prevents deposits from forming on the inside of the bottle (red wines), also enhances moth-feel and imparts a slightly sweet sensation. Potassium caseinate: milk protein intended to remove bitterness, oxidation slight off-flavors, excess oak flavors, and bitterness. Gelatins: Used to reduce astringency. Both Scott and Enartis have a number to choose from. Fenol (Enartis): an activated charcoal that can reduce the aroma of Brett or smoke taint. Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C): added as an antioxidant 0.05 to 0.15 g/L (5 to 1.5 #/1000 Gal) works a little better than SO2. Works well for white wines when added before bottling. For Ascorbic acid to work properly you must have significant Free SO2. Racking: For white wines that are cloudy or have a slight turbidity, Sparkaloid (hot mix) (.5 to 1 gram per gal) will remove the remaining sediments. It takes at least a week for a cloudy wine to become brilliant. The sediment that collects on the bottom of carboys, tanks and barrels following grape crushing, fermentation, or aging of wine should be removed (aging sur-lie is an exception) to improve clarity, ensure aromatic appeal, and stability. is done by siphoning the clear wine/juice through a flexible clear food-grade hose using the force of gravity or an electric pump. A siphoning tube with a baffle on the end is inserted into the wine down to a point just above the sediment. The baffle prevents uptake of the sediment by drawing the wine from above. In this manner, most of the sediment remains behind. If racking from carboys, tilt the bottle toward you as the wine level drops to raise the level above the siphon tip to increase yield. Try to avoid the uptake of solids. For gravity to work, the wine container must be higher than the receiving vessel. This may present a problem for containers larger than 5-gal carboys. Special lifting devises are available for beer kegs and even full barrels. Barrels on tall racks can be siphoned into carboys, which can then be elevated to siphon the clear wine back into the barrel once it has been racked cleanly. Winemakers commonly rack 2 to 3 times during the aging process. Some people rack after MLF is done or in the early spring to remove sediment, and again mid-summer and/or just before bottling. There is merit to leaving wine on the lees, but youll need to do a little reading about it. Reds can be left on the light lees without racking until just before bottling. The bottom line is to rack if the wine develops off-odors. Racking aerates the wines usually dissipating most objectionable odors. Electric pumps are a quick and efficient way to transfer wine. One concern though, is that it aerates the wine to some extent. I displace air in the siphon hoses and pump with argon before pumping my wine. Thats a little tricky. Its important to make sure the hoses attached to the pump are tight fitting and do not draw air from the outside. If you see bubbles in the line, starting at the point where the hoses are attached, there is probably a leak, and you need to stop siphoning and make sure the hoses are tight fitting to the barbed-end of the pump inlet and to the siphon tube if used. You may need to use a new length of hose that fits tightly. Sometimes you can cut off the end of a hose that appears flared out by use. Air will be drawn at these points if they are loose fitting. Even if there are no leaks, some aeration occur will occur because the hose, pump, and filter cartridge (if used), unless you purge the air in the equipment before you start pumping. Once the hose and pump are filled with wine, there should, however, be no further aeration. Aeration also occurs when the container empties or when the level falls below the siphon hose and the pump is allowed to run. Its important to turn off the pump when the barrel empties and air begins to enter the hose. You can hear this when it occurs and also hear the wine bubbling in the receiving container. Its a good idea to add 10 ppm SO2 after pumping to compensate for aeration Any wine remaining in the hoses and pumps can be poured out into the new vessel. The wine near the bottom of the container just above the sediment that can be siphoned without the baffle in place and placed in a glass container for settling. Allow at least a week for the sediment to settle. Rack the relatively clear wine off the sediment. Tou may need to add some Sparkaloid to clarify the wine. I rack from 60 gal barrels into 15 gal beer kegs for holding prior to bottling. I have a mechanical lift to elevate the wine-filled kegs well above the bottler to ensure adequate siphon flow. In the past, I siphoned wines