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FRANZ HUBER
Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, Downing Place, CB2 3EN Cambridge. Email: HYPERLINK "mailto:fh259@cam.ac.uk" fh259@cam.ac.uk
ABSTRACT
To grasp the critical role of socio-cultural factors for regional economic development, several concepts have been developed, including that of social capital. This notion usually refers to norms, values, networks, reciprocity or trust which are held in a community and can lead to positive social and economic outcomes. Despite its popularity as a fashionable concept in the literature, the exact meaning of social capital is far from clear. This article criticises the dominant conceptions of social capital in economic geography and regional studies and aims to place the debate in a different perspective. It argues for a more fruitful understanding of social capital defined as resources embedded in social networks which can be accessed or are used for actions. The potential to overcome the current weaknesses in the literature is illustrated through discussing social capital of economic clusters.
Key words: Social capital, social networks, social resources, clusters, relational economic geography, knowledge spillovers
Introduction: social capital and regional economic development
The socio-cultural embeddedness of economic life has become a prominent topic in economic geography, which has been highlighted by new terms such as the cultural turn ADDIN EN.CITE Barnes200127427417Barnes, T. J.Retheorizing economic geography: from the quantitative revolution to the "cultural turn"Annals of the Association of American GeographersAnnals of the Association of American Geographers546-5659132001WOS:000171529600006<Go to ISI>://WOS:000171529600006 Barnes200127427417Barnes, T. J.Retheorizing economic geography: from the quantitative revolution to the "cultural turn"Annals of the Association of American GeographersAnnals of the Association of American Geographers546-5659132001WOS:000171529600006<Go to ISI>://WOS:000171529600006 (Barnes 2001) and the relational turn ADDIN EN.CITE Bathelt200314914917Bathelt, H.Glckler, J.Toward a relational economic geographyJournal of Economic GeographyJournal of Economic Geography117-144322003Apr1468-2702ISI:000182445600002<Go to ISI>://000182445600002 Boggs200315015017Boggs, J. S.Rantisi, N. M.The 'relational turn' in economic geographyJournal of Economic GeographyJournal of Economic Geography109-116322003Apr1468-2702ISI:000182445600001<Go to ISI>://000182445600001 (Bathelt and Glckler 2003, Boggs and Rantisi 2003). To grasp the critical role of socio-cultural factors for regional economic development, several ideas and concepts have been developed, including that of social capital. This broad concept usually refers to norms, values, networks, reciprocity or trust which are held in a community and can lead to positive social and economic outcomes. Inspired by the seminal work of Putnam ADDIN EN.CITE Putnam19932752756Putnam, R.Leonardi, R.Nanetti, R. Y.Making democracy work1993Princeton, NJPrinceton University PressPutnam20002762766Putnam, R.Bowling alone: the collapse and revival of American community2000New YorkSimon & Schuster(1993, 2000) on regional economic development in Italy and the decline of community in the USA, social capital has grown in prominence in economic geography and regional studies ADDIN EN.CITE Fromhold-Eisebith2004278e.g. 27817Fromhold-Eisebith, M.Innovative milieu and social capital - Complementary or redundant concepts of collaboration-based regional development?European Planning StudiesEuropean Planning Studies747-7651262004WOS:000224512900001<Go to ISI>://WOS:000224512900001 10.1080/0965431042000251846|issn 0965-4313Cohen199927927917Cohen, S. S.Fields, G.Social capital and capital gains in Silicon ValleyCalifornia Management ReviewCalifornia Management Review108-1304121999WOS:000079048900006<Go to ISI>://WOS:000079048900006 Cooke200528028017Cooke, P.Clifton, N.Oleaga, M.Social capital, firm embeddedness and regional developmentRegional StudiesRegional Studies1065-10773982005WOS:000233300800004<Go to ISI>://WOS:000233300800004 10.1080/00343400500328065|issn 0034-3404Mohan200229729717Mohan, G.Mohan, J.Placing social capitalProgress in Human GeographyProgress in Human Geography191-2102622002WOS:000174992300004<Go to ISI>://WOS:000174992300004 10.1191/0309132502ph364ra|ISSN 0309-1325(e.g. Cohen and Fields 1999, Mohan and Mohan 2002, Fromhold-Eisebith 2004, Cooke et al. 2005). Also, within economics and development studies several authors have hailed social capital as the missing link ADDIN EN.CITE Grootaert199828228227Grootaert, C.Social capital: the missing link?Social Capital Initiative Working Paper Series31998Washington, DCThe World Bankhttp://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTSOCIALCAPITAL/Resources/Social-Capital-Initiative-Working-Paper-Series/SCI-WPS-03.pdf(Grootaert 1998), which goes beyond traditional forms of economic capital ADDIN EN.CITE Dasgupta2000289e.g. 2896Dasgupta, P.Serageldin, I.Social capital. A multifaceted perspective2000Washington, DCThe World BankIsham20022902906Isham, J.Kelly, T.Ramaswamy, S.Social capital and economic development. Well-being in developing countries2002Cheltenham, UK, Northampton, MAEdward ElgarFrancois20022912916Francois, P.Basu, K.Social capital and economic developmentFundamentals of Development Economics2002London, New YorkRoutledge(e.g. Dasgupta and Serageldin 2000, Francois 2002, Isham et al. 2002).
