ࡱ> 5@ bjbj22.XXX72228*33#VF4F4"h4h4h4:::~UUUUUUUVR+YU]^;S9:^;^;Uh4h4U4?4?4?^;"h4h4~U4?^;~U4? 4?T?SUh4:4 XD2;S~UU0#VS6Yn<Y,UYUp::4?: ;S:::UU/1D?1SEMINAR 10B ADJECTIVES and ADVERBS (1) Characteristics of the adjective Four features are considered to be characteristic of adjectives (but not all adjectives share all four features!) they can occur in ATTRIBUTIVE function they premodify a noun as in: an ugly painting, the round table, dirty linen they can occur in PREDICATIVE function they function as subject complement (e.g. The painting is ugly.) or object complement (e.g. He thought the painting ugly.) !! Some adjectives have both attributive and predicative function these are called CENTRAL (e.g. happy, infinite). Some adjectives can be only attributive (e.g. utter) or only predicative (e.g. afraid) these are called PERIPHERAL they can be premodified by very, e.g. The children are very happy. they can take comparative and superlative forms either by means of inflections (-er, -est) or by adding premodifiers (more and most) !! Features c) and d) depend on a semantic feature the so called GRADABILITY (some adjectives are gradable, others are non-gradable) i.e. if the adjective is non-gradable very and comparative and superlative forms are not possible!!  e.g. an atomic scientist - very atomic scientist, more atomic scientist Note: Some suffixes are found only, or typically with adjectives, but many adjectives have no identifying form: adj. suffixes: -able (comfortable) -al (seasonal) -ful (playful) -ic (scientific) -ish (greyish) -less (useless) -ous (dangerous) -y (dirty) The adjective and other word classes A) Adjectives and adverbs Normally, there is a regular difference between an adjective (a rapid car) and adverb (He drove rapidly.) But: there are words which have the same form in adjective and adverb functions e.g. Bill drove a fast car. (adj.) v. Bill drove fast. (adv.) She arrived in the late afternoon. v. She arrived late in the afternoon. sometimes there is also an ly adverb with a different meaning e.g. Have you seen her lately? (=recently) sometimes there are two forms: Take a deep breath. (adj) Breathe deep. (esp. informal) (adv) Breathe deeply. (adv) d) there are some words in ly that can function both as adjectives and adverbs! e.g. I caught an early train. v. We finished early today. That was a kindly gesture. v. Will you kindly refrain from smoking? (kind is also possible) + other words denoting time: monthly, daily, hourly, weekly e.g. Exercise has become part of my daily routine. V. She gets paid daily. Note: - words daily and monthly are also nouns: e.g. The story was covered in all the national dailies. - if the adjective ends in ly (friendly, lively, masterly, lonely, cowardly), we normally form the adverb meaning using an adjective construction:  e.g. She received us in a friendly way. (not: friendlily) B) Adjectives and adverbs beginning with a- - some words beginning with a- are adjectives they can be used predicatively with be and other copular (linking) verbs - adverbs beginning with a- can be used only with be (out of the copular verbs) e.g. The patient was asleep / hungry. (adj) The patient was abroad / there. (adv)  The patient seemed asleep / hungry. But not! The patient seemed abroad /there. - a- adjectives refer to temporary states they cannot be used after verbs of motion! - a- adverbs denote direction after such verbs: e.g. Jane went asleep. - Jane went abroad / away. (adv) Common a- adjectives include: ablaze, alive, alike, afloat, afraid, alone, ashamed, asleep, aware, awake ! they are used predicatively:  e.g. The children were asleep. Not! The asleep children & . ! The sleeping children  The girl was afraid. Not! The afraid girl& ! The frightened girl& . Note: -  alert and  aloof can occur attributively:  an alert mind ;  aloof character (=reserved) - most other a- adjectives can occur attributively only when modified: e.g. a somewhat afraid soldier the fast asleep children a really alive student (lively) C) Adjectives and nouns - nouns commonly function as premodifiers of other nouns: the bus station, a business friend, student grants - unlike adjectives, nouns: have no corresponding predicative function. (The station was bus.) cannot be modified by very cannot take comparison Nouns have other features that distinguish them from adjectives: article contrast, number contrast, genitive inflection, etc. !Some items can be both adjectives and nouns (=conversion) e.g. criminal (adj) v. noun attributive adj a criminal attack predicative adj The attack seemed criminal to us. (=very bad or morally wrong) noun The criminal pleaded guilty. Other examples of conversion from adjective to noun: Adj. Noun a black student There was only one black in my class. a classic book You wont find many classics in our library. intellectual interests She considers herself an intellectual. a noble family The king greeted his nobles. a six-year-old boy Our six-year-old is at school. Note: - like adjectives, nouns can function as subject complement after copular verbs: e.g. That man is a fool. / She