ࡱ> NPMb 9jbjb{x{x $H3B****FBknnnnnnnn,Rqnnnnnvnn%vvvnnnvd@nvvvb Fz*pvvl;0kv3v3vvBBdBBRethinking the Concept of Culture in Education Joseph A. Maxwell Marjee Chmiel In a recent book titled Redefining culture: Perspectives across the disciplines, Baldwin (2006) argued that the notion of culture is quickly gaining momentum both in scholarly explanations and in the everyday lives of people as a key aspect of explaining their social reality. This is certainly true for education. However, educators, educational researchers, and educational theorists have tended to somewhat uncritically employ a fairly traditional concept of culture in their work, and havent taken account of the controversy that has frequently surrounded the concept of culture in fields such as anthropology. Anthropologists Herve Varenne (2008) and Mica Pollock (2008), in two recent articles in the journal Anthropology and Education Quarterly, have challenged the ways educators have employed this concept. Varenne argued that educators use of culture has mostly been restricted to teaching and the factors that may facilitate or interfere with this, and has largely ignored all the ways that people learn outside of formal educational settings. Pollock chastised educators for using superficial understandings of culture in schools to explain achievement gaps, and claimed that such shallow analyses dangerously oversimplify the social processes, interactions, and practices that create disparate outcomes for children (p. 369). In this paper, we argue that some of the problems that Varenne and Pollock identify are inherent in the way culture has been conceptualized. We focus on a central assumption of the traditional definition of culture, that culture is inherently shared and socially transmitted, and propose an alternative way of conceptualizing culture. This redefinition draws on repeated critiques, mostly within anthropology although with contributions from other social sciences and from history, of the traditional concept of culture (e.g., Aberle, 1960; Berkhofer, 1973; Hannerz, 1992; Pelto & Pelto, 1975; Wallace, 1970). It is grounded in recent philosophical work on the concept of mind (particularly Putnam, 1999), and in a realist approach to both mind and culture (Maxwell, 1999, n. d.). We see culture as the domain of phenomena that are both symbolic-meaningful (i.e., part of the mental rather than physical perspective) and collective; that cannot be reduced to individual behavior or thought or subsumed in social structure; and that causally interact with both individual behavior and social structure. This definition broadens the concept of culture beyond the traditional shared and socially transmitted view to include the entire system of concepts, beliefs, premises, symbols, meanings, and values held by members of a society or social group. It does not presume that these are necessarily shared; as the anthropologist David Aberle (1960) stated, culture is a property of social systems rather than individuals, and is participated in rather than shared. The anthropologist Anthony Wallace (1970) labeled these two approaches to culture, respectively, the replication of uniformity and the organization of diversity approaches. The replication of uniformity model assumes that culture and community are based on similarityshared beliefs and valuesand that the key task of any culture is to maintain and transmit these core similarities. The organization of diversity model, in contrast, rejects this assumption that similarity is the necessary basis of culture and community, and looks at culture as a system of individually different beliefs and values that are connected through interaction. This conception supports the view that cultural properties are socially distributed in ways that the traditional understanding of culture inherently obscures. Culture cannot be represented by a model on the same scale as the individual, i.e., as a "shared" set of meanings or beliefs that could be held by a single individual, but requires a model at a higher level of complexity. It is thus a concept that is compatible with diversity, and does not presume that it is the beliefs, values, etc. that we have in common that unite us, that are the prerequisite for social solidarity and community. The extent to which the meanings, beliefs, values, and so on possessed by the individuals in a social group (the groups culture) are shared should be a matter for empirical research, not definitional fiat. Robert Berkhofer, a historian, argued that the "consensus" definition of culture incorporated a complete theory of culture without a valid foundation in research. By assuming the components of culture in the definition, anthropologists presumed the results of their analyses of various cultures. . . . Moreover, they hypothesized the articulation of these components according to the definition, so their research more frequently proved how things related according to the mind of the anthropologist than according to the minds of the people said to bear the culture. (1973, p. 91) This view of culture raises a number of questions. As Lauren Resnick asked in her introductory chapter to a major book on socially shared cognition, How can people know the same thing if they are each constructing their knowledge independently? How can social groups coordinate their actions if each individual is thinking something different? (Resnick, Levine, & Teasley, 1991, pp. 1-2). In brief, our answer to the first question is that people dont necessarily know the same things, that knowledge is socially distributed; well come back to this below. Our answer to the second question is not through similarity, but through connection and dialogue. We argue that social solidarity and community are not exclusively created by similarity, but can be the result of interaction across differences. An example of the consequences of these two views is described by Jeri Willett (1993) in a study of two first-grade classrooms in an international community characterized by substantial diversity. In one, the teacher focused on common tasks and similarities among the students, and differences were de-emphasized. Informal subgroupings occurred mostly on the basis of similarities in language proficiency, culture, and gender, and there was little dialogue across these subgroups. In the other classroom, the teacher encouraged discussion of differences and collective decision-making. Children were grouped at different times by propinquity, shared interests, or individual similarities, and subgroup membership changed frequently; as a result, the children in the classroom knew