Several scholars have emphasised that the geographical dimension of social capital is crucial. Importantly, it has been argued that social capital can generate regional externalities ADDIN EN.CITE Iyer2005101e.g. 10117Iyer, S.Kitson, M.Toh, B.Social capital, economic growth and regional developmentRegional StudiesRegional Studies1015-10403982005Nov0034-3404ISI:000233300800001<Go to ISI>://000233300800001 (e.g. Iyer et al. 2005). In the current era of a knowledge-based economy, the role of social capital for regional innovation and local knowledge externalities in particular has been highlighted ADDIN EN.CITE Maskell20002832835Maskell, P.Baron, S.Fields, S.Schuller, T.Social capital, innovation, and competitivenessSocial capital. Critical perspectives111-1232000OxfordOxford University PressFromhold-Eisebith200427827817Fromhold-Eisebith, M.Innovative milieu and social capital - Complementary or redundant concepts of collaboration-based regional development?European Planning StudiesEuropean Planning Studies747-7651262004WOS:000224512900001<Go to ISI>://WOS:000224512900001 10.1080/0965431042000251846|issn 0965-4313Tura200530230217Tura, T.Harmaakorpi, V.Social capital in building regional innovative capabilityRegional StudiesRegional Studies1111-11253982005WOS:000233300800007<Go to ISI>://WOS:000233300800007 10.1080/00343400500328255|issn 0034-3404(Maskell 2000, Fromhold-Eisebith 2004, Tura and Harmaakorpi 2005). This is connected to the debate on local knowledge spillovers in economic agglomerations ADDIN EN.CITE Dring200620see e.g. 2017Dring, T.Schnellenbach, J.What do we know about geographical knowledge spillovers and regional growth? A survey of the literatureRegional StudiesRegional Studies375-3954032006May0034-3404ISI:000237221500007<Go to ISI>://000237221500007 (see e.g. Dring and Schnellenbach 2006). Related to this, theories of economic clusters integrate social capital and link it to economic prosperity ADDIN EN.CITE Porter19982462272466Porter, M. E.On competition1998Boston, MAHarvard Business School PressStaber200729629617Staber, U.Contextualizing research on social capital in regional clustersInternational Journal of Urban and Regional ResearchInternational Journal of Urban and Regional Research505-521312007WOS:000250263300001<Go to ISI>://WOS:000250263300001 10.1111/j.1468-2427.2007.00742.x|ISSN 0309-1317(Porter 1998, p. 227, Staber 2007).
Despite the popularity of this notion, the exact meaning of social capital in economic geography and regional studies is far from clear. Although this line of literature has been useful in underscoring the critical role of relational assets, it seems that in the predominant conceptualisations social capital is a catch-all notion involving different sorts of social concepts. This has led to a confusing debate, where the exact role of specific socio-cultural dimensions remains nebulous. This begs the question: how useful is the notion of social capital? Should we abandon it as some prolific commentators have suggested ADDIN EN.CITE Arrow2000288e.g. 2885Arrow, K. J.Dasgupta, P.Serageldin, I.Observations on social capitalSocial capital. A multifaceted perspective2000Washington, DCThe World Bank(e.g. Arrow 2000), or can we rescue the concept through improving the status quo? This article criticises the dominant understanding of social capital in economic geography and regional studies and aims to place the debate in an alternative perspective by arguing for a more fruitful conceptualisation. It is argued that this catch-all concept has to be reconfigured in order to avoid conceptual problems and to understand the causal mechanisms involved.
The paper proceeds as follows. First, the existing literature on social capital will be critically discussed identifying four conceptual weaknesses. Second, an alternative actor- and network-based conception of social capital will be presented, which has been recently developed in sociology but has not been exploited within economic geography and regional studies. It will be demonstrated that this is able to overcome the conceptual problems in the current literature. Third, it will be shown how social capital can be conceptualised and operationalised at the macro-level. This will be illustrated by developing a promising understanding of social capital of economic clusters.
CRITIQUE OF THE EXISTING ACCOUNTS
Despite its popularity, the social capital literature has been criticised by several authors ADDIN EN.CITE Kadushin2004171e.g. 17117Kadushin, C.Too much investment in social capital?Social NetworksSocial Networks75-90262004Schuller20052862865Schuller, T.Baron, S.Fields, G.Baron, S.Fields, G.Schuller, T.Social capital: a review and critiqueSocial capital. Critical perspectives1-382005OxfordOxford University Press(e.g. Kadushin 2004, Schuller et al. 2005). In this section I focus on four main conceptual problems of the dominant understanding of social capital in economic geography and regional studies: I criticise the fuzzy conceptualisation, problems of causality, the lack of understanding of actor-driven social processes and the assumption of cohesive communities.
Fuzzy concept Social capital seems to be a catch-all notion referring to a wide range of non-economic social factors, which are said to be beneficial for successful economic development ADDIN EN.CITE Taylor20022922925Taylor, M.Leonard, S.Taylor, M.Leonard, S.Approaching 'embeddedness'Embedded enterprise and social capital. International perspectives1-182002AldershotAshgate(Taylor and Leonard 2002). In their seminal work, Putnam et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Putnam19932751672756Putnam, R.Leonardi, R.Nanetti, R. Y.Making democracy work1993Princeton, NJPrinceton University Press(1993, p. 167) define social capital as those features of social organisation, such as trust, norms, and networks, that can improve the efficiency of society by facilitating coordinated actions. This broad understanding of social capital has influenced research on social capital in economics, economic geography and regional studies. For example, Iyer et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Iyer2005101101610117Iyer, S.Kitson, M.Toh, B.Social capital, economic growth and regional developmentRegional StudiesRegional Studies1015-10403982005Nov0034-3404ISI:000233300800001<Go to ISI>://000233300800001 (2005, p. 1016) state that social capital, in essence, is the institutions, relationships, attitudes and values governing interactions amongst people and contributing to economic and social development ADDIN EN.CITE Cooke2005280see also 28017Cooke, P.Clifton, N.Oleaga, M.Social capital, firm embeddedness and regional developmentRegional StudiesRegional Studies1065-10773982005WOS:000233300800004<Go to ISI>://WOS:000233300800004 10.1080/00343400500328065|issn 0034-3404Staber200729629617Staber, U.Contextualizing research on social capital in regional clustersInternational Journal of Urban and Regional ResearchInternational Journal of Urban and Regional Research505-521312007WOS:000250263300001<Go to ISI>://WOS:000250263300001 10.1111/j.1468-2427.2007.00742.x|ISSN 0309-1317(see also Cooke et al. 2005, Staber 2007). Others also apply a broad definition but focus more on social networks and norms like reciprocity. For instance, according to Woolcock ADDIN EN.CITE Woolcock20012871328717Woolcock, M.The place of social capital in understanding social and economic outcomesISUMA - Canadian Journal of Policy ResearchISUMA - Canadian Journal of Policy Research11-1722001(2001, p. 13), social capital refers to the norms and networks that facilitate collective action ADDIN EN.CITE Schuller2005286see also 2865Schuller, T.Baron, S.Fields, G.Baron, S.Fields, G.Schuller, T.Social capital: a review and critiqueSocial capital. Critical perspectives1-382005OxfordOxford University Press(see also Schuller et al. 2005). Furthermore, other conceptions of social capital emphasise trust or civic engagement in a community ADDIN EN.CITE Francois20022912916Francois, P.Basu, K.Social capital and economic developmentFundamentals of Development Economics2002London, New YorkRoutledgeBeugelsdijk200528428417Beugelsdijk, S.Van Schaik, T.Differences in social capital between 54 Western European regionsRegional StudiesRegional Studies1053-10643982005WOS:000233300800003<Go to ISI>://WOS:000233300800003 10.1080/00343400500328040|issn 0034-3404Schneider200030630617Schneider, G.Plumper, T.Baumann, S.Bringing Putnam to the European regionsOn the relevance of social capital for economic growthEuropean Urban and Regional StudiesEuropean Urban and Regional Studies307-317742000WOS:000090035000002<Go to ISI>://WOS:000090035000002 (Schneider et al. 2000, Francois 2002, Beugelsdijk and Van Schaik 2005), following the emphasis on these issues in Putnams ADDIN EN.CITE Putnam19932752756Putnam, R.Leonardi, R.Nanetti, R. Y.Making democracy work1993Princeton, NJPrinceton University PressPutnam20002762766Putnam, R.Bowling alone: the collapse and revival of American community2000New YorkSimon & Schuster(1993, 2000) work. And some apply an ever broader view to define social capital as the values and beliefs that citizens share in their everyday dealings and which give meaning and provide design for all sorts of rules ADDIN EN.CITE Maskell20002831112835Maskell, P.Baron, S.Fields, S.Schuller, T.Social capital, innovation, and competitivenessSocial capital. Critical perspectives111-1232000OxfordOxford University Press(Maskell 2000, p. 111).