into food grade plastic carboys for easier handling. If you are racking back to the original container, youll need to add some topping wine to replace the sediment and wine that couldnt be salvaged. The exposure to air during racking and pumping and transferring to other containers will cause some of the free SO2 in the wine to bind up with the oxygen. So, its a good idea to test for SO2 in a few days and adjust as necessary. You could also add 10 to 15 ppm of SO2 as a safeguard and test in a week. Topping: Top barrels every couple of weeks, or at the very least, monthly, and use an inert gas (Argon) to minimize contact with air. Excess headspace increases the loss of SO2 (volatilization) into the head space. This is lost as soon as you open the bung. Acetobacter bacteria and film yeast are more likely to develop when there is ample head space, the SO2 levels are low, and when oxygen is able to enter through a poorly seated bung or leaks in the barrel. Use a good quality wine to top with, preferably extral wine of the same variety and vintage. If you have extra wine, bottle some of it, say a case or two, after it has gone through MLF and been racked. You can use it for topping a barrel as needed, instead of breaking down containers as you need the wine. You can also use an older vintage or a compatible varietal, as long as it smells and tastes fine. Another option is to buy an acceptably good wine like Two Buck Chuck. I mean, how bad could it be? If you buy a wine make sure that it acceptable. Pre-bottling SO2 additions: test free SO2 adjust to the molecular level only part of the addition will be free about 70% when added to a clean, dry wine Lets say you need to add 18 ppm to achieve the correct level. Some of it will bind up. So, you will need to add ~26 ppm to ensure that your wine is protected. (18/.7 = ~26ppm) Remember to account for depletion of SO2 at bottling due to oxygen pickup (5 to 15 ppm, depending on how you bottle under inert gas or exposed to air. Sulfite is noticeable in the aroma above 50ppm free Some commercial wineries bottle with as little as 20 ppm, but their sanitation practices are very good. They harvest grapes at night, can chill grapes or juice and keep cellar temperatures very low. In general, they have good control over most factors. They also sterile filter their wines and bottle under inert gas. Their bottles are new and sterilized, and stored at the optimum temperature. Filtering: Filtering, mostly for whites, is done to help stabilize wines, improve appearance, and, in some cases, taste. Standard 1 micron filters can be used to remove most particulates, a .45 micron filter can be used to remove bacteria and yeast, but may not remove all of them. Nominal filters, which are normally inexpensive, are those that remove most of the particles equal or greater than micron rating. Absolute filter cartridges, those that remove all particles equal to and larger than the stated micron rating are more reliable, and are available for the standard filter housing used by many home wine-makers. They are about $75 each (MoreWine), but can be used repeatedly after back-flushing. Its a good idea to fine (clarify) the wines before filtering them. Isinglass and Sparkloid are two agents that work well to clean up the wine before sterile filtering. Sterile filtering can be used to prevent ML in the bottle or protect a wine with residual sugar, remove Brettanomyces, or just polish a wine. Unless there is a bacterial problem, most reds can be filtered with nominal filters, 1 micron is good. Absolute filters are best suited to white wines. There is really no merit to the claim that filtering strips a wine of its character. This claim is not supported by research and many commercial winemakers are split on the issue. However, for big reds, filtering may disrupt wine structure temporarily. Absolute filtering for reds may actually remove some of the polymerized particles that are important for structure and roundness. In general, filtering improves appearance and doesnt affect taste of aroma wine, and in most cases it improves quality. Bottling: When youre satisfied with the clarity, acidity, mouth feel, taste, and aroma of a wine, youve made your adjustments, and the wine is stable, its time to bottle. Agitate white wines aged in carboys or tanks that are still gassy to remove the dissolved CO2 Adjust SO2 to targeted level and remember to account for depletion of SO2 at bottling due to oxygen pickup (5 to 15 ppm, depending on how you bottle  under inert gas or exposed to air. Clean and sanitize your bottles Allow no more than about -inch of headspace in the bottle Purge the air headspace with Argon, or Nitrogen before inserting the cork Fill the bottles with a gravity filler or by other means, but avoid splashing the wine when filling the bottles. Other resources: Fermentation Handbook from Scott Labs  HYPERLINK "http://www.scottlab.com" www.scottlab.com White wine-making guide available from morewinemaling.com Helpful numbers: conversions 1 pound per 1000 gal, = .012 g/l or .453 g/gal 1 egg white = ~30 g 1 g = largely to 1 ml 1 ml =.001 liter (l) or there are 1000ml in 1 liter 1 pound = 453 g 1 ounce = 29.4 ml. 