a great deal about each other. In the first classroom, Willett found that solidarity was largely limited to the subgroups; despite the teacher's emphasis on similarities among the children, there was little sense of community in the class as a whole, and subgroups sometimes disrupted class activities. In the second classroom, where diversity was openly accepted and discussed, and interaction across differences was encouraged, solidarity existed both within the subgroups and in the class as a whole; both children and parents described this classroom as "close-knit." Returning to Resnicks first question, we see this approach to culture as very consistent with, and complementary to, recent work in psychology and anthropology on what has been called socially distributed cognition, and with the basic premise of constructivist approaches to learning, that knowledge is not simply transmitted to a learner, but is constructed by the learner. This notion of distributed cognition was captured by cognitive anthropologist Edwin Hutchins, in his cognitive ethnography of navigation aboard a navy ship (1995). Hutchins noted that while the social division of labor had been carefully examined by scholars, there was little work addressing the division of cognitive labor. He showed that cognitive work within groups took on different characteristics than if one were to observe individuals performing cognitive work in isolation, and that the knowledge possessed by the navigation team was not shared, but distributed. The sociologist Karin Knorr Cetina (1999), using Hutchinss methods to study the epistemic cultures of high-energy physicists and molecular biologists, found that the cognitive system in these communities is heterogeneous; it is the diversity of skills, knowledge, background, and understanding working in tandem and in tension which enables the performance of the cognitive task. Similar results have been found by business administration researchers studying cross functional teams. This kind of structure is increasingly common in workplaces, but it requires a different kind of competency from what schools typically aim at. The transmission model of culture at the center of our educational system does not prepare students for the realities of a knowledge economy. This approach to culture also widens our view of education beyond the idea of transmission, as Varenne implies. The idea of culture as necessarily transmitted is ultimately in conflict with a constructivist view of learning, as the former tends to produce what the anthropologist Claudia Strauss (1992, p. 9) called the fax model of socialization: the teacher/adult has something, and sends this to the student/child, who then has a copy of it. Broadening the concept of culture to include much more than what is transmitted from one generation to another opens new ways of thinking about how education can occur. In particular, it emphasizes the value of dialogue across differences. An example of this is a recent paper by Boaler and Staples in Teachers College Record (2008). They report a mixed method study of a low SES, ethnically diverse high school, which they called Railside, whose math program emphasized heterogeneous classes, group work, diverse ways of understanding, and students taking responsibility for each others learning, and of two other less diverse and more affluent high schools that used traditional, transmission-oriented teaching. They found that within two years the students at Railside, who had started at substantially lower achievement levels than in the other schools, were significantly outperforming the students at the other schools, and showed substantially less difference in achievement between different ethnic and economic groups. In addition, the students at Railside enjoyed mathematics more and progressed to higher math levels than the students at the other schools. In conclusion, we have argued that a less restrictive definition of culture, one that incorporates diversity and the social distribution of cognition, can facilitate educators ability to improve learning and create community in schools and other settings. References Aberle, D. F. (1960). The influence of linguistics on early culture and personality theory. In G. Dole and R. Carneiro, Eds. Essays in the science of culture in honor of Leslie A. White. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell. Baldwin, J. R., Faulkner, S. L., Hecht, M. L., & Lindsley, S. L. (2005). Redefining culture: Perspectives across the disciplines. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Berkhofer, (1973). Clio and the culture concept: Some impressions of a changing relationship in American historiography. In L. Schneider and C. M. Bonjean, Eds., The idea of culture in the social sciences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Boaler, J., & Staples, M. (2008). Creating mathematical futures through an equitable teaching approach: The case of Railside school. Teachers College Record 110(3), pp. 608-645. Hannerz, U. (1992). Cultural complexity: Studies in the social organization of meaning. New York: Columbia University Press. Hutchins, E. (1995). Cognition in the wild. Cambridge: MIT Press. Knorr Cetina, K. (1999). Epistemic cultures: How the sciences make knowledge. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Maxwell, J. A. (1999). A realist/postmodern concept of culture. In E. L. Cerroni-Long (Ed.), Anthropological theory in North America (pp. 14373). Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey. Maxwell, J. A. (n. d.). A realist approach to qualitative research. To be published by Sage Publications. Pelto, P., & Pelto, G. (1975). Intra-cultural diversity: Some theoretical issues. American Ethnologist 2, pp. 1-18. Pollock, M. (2008). From shallow to deep: Toward a thorough cultural analysis of school achievement patterns. Anthropology and Education Quarterly 39(4), 369-380. Putnam, H. (1999). The threefold cord: Mind, body, and world. New York: Columbia University Press. Resnick, L. B., Levine, J. M., & Teasley, S. D. (Eds.) (1991). Perspectives on socially shared cognition. Washington DC: American Psychological Association. Strauss, C. (1992). Models and motives. In R. G. D'Andrade and C. Strauss (Eds.), Human motives and cultural models. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Varenne, H. (2008). Culture, education, anthropology. Anthropology and Education Quarterly 39(4), 356-368. Wallace, A. F. C. (1970). Culture and personality, 2nd ed. New York: Random House. Willett, J. (1993). Constructing difference in community. 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