So where does this leave us? The discourse on social capital has undoubtedly been important in highlighting the significance of relational social factors for economic development beyond undersocialised views of atomistic economic actors ADDIN EN.CITE Schuller20052862865Schuller, T.Baron, S.Fields, G.Baron, S.Fields, G.Schuller, T.Social capital: a review and critiqueSocial capital. Critical perspectives1-382005OxfordOxford University Press(Schuller et al. 2005). However, the following problems significantly reduce its usefulness: first, when social capital is defined so broadly that it seems to cover any social phenomenon which could have potential effects on social and economic outcomes (e.g. norms, values, trust, institutions, civicness), it lacks specificity and substance. When the term is treated as an undifferentiated mixture of multiple independent social dimensions, causal mechanisms of specific dimensions will remain nebulous ADDIN EN.CITE Hauser200730030017Hauser, C.Tappeiner, G.Walde, J.The learning region: the impact of social capital and weak ties on innovationRegional StudiesRegional Studies75-884112007WOS:000245037300006<Go to ISI>://WOS:000245037300006 10.1080/00343400600928368|issn 0034-3404(Hauser et al. 2007). Second, certain definitions tend to be non-equivalent and highlight different dimensions (e.g. some focus on trust, others on networks or institutions, and yet others on civic engagement). This as such would not necessarily cause concern if (a) the different sub-dimensions of social capital were explicitly distinguished from one another, and (b) a convincing argument of the usefulness of an umbrella notion of social capital were presented. However, there seems to be a problematic tendency that social capital is posited as one phenomenon, whereas in fact it involves multiple meanings, which usually is not made explicit and therefore confuses the debate. Consequently, social capital tends to be a fuzzy concept ADDIN EN.CITE Markusen2003939317Markusen, A.Fuzzy concepts, scanty evidence, policy distance: The case for rigour and policy relevance in critical regional studiesRegional StudiesRegional Studies701-717376-72003Aug-Oct0034-3404ISI:000184910400012<Go to ISI>://000184910400012 (Markusen 2003); social capitalists may think that they refer to one and the same phenomenon whereas in fact they refer to different phenomena. Understandably, these two uncomfortable problems have led to commentaries which express frustration ADDIN EN.CITE Fine2002305e.g. 30517Fine, B.They f**k you up those social capitalistsAntipodeAntipode796-7993442002WOS:000179187100014<Go to ISI>://WOS:000179187100014 (e.g. Fine 2002).
Risk of tautologies and focus on positive outcomes The prevalent functional definition of social capital, stating that it leads to beneficial outcomes, involves the risk of tautological statements: It leads to positive outcomes, such as economic development and less crime, and its existence is inferred from the same outcomes ADDIN EN.CITE Portes19982951929517Portes, A.Social capital: its origins and applications in modern sociologyAnnual Review of SociologyAnnual Review of Sociology1-24241998WOS:000075625800001<Go to ISI>://WOS:000075625800001 (Portes 1998, p. 19). Thus often outcome variables and the underlying causal variables are not satisfactorily differentiated and possible alternative causal factors are not controlled for ADDIN EN.CITE Portes200029329317Portes, A.The two meanings of social capitalSociological ForumSociological Forum1-121512000WOS:000087194400001<Go to ISI>://WOS:000087194400001 (Portes 2000). As Portes rightly points out, this problem is highly common in prevalent views of seeing social capital as a property of collectivities such as communities, regions or nations (inspired by the work on civicness by Putnam, 1993; 2000). This does not mean that conceptions of collective social capital are not feasible in principle, but such an endeavour would have to be more careful in separating causes and effects (Portes, 1998, 21). In this context, one underlying problem seems to be that the literature on social capital tends to emphasise and assume positive outcomes without considering potential negative effects ADDIN EN.CITE Field2003322the dark side of social capital, e.g. , chapter 33226Field, J.Hamilton, P.Social capitalKey ideas2003London and New YorkRoutledge(the dark side of social capital, e.g. Field 2003, chapter 3).