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Simply put, it is the art and science of making wine. To the @ Basic differences between reds, whites and rosé wines: SanitationD Recommended alkaline cleaning products for winery cleaning: Common sanitizers:. Cleaning and sanitizing your barrels:3 Other ways to prevent microbial spoilage: )Using SO2 to ensure good quality wine:  The value of SO2: 2 Forms of SO2 ― free, bound, and total: Y What does SO2 do and why you need to and add more during the wine making process The chemistry of SO2:' Stages of winemaking and SO2: 1 Adding SO2 and Potassium Metabisulfite:  Measuring SO2:  Ways to add SO2:3 Factors affecting how much SO2 is needed: )The winemaking process - Getting Started Sourcing grapes:  Cellar sanitation: Harvest: Temperature control: )Testing and adjusting the juice or must: Adjusting °Brix: + Calculating how much water to add: Acidity: pH: , Adjusting acidity (in a nut shell):* Common wine acid problems table: & The low down on adjusting pH:- The most common wine acid problems:  Making corrections:. Natural pH changes during winemaking:$ Something to keep in mind:  Other options:  Problematic grapes: Acidity: TA: 2 The ‘nuts and bolts’ of Adjusting TA:Stemming/crushingO To sulfite or not to sulfite? Two options for fermenting white grapes:) SO2 addition: Pre-fermentation: ? Skin contact: white and red grapes when making rosés: Pressing white grapes: ; Settling (clarifying) the pressed juice (whites): / Fermentation tannins for white grapes:8 Racking (siphoning) settled juice from solids: * Preemptive Fining: (white juice):- Protein instability in white wines: D Other fining agents that can be added before fermentation: )Red grapes: Cold soak or cold maceration* Fermentation tannins: red grapes:Fermentation: getting started  White grapes:  Red grapes:L Rehydrating yeasts and adding nutrition: both red and white grapes:2 Adding the yeast mixture (red and white): Title Headings:l 8@ _PID_HLINKSA$GLhttp://www.scottlab.com/LK6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malolactic_fermentationT. http://www.enartisvinquiry.com/YJ!http://www.scottlab.com/products ,0http://winemakermag.com/1301-sulfite-calculator 8<http://www.winebusiness.com/tools/?go=winemaking.calc&cid=1yHdhttp://morewinemaking.com/view_product/16034/103305/Alpet_D2_Surface_Sanitizer_-_Quart_Spray_Bottle_Toc492566595_Toc492566594_Toc492566593_Toc492566592_Toc492566591_Toc492566590 _Toc492566589 _Toc492566588_Toc492566587_Toc492566586_Toc492566585_Toc492566584_Toc492566583_Toc492566582_Toc492566581_Toc492566580 _Toc492566579 _Toc492566578_Toc492566577|_Toc492566576v_Toc492566575p_Toc492566574j_Toc492566573d_Toc492566572^_Toc492566571X_Toc492566570 R_Toc492566569 L_Toc492566568F_Toc492566567@_Toc492566566:_Toc4925665654_Toc492566564._Toc492566563(_Toc492566562"_Toc492566561_Toc492566560 _Toc492566559 _Toc492566558 _Toc492566557_Toc492566556_Toc492566555_Toc492566554_Toc492566553_Toc492566552_Toc492566551_Toc492566550 _Toc492566549 _Toc492566548_Toc492566547_Toc492566546_Toc492566545_Toc492566544_Toc492566543_Toc492566542_Toc492566541_Toc492566540 _Toc492566539 _Toc492566538_Toc492566537_Toc492566536_Toc492566535_Toc492566534z_Toc492566533t_Toc492566532n_Toc492566531h_Toc492566530 b_Toc492566529 \_Toc492566528V_Toc492566527P_Toc492566526J_Toc492566525D_Toc492566524>_Toc4925665238_Toc4925665222_Toc492566521,_Toc492566520 &_Toc492566519  _Toc492566518_Toc492566517_Toc492566516_Toc492566515_Toc492566514_Toc492566513  !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~      !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~      !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~      !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdfghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~      !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGIJKLMNOPQRSTVWXYZ[\]^_`abcdefghituxRoot Entry FDZ+=:wData w1TableeWordDocument .SummaryInformation(HDocumentSummaryInformation8U)MsoDataStore +=:[+=:LLJSRUMRLDZ==2 +=:[+=:Item  PropertiesUCompObj `  F Microsoft Word 97-2004 DocumentNB6WWord.Document.8