Lack of understanding of actor-driven social processes Social capital in economic geography and regional studies is typically considered as a collective or even public good; in particular, trust, shared values/norms and civicness are treated as a property of collectivities such as communities, regions or nation states. This analytical leap from the individual to the collectivity has led to several conceptual shortcomings ADDIN EN.CITE Portes200029329317Portes, A.The two meanings of social capitalSociological ForumSociological Forum1-121512000WOS:000087194400001<Go to ISI>://WOS:000087194400001 DeFilippis200230430417DeFilippis, J.Symposium on social capital: An introductionAntipodeAntipode790-7953442002WOS:000179187100013<Go to ISI>://WOS:000179187100013 (Portes 2000, DeFilippis 2002). In this tradition social capital becomes merely another trendy term to employ or deploy in the broad context of improving or building social integration and solidarity ADDIN EN.CITE Lin20028526856Lin, N.Social capital. A theory of social structure and actionStructural Analysis in the Social Sciences192002CambridgeCambridge University Press(Lin 2002, p. 26). This has led to a lack of understanding of social processes. For example, in the tradition of Putnam the causal link between civic engagement (like participation in voluntary organisations) and beneficial economic or political outcomes is usually presented as a black-box without investigating the specific social mechanisms in play ADDIN EN.CITE Hadjimichalis200629829817Hadjimichalis, C.Non-economic factors in economic geography and in 'new regionalism': A sympathetic critiqueInternational Journal of Urban and Regional ResearchInternational Journal of Urban and Regional Research690-7043032006WOS:000241242800012<Go to ISI>://WOS:000241242800012 10.1111/j.1468-2427.2006.00683.x|ISSN 0309-1317Mohan200229729717Mohan, G.Mohan, J.Placing social capitalProgress in Human GeographyProgress in Human Geography191-2102622002WOS:000174992300004<Go to ISI>://WOS:000174992300004 10.1191/0309132502ph364ra|ISSN 0309-1325Bebbington199930330317Bebbington, A.Perreault, T.Social capital, development, and access to resources in highland EcuadorEconomic GeographyEconomic Geography395-4187541999WOS:000084023300004<Go to ISI>://WOS:000084023300004 (Bebbington and Perreault 1999, Mohan and Mohan 2002, Hadjimichalis 2006). Also Porters ADDIN EN.CITE Porter19982462466Porter, M. E.On competition1998Boston, MAHarvard Business School PressPorter19982462466Porter, M. E.On competition1998Boston, MAHarvard Business School Press(1998) work on economic clusters emphasises the role of social networks and social capital for clusters, but does not go on to rigorously theorise and empirically investigate specific mechanisms ADDIN EN.CITE Martin2003123see 16-1712317Martin, R.Sunley, P.Deconstructing clusters: chaotic concept or policy panacea?Journal of Economic GeographyJournal of Economic Geography5-35312003Jan1468-2702ISI:000180836000001<Go to ISI>://000180836000001 (see Martin and Sunley 2003, pp. 16-17). A major reason for this shortcoming seems the lack of understanding of individual actors. Social mechanisms are typically driven by lower-level actors ADDIN EN.CITE Mayntz200431831817Mayntz, R.Mechanisms in the analysis of social macro-phenomenaPhilosophy of the Social SciencesPhilosophy of the Social Sciences237-2593422004WOS:000221415200004<Go to ISI>://WOS:000221415200004 10.1177/0048393103262552|issn 0048-3931(Mayntz 2004). Typical socio-cultural issues of social capital such as trust, norms, values or reciprocity are best understood from the individual actors point of view. Hence, a focus solely on collective properties and collectivities is usually not able to shed light on socio-cultural processes.
Assumption of cohesive communities not appropriate Another critical aspect of the established views of social capital in economic geography and regional studies is the assumption that strong ties and dense, cohesive communities are a requirement for social capital. For example, Western et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Western2005285109728517Western, J.Stimson, R.Baum, S.Van Gellecum, Y.Measuring community strength and social capitalRegional StudiesRegional Studies1095-11093982005WOS:000233300800006<Go to ISI>://WOS:000233300800006 10.1080/00343400500328222|issn 0034-3404(2005, p. 1097) state that [a] high level of social capital is seen in situations where there are cohesive networks of considerable density and where interactions are governed by norms of trust and reciprocity. As Grabher ADDIN EN.CITE Grabher200625516525517Grabher, G.Trading routes, bypasses, and risky intersections: mapping the travels of 'networks' between economic sociology and economic geographyProgress in Human GeographyProgress in Human Geography163-1893022006Apr0309-1325ISI:000236924500002<Go to ISI>://000236924500002 (2006, p. 165) rightly remarks, economic geography invariably turned networks into a shorthand for enduring, trust-based ties and thus neglected other sociological phenomena. In particular, studies which stress the important instrumental role of weak ties ADDIN EN.CITE Granovetter197325925917Granovetter, M.The strength of weak tiesAmerican Journal of SociologyAmerican Journal of Sociology1360-138078619730002-9602ISI:A1973P772600003<Go to ISI>://A1973P772600003 (Granovetter 1973) or structural holes ADDIN EN.CITE Burt19923073076Burt, R. S.Structural holes. The social structure of competition1992Cambridge, MAHarvard University Press(Burt 1992) for actors are overlooked ADDIN EN.CITE Tura2005302see also 111830217Tura, T.Harmaakorpi, V.Social capital in building regional innovative capabilityRegional StudiesRegional Studies1111-11253982005WOS:000233300800007<Go to ISI>://WOS:000233300800007 10.1080/00343400500328255|issn 0034-3404(see also Tura and Harmaakorpi 2005, p. 1118); this research shows that connections beyond cohesive groups can be critical for instance for being exposed to a diversity of knowledge, which can positively influence innovativeness. Thus if we want social capital to refer to social factors that can have beneficial outcomes, then we have to go beyond strong ties and cohesive communities.
AN Actor-based conception of social networks and social resources
Given these limitations, in this section an alternative conception of social capital is presented. Economic geography and regional studies have largely neglected the network-based conceptualisations of social capital that have been developed recently in sociology ADDIN EN.CITE Lin200285856Lin, N.Social capital. A theory of social structure and actionStructural Analysis in the Social Sciences192002CambridgeCambridge University PressVan der Gaag20033083085Van der Gaag, M.Snijders, T.Flap, H. D.Vlker, B.Proposals for the measurement of individual social capitalCreation and returns of social capital.199-2182003LondonRoutledgehttp://www.xs4all.nl/~gaag/work/propmeasSC.pdfPRI200530930927PRI Social capital as a public policy toolProject Report. PRI Project Social Capital as a Public Policy Tool.2005CanadaPRI Policy Research Initiativehttp://policyresearch.gc.ca/doclib/SC_Synthesis_E.pdfBurt20053213216Burt, R. S.Brokerage and closure: an introduction to social capital2005OxfordOxford University Press(Lin 2002, Van der Gaag and Snijders 2003, Burt 2005, PRI 2005). As I will show, these accounts have the capacity to overcome the problems outlined above. According to a network-based approach, one can define social capital as resources embedded in social networks which can be potentially accessed or are actually used by individuals for actions ADDIN EN.CITE Lin200285adapted from 24-25856Lin, N.Social capital. A theory of social structure and actionStructural Analysis in the Social Sciences192002CambridgeCambridge University Press(adapted from Lin 2002, pp. 24-25). That is, social capital is about the resources actors are able to mobilise through relationships for certain activities. The focus can be either on in principle accessible resources or on resources actually used in practice. Can such an approach overcome the four limitations of the current literature as criticised in the previous section?
First, it is important to note that collective properties such as trust, institutions, norms or values are not part of the definition of social capital itself. Rather they are external factors which can influence or might be an effect of social capital ADDIN EN.CITE Lin2008310263105Lin, N.Castiglione, D.van Deth, J.Wolleb, G.A network theory of social capitalThe handbook of social capital2008OxfordOxford University PressTura200530230217Tura, T.Harmaakorpi, V.Social capital in building regional innovative capabilityRegional StudiesRegional Studies1111-11253982005WOS:000233300800007<Go to ISI>://WOS:000233300800007 10.1080/00343400500328255|issn 0034-3404(Tura and Harmaakorpi 2005, Lin 2008, p. 26); for example the activation of resources can be governed by such collective factors. Hence, an important clarification of such an approach is that social capital thus defined is distinguished from collective assets such as trust or norms. Also, social networks themselves do not represent social capital, since social capital refers to the resources embedded in social networks. This is much more specific, differentiates between social phenomena that are part and not part of social capital and thus overcomes the first limitation of social capital being a fuzzy concept as criticised above.
Second, the above definition enables a careful differentiation between causal variables and resulting functional effects. To avoid the danger of tautological statements and an unjustified focus on positive outcomes, it is important to distinguish the sources and consequences of social capital. Hence, a viable conceptual framework of social capital has to differentiate between different stages of the causal chain ADDIN EN.CITE Lin200285see e.g. 243-247856Lin, N.Social capital. A theory of social structure and actionStructural Analysis in the Social Sciences192002CambridgeCambridge University PressPRI2005309630927PRI Social capital as a public policy toolProject Report. PRI Project Social Capital as a Public Policy Tool.2005CanadaPRI Policy Research Initiativehttp://policyresearch.gc.ca/doclib/SC_Synthesis_E.pdf(see e.g. Lin 2002, pp. 243-247, PRI 2005, p. 6). Elaborating on this, I argue that one has to understand the following steps:
(a) Mechanisms of the formation of networks: what factors guide the formation of social network connections between people (including the change of network relations over time)? Here previous socio-economic positions, norms and institutional arrangements, the homophily principle or spatial proximity can play an important role. For a discussion of various mechanism of network evolution, see Glckler ADDIN EN.CITE Glckler200723223217Glckler, J.Economic geography and the evolution of networksJournal of Economic GeographyJournal of Economic Geography619-634752007(2007).
(b) Maintenance of network relations: the question whether network relations are dissolved or maintained over time may depend on the perceived usefulness of the relationships; also other factors such as institutional changes or geographical mobility might be relevant. From the perspective of social capital theory, formation and maintenance represents (conscious or unconscious) investment in social relationships with expected returns in the future.
(c) Which resources can in principle be or are actually transmitted through these networks? Here it is useful to differentiate between two aspects ADDIN EN.CITE Lin20083103105Lin, N.Castiglione, D.van Deth, J.Wolleb, G.A network theory of social capitalThe handbook of social capital2008OxfordOxford University Press(Lin 2008): one perspective looks at the potential pool of resources that are embedded in the respective social networks and that can in principle be accessed (accessed social capital). Another perspective focuses on the actual use of resources accessed through the network for actions (mobilised social capital). Structural features of networks (e.g. density) and structural position in the network ADDIN EN.CITE Burt1992307e.g. being close to a 'structural hole', 3076Burt, R. S.Structural holes. The social structure of competition1992Cambridge, MAHarvard University Press(e.g. being close to a 'structural hole', Burt 1992) can influence access and mobilisation to social capital. One important dimension is the issue of multiplex network relations: network relations which were formed in one sphere of life (e.g. in a golf club) can lead to access and mobilisation of resources in another sphere of life (e.g. in business) ADDIN EN.CITE Ettlinger200319419417Ettlinger, N.Cultural economic geography and a relational and microspace approach to trusts, rationalities, networks, and change in collaborative workplacesJournal of Economic GeographyJournal of Economic Geography145-171322003Apr1468-2702ISI:000182445600003<Go to ISI>://000182445600003 (Ettlinger 2003).
(d) What are the effects? What are the returns of social capital in terms of personal, social and economic outcomes? Here the role of resource transmissions for certain substantive outcome variables has to be clarified. To do this, one has to work with specific theories in the respective domain. A concrete example would be the insight that access to a diversity of knowledge is positively associated with innovativeness ADDIN EN.CITE Rodan200411e.g. 1117Rodan, S.Galunic, C.More than network structure: How knowledge heterogeneity influences managerial performance and innovativenessStrategic Management JournalStrategic Management Journal541-5622562004Jun0143-2095ISI:000221118400003<Go to ISI>://000221118400003 Burt2005321, chapter 23216Burt, R. S.Brokerage and closure: an introduction to social capital2005OxfordOxford University Press(e.g. Rodan and Galunic 2004, Burt 2005, chapter 2).
Third, this approach focuses on the way actors use social resources for their practices. This actor-centred approach enables an understanding of social processes (as discussed above) and overcomes the second limitation.
Fourth, from the definition of social capital it should be clear that this understanding of social capital does not presuppose dense, cohesive communities or strong ties. Rather, it is an empirical question whether certain properties of network structures or relations influence the transmission of resources.
Overall, social capital defined as resources embedded in social networks which can be potentially accessed or are actually used in actions avoids the fuzziness of previous accounts. This approach avoids problems of causality and ensures an actor-based understanding of social processes. It does not presuppose strong ties or cohesive communities but considers the effect of network characteristics as an empirical question. This research perspective also offers new possibilities of measuring social capital such as the position generator or the resource generator ADDIN EN.CITE Van der Gaag2003308see e.g. 3085Van der Gaag, M.Snijders, T.Flap, H. D.Vlker, B.Proposals for the measurement of individual social capitalCreation and returns of social capital.199-2182003LondonRoutledgehttp://www.xs4all.nl/~gaag/work/propmeasSC.pdfFranke200531131127Franke, S.Measurement of social capital. Reference document for public policy research, development, and evaluation.PRI Project Social Capital as a Public Policy Tool2005CanadaPolicy Research Initiativehttp://policyresearch.gc.ca/doclib/Measurement_E.pdf(see e.g. Van der Gaag and Snijders 2003, Franke 2005), which have not been exploited by economic geography and regional studies.
However, it is a contentious issue whether the metaphor of capital in the concept of social capital is meaningful. Some critics propose to abandon the notion of capital ADDIN EN.CITE Arrow2000288e.g. 2885Arrow, K. J.Dasgupta, P.Serageldin, I.Observations on social capitalSocial capital. A multifaceted perspective2000Washington, DCThe World Bank(e.g. Arrow 2000) or replace social by other terms such as networked resources ADDIN EN.CITE Kadushin20041718817117Kadushin, C.Too much investment in social capital?Social NetworksSocial Networks75-90262004(Kadushin 2004, p. 88). A major critique is the fact that investment and return are often unconscious and not intended by the actors: social relations are often built up for non-economic reasons (e.g. people simply enjoy spending time with each other in a non-instrumental fashion), and sometimes actors benefit from social resources without actively striving for it ADDIN EN.CITE McDonald2006314e.g. people receive job-information without actively seeking it out, see 31417McDonald, S.Elder, G. H. Jr.When does social capital matter? Non-searching for jobs across the life courseSocial ForcesSocial Forces521-5508512006(e.g. people receive job-information without actively seeking it out, see McDonald and Elder 2006). Others defend the capital metaphor emphasising that investment in relations always requires time and effort (even if it is not instrumentally motivated by expected benefits in the future), and that the unexpected returns can be called the invisible hand of social capital ADDIN EN.CITE Lin200031579131517Lin, N.Inequality in social capitalContemporary Sociologya Journal of ReviewsContemporary Sociologya Journal of Reviews785-7952962000WOS:000166220200004<Go to ISI>://WOS:000166220200004 (Lin 2000, p. 791). Whilst these are important terminological issues, this debate does not fundamentally affect the idea and model presented in this paper. Irrespective of whether we want to call it social capital or networked resources, the idea that actors access and use resources through network relations remains important.
Social capital at the macro-level ILLUSTRATED BY economic clusters
A network- and resource-based conception of social capital can be applied easily at a micro-level perspective of individuals. But how can we shift the unit of analysis to collectivities such as organisations, economic clusters or regions? How can we ascribe social capital at the macro-level, emphasising the social aspect of interactions and networks but without falling into conceptual traps? This issue is far from trivial and the conceptual departure requires, however, more care and theoretical refinement than that displayed so far ADDIN EN.CITE Portes19982952129517Portes, A.Social capital: its origins and applications in modern sociologyAnnual Review of SociologyAnnual Review of Sociology1-24241998WOS:000075625800001<Go to ISI>://WOS:000075625800001 (Portes 1998, p. 21). In this section I shall first argue that the recently proposed ideas by Lin ADDIN EN.CITE Lin20083103105Lin, N.Castiglione, D.van Deth, J.Wolleb, G.A network theory of social capitalThe handbook of social capital2008OxfordOxford University Press(2008) are useful for the discussion of social capital of collectivities. Second, I will illustrate the potential of this account for economic geography and regional studies by discussing the social capital of economic clusters.
Social capital of collectivities To avoid conceptual problems, I aim for consistency with the micro-level approach in terms of the actor-based focus on networks and resources. In this light, a collectivity can be regarded as a social network which consists of actors (members) who can potentially bring their resources to bear and relationships between them. The resources embedded in those relationships among members which can be potentially accessed or are actually mobilised for activities of the collectivity are called internal social capital of the collectivity ADDIN EN.CITE Lin20083103105Lin, N.Castiglione, D.van Deth, J.Wolleb, G.A network theory of social capitalThe handbook of social capital2008OxfordOxford University Press(Lin 2008). Internal social capital depends on the existence, structure and quality of relationships among the members as well as on the amount and quality of the resources (e.g. diversity) embedded in those relationships.
Furthermore, individual members of the collectivity can have social relationships to other actors outside of the collectivity. The resources that individual members of the collectivity can potentially access or actually mobilise through such external relationships are called external social capital. It depends on the extent, structure and quality of external social relationships and on the amount and quality of the resources embedded in such relationships. In this context key actors called gatekeepers who are able to acquire external resources and distribute it to other members can be crucial. This is linked and can contribute to the debate of absorptive capacity of a collectivity, whichfollowing the conceptualisation in the seminal work by Cohen and Levinthal ADDIN EN.CITE Cohen1990414117Cohen, W. M.Levinthal, D. A.Absorptive capacity: a new perspective on learning and innovationAdministrative Science QuarterlyAdministrative Science Quarterly128-1523511990Mar0001-8392ISI:A1990CV83400006<Go to ISI>://A1990CV83400006 (1990)can be defined as the ability to recognise the value of, acquire and exploit new external knowledge.
To summarise, the social capital of a collectivity is the resources embedded in internal and external social networks which can be potentially accessed or are actually mobilised for actions of members of the collectivity.
Economic clusters The usefulness of social capital is dependent on a specific context, which Tura and Harmaakorpi ADDIN EN.CITE Tura2005302111730217Tura, T.Harmaakorpi, V.Social capital in building regional innovative capabilityRegional StudiesRegional Studies1111-11253982005WOS:000233300800007<Go to ISI>://WOS:000233300800007 10.1080/00343400500328255|issn 0034-3404(2005, p. 1117) call field-specificity of social capital: resources acquired through social networks which are highly useful in one field of activity (e.g. for academic work) can be useless for other fields (e.g. for business entrepreneurship). Therefore, for applications of the social capital concept in substantive topic areas it seems useful to focus on specific types of resources that are useful for specific contexts. This focus should be grounded in sound theoretical reasons. In advanced economies, which are often dubbed knowledge-based economies, knowledge is regarded as the key resource for understanding economic clusters and regional economic development ADDIN EN.CITE Malmberg2002545417Malmberg, A.Maskell, P.The elusive concept of localization economies: towards a knowledge-based theory of spatial clusteringEnvironment and Planning AEnvironment and Planning A429-4493432002Mar0308-518XISI:000174647000005<Go to ISI>://000174647000005 (Malmberg and Maskell 2002). Thus in a discussion of social capital of economic clusters it seems reasonable to concentrate on knowledge interactions in networks. Consequently, in this perspective the social capital of an economic cluster is the knowledge the members of the cluster are able to potentially access or actually mobilise for work activities through internal and external social networks. There are multiple levels of collectivities, which complicates the situation. First, organisations (firms or non-firm organisations such as research institutions) can be regarded as the members of an economic cluster; they represent the focal unit of analysis for looking at internal and external networks. However, since the pre-theoretic intuition of social capital is centred on soft socio-cultural factors, an investigation of social mechanisms has to go beyond organisations. Therefore, second, to shed light on social capital we have to open the black-box of organisations to investigate social processes at the level of individuals as members of organisations. Consequently, the social capital of the economic cluster depends on the extent to which individuals in cluster organisations are able to acquire work-related knowledge from individuals in other cluster organisations as well as from individuals in organisations outside of the cluster. On the one hand, this clearly depends on the number, structure and quality of social relationships between individuals across cluster organisations; on the other hand, it depends on the number, structure and quality of social relationships between individuals in cluster organisations and other individuals located outside of the cluster. This ability of individuals to acquire social resources can be shaped by institutionalised or formal relationships between organisations (e.g. strategic alliances or R&D co-operations). But it is critical to emphasise that formal relationships between organisations only lead to social capital if personal contacts are formed and maintained which enable the acquisition of resources; non-personal knowledge flows between organisations through formal relationships (e.g. formal agreements to share databases) do not represent social capital.
In the cluster literature it has become fashionable to speak of local buzz and global pipelines ADDIN EN.CITE Bathelt2004828217Bathelt, H.Malmberg, A.Maskell, P.Clusters and knowledge: local buzz, global pipelines and the process of knowledge creationProgress in Human GeographyProgress in Human Geography31-562812004Feb0309-1325ISI:000189102400003<Go to ISI>://000189102400003 (Bathelt et al. 2004). There seems to be an agreement in the recent literature that both local knowledge networks and the ability to absorb external knowledge are important for economic performance. However, there is a lack of understanding of specific social mechanisms involved, and there is a great need to substantiate how and why different types of proximities matter ADDIN EN.CITE Boschma200516416417Boschma, R. A.Proximity and innovation: A critical assessmentRegional StudiesRegional Studies61-743912005Feb0034-3404ISI:000226292500005<Go to ISI>://000226292500005 Gertler200455556Gertler, M. S.Manufacturing culture: the institutional geography of industrial practice2004Oxford University Press(Gertler 2004, Boschma 2005). Here our framework outlined in the previous section can prove productive: a deep understanding of the causal mechanism requires an investigation of (a) the formation of networks, (b) the maintenance of network relations, (c) knowledge transmitted within these networks and (d) the effects for the economic cluster.
Also, our framework can contribute to the issue of which type of knowledge externalities is present. Here we have to examine whether knowledge transmissions result from relations to individuals working in the same industry (localisation economies), in other industries (Jacobs externalities) or from a local agglomeration of non-firm actors such as universities or consumers (urbanisation economies). This is also connected to the question of the micro-foundations of related/unrelated variety ADDIN EN.CITE Frenken200731231217Frenken, K.van Oort, F.Verburg, T.Related variety, unrelated variety and regional economic growthRegional StudiesRegional Studies685-6974152007WOS:000248746300009<Go to ISI>://WOS:000248746300009 10.1080/00343400601120296|issn 0034-3404(Frenken et al. 2007).
To conclude, social capital in this new understanding is not about local, closed, trust-based communities linked by strong ties as it is usually understood in economic geography and regional studies. Rather it is about the resources embedded in local and global networks that the actors in economic clusters are potentially or actually able to use for their work-related practices.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Within the context of the relational turn and the cultural turn in economic geography and regional studies, the concept of social capital highlighted the critical role of socio-cultural factors such as trust, norms, values or civic engagement for social and economic development. However as we saw in the first section, there are several shortcomings in the current literature which undermine the usefulness of the concept. Social capital tends to be a fuzzy concept with multiple meanings, and it involves problems of causality (tautological statements and a neglect of potentially negative outcomes). Furthermore, there is a lack of actor-focus and therefore a lack of understanding of social processes, and the presupposition of strong ties and cohesive communities is not warranted.
Then I presented and discussed an alternative understanding of social capital, which is an actor-based perspective on social networks and social resources. I showed that social capital defined as resources embedded in social networks which can be potentially accessed or are actually used by individuals for actions is able to overcome the limitations of the previous literature. A thorough understanding of social mechanisms requires an investigation of the formation and maintenance of social networks, an investigation of the resources that can be or are actually transmitted in these networks, and a comprehension of the effects of these resource flows on social and economic outcomes.
Thereafter I discussed how this alternative understanding of social capital can be used to characterise social capital of collectivities (e.g. organisations) at the macro-level. Here I showed that a differentiation between internal social capital (resources mobilised through relationships between members of the collectivity) and external social capital (resources mobilised through relationships between members of the collectivity and actors outside of the collectivity) is useful. Then I illustrated this with the example of economic clusters: the social capital of the economic cluster depends upon the extent to which individuals in cluster organisations are able to potentially access or actually use work-related knowledge from individuals in other cluster organisations as well as from individuals in organisations outside of the cluster.
In the current literature the notion of social capital is used in a number of ways. Given different strands of literature on this topic it is difficult to arrive at an agreement about its conceptualisation. One possible way forward would be to explore more specific sub-dimensions of social capital which are theoretically focused and more easier to operationalise as pioneered for instance by Cooke et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Cooke200528028017Cooke, P.Clifton, N.Oleaga, M.Social capital, firm embeddedness and regional developmentRegional StudiesRegional Studies1065-10773982005WOS:000233300800004<Go to ISI>://WOS:000233300800004 10.1080/00343400500328065|issn 0034-3404(2005) and Hauser et al. ADDIN EN.CITE Hauser200730030017Hauser, C.Tappeiner, G.Walde, J.The learning region: the impact of social capital and weak ties on innovationRegional StudiesRegional Studies75-884112007WOS:000245037300006<Go to ISI>://WOS:000245037300006 10.1080/00343400600928368|issn 0034-3404(2007). But to follow this path would hollow out the notion of social capital, since it would remain a vague umbrella-term. However, if the aim is to have a clear and operationalisable conceptualisation of social capital which goes beyond the superficial statement that social factors matter, the approach presented in this paper is a promising way forward. This paper argues that such a conception has the potential to put the question of social capital of economic clusters in a new perspective. It is not just about contextualising social factors in economic clusters as rightly put forward by Staber ADDIN EN.CITE Staber200729629617Staber, U.Contextualizing research on social capital in regional clustersInternational Journal of Urban and Regional ResearchInternational Journal of Urban and Regional Research505-521312007WOS:000250263300001<Go to ISI>://WOS:000250263300001 10.1111/j.1468-2427.2007.00742.x|ISSN 0309-1317(2007); additionally, the very concept of social capital needs to be more specific. Internal and external social capital of economic clusters offers a new way of characterisation with alternative perspectives for operationalisation and investigation of causal mechanisms. This also relates neatly, and is able to contribute to, the ongoing discussions on local buzz and global pipelines and the types of knowledge externalities.
Some commentators have questioned whether the capital metaphor is meaningful since in the case of social capital investment and return are not always consciously instrumental. But irrespective of the terminological question whether we want to call it social capital or for instance networked resources, the fundamental idea that actors can access and use resources through network relations remains fruitful and offers promising perspectives.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Karenjit Clare, Mia Gray and Will Harvey for helpful comments on previous versions of this paper.
Notes
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In his recent work Putnam uses a more network-based approach of social capital; he defined it as connections among individuals social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them ADDIN EN.CITE Putnam2000276192766Putnam, R.Bowling alone: the collapse and revival of American community2000New YorkSimon & Schuster(Putnam 2000, p. 19). Yet he still uses social trust (and a mixture of many other indicators such as membership of associations, honesty and morality, turnout in elections, visiting friends etc.) as a proxy for social capital.
The less problematic roots of social capital by Coleman ADDIN EN.CITE Coleman198831631617Coleman, J. S.Social capital in the creation of human-capitalAmerican Journal of SociologyAmerican Journal of SociologyS95-S120941988WOS:A1988P262400004<Go to ISI>://WOS:A1988P262400004 (1988) and Bourdieu ADDIN EN.CITE Bourdieu19863173175Bourdieu, P.Richardson, J. G.The forms of capitalHandbook of theory and research for the sociology of education241-2581986New YorkGreenwood Press(1986) have received hardly any attention. Due to limited space, the advantages and also serious limitations of these approaches cannot be discussed here ADDIN EN.CITE Field2003322see e.g. , chapter 13226Field, J.Hamilton, P.Social capitalKey ideas2003London and New YorkRoutledge(see e.g. Field 2003, chapter 1).
Granted, in regional studies Callois and Aubert ADDIN EN.CITE Callois200730130117Callois, J. M.Aubert, F.Towards indicators of social capital for regional development issues: The case of French rural areasRegional StudiesRegional Studies809-8214162007WOS:000249246900007<Go to ISI>://WOS:000249246900007 10.1080/00343400601142720|issn 0034-3404(2007) and Tura and Harmaakorpi ADDIN EN.CITE Tura200530230217Tura, T.Harmaakorpi, V.Social capital in building regional innovative capabilityRegional StudiesRegional Studies1111-11253982005WOS:000233300800007<Go to ISI>://WOS:000233300800007 10.1080/00343400500328255|issn 0034-3404(2005) have also mentioned Lins ADDIN EN.CITE Lin200285856Lin, N.Social capital. A theory of social structure and actionStructural Analysis in the Social Sciences192002CambridgeCambridge University Press(2002) definition. However, Callois and Aubert ADDIN EN.CITE Callois200730130117Callois, J. M.Aubert, F.Towards indicators of social capital for regional development issues: The case of French rural areasRegional StudiesRegional Studies809-8214162007WOS:000249246900007<Go to ISI>://WOS:000249246900007 10.1080/00343400601142720|issn 0034-3404(2007) do not elaborate on the definition and their crude indicators do not directly measure resources embedded in social networks). Tura and Harmaakorpi ADDIN EN.CITE Tura200530230217Tura, T.Harmaakorpi, V.Social capital in building regional innovative capabilityRegional StudiesRegional Studies1111-11253982005WOS:000233300800007<Go to ISI>://WOS:000233300800007 10.1080/00343400500328255|issn 0034-3404(2005) emphasise the resource aspect of social capital but do not systematically investigate social capital of collectivities and also seem to neglect spatial scales beyond the local. Also, recent literature on local labour markets has applied a more satisfying individual and network-based conception of social capital ADDIN EN.CITE Gray2007323e.g. 32317Gray, M.Kurihara, T.Hommen, L.Feldman, J.Networks of exclusion: job segmentation and social networks in the knowledge economyEqual Opportunities InternationalEqual Opportunities International144-1612622007(e.g. Gray et al. 2007).
Although network-based definitions differ slightly, the literature agrees that both social networks and the resources gained through these networks are critical.
This addresses the criticism that in economic geography lower level networks, such as among individuals or groups, are subsumed under higher-level networks among firms. [] We need to be much more attentive to the multiple levels at which networks coexist ADDIN EN.CITE Grabher2005252xxiii2525Grabher, G.Powell, W. W.Grabher, G.Powell, W. W.IntroductionNetworksCritical Studies Economic Institutions Seriesxi-xxxi2005CheltenhamEdward Elgar(Grabher and Powell 2005, p. xxiii).
This paper focused on a conceptual discussion and due to limited space did not elaborate on detailed aspects of measuring social capital. Clearly, the conceptual focus on individuals requires intelligent research designs and sampling techniques in the case of large collectivities such as economic clusters.
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