became a nurse. - some nouns can also be used as subject complement after seem: e.g. He seems a fool. Your remark seems (complete) nonsense to me. His friend seems very much an Englishman. (=very English) D) Adjectives and participles - there are many adjectives that have the same suffixes as participles - -ing or ed these are called participial adjectives: e.g. His views were surprising. (predicative use) His surprising views were.. (attributive use) The man seemed very offended. (predicative use) The offended man refused (attributive use) - they include forms in ed that have no corresponding verbs (e.g. to unexpect, to talent) e.g. The results were unexpected. v. the unexpected results . All his friends are talented. v. his talented friends Since there are no corresponding verbs, the forms are obviously not participles! - when there is a corresponding verb, attributively used ed forms usually have a passive meaning (but not always!) e.g. lost property = property that has been lost (passive) the escaped prisoner = the prisoner who has escaped (active) Adjective or participle? Often the difference between the adj. and participle is not clear-cut, but the grammatical context distinguishes the verbal and adjectival use: Compare: a) His views were alarming the audience. (since alarming is followed by an object it is participle) b) His views were very alarming. (intensifier very alarming is an adjective) c) The man was offended by the policeman. (by indicates there is a corresponding active form offended is participle) d) The man was very offended. (very offended is an adjective) However, without any such indicators (very, by, objects), the meaning is not clear the sentence can be interpreted in two ways:  participle = focus on the process e.g. The man was offended. adjective = focus on the state resulting from the process Note: Some verbs have different participle forms for verbal and adjectival use: e.g. You have drunk too much. v. drunk / drunken driver Have you shaved? v. a clean-shaven man This shirt has shrunk. v. a shrunken shirt SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS OF ADJECTIVES 1) Attributive v. predicative - adj. are attributive when they premodify the head of a noun phrase: e.g. a small garden, popular ballads - adj. are predicative when they function as subject or object complement: e.g. He seems careless. (subj. compl.) v. I find him careless. (obj. compl) - adj. are subject complement to noun phrase, and also to finite clauses (see a) below) and non-finite clauses (see b) below): That you need a car is obvious. Whether she will resign is uncertain. To complain may be dangerous. Playing chess can be enjoyable. - adj. can also be object complement to clauses: e.g. I consider what he did foolish. I consider taking such risks foolish. 2) Postpositive - adj. can sometimes be postpositive = they can immediately follow the noun or pronoun they modify - we many have 3 positions of adjectives: predicative  The information is useful. attributive  useful information postpositive - something useful ! a postpositive adj. can usually be regarded as a reduced relative clause: e.g. something useful = something that is useful - compound indefinite pronouns and adverbs ending in body, -one, -thing, -where can be modified only postpositively! e.g. Anyone (who is) intelligent can do it. I want to try on something (that is) larger. Were not going anywhere exciting. Obviously, adj. that can occur only attributively cannot be used in this way:  e.g. something (that is) main Note: - there are several institutionalized expressions (mostly in official designations) where the adjective is postpositive: e.g. the president elect, heir apparent, attorney general, notary public, proof positive - adjectives in able and ible can be postpositive or attributive when they are modified by another adjective in the superlative degree or by certain other modifiers (e.g. first, last, next, only) e.g. The best use possible is to (also: the best possible use) The greatest insult imaginable. The only actor suitable was Henry. Or The only suitable actor was Henry. (but: The only actor suitable for the part was.) The choice of attributive or postpositive position can involve an important difference in meaning!! e.g. the stars visible (= stars visible at a time specified, now, etc. = temporary!) the visible stars (= stars that can generally be seen) the members present (= the members who were at the meeting) the present members (= those are members now) !Postposition is usual for: absent, present, concerned, involved- when they refer to temporary attributes!! 3) Adjectives with complementation - normally, these adjectives cannot have attributive position they require postposition: e.g. an actor suitable for the part Not! a suitable for the part actor - the complementation can be a prepositional phrase or infinitive: e.g. They have a house larger than yours. (or: They have a larger house than yours.) The boys easiest to teach were in my class. (or: The easiest boys to teach were) 4) Adjectives as heads of noun phrases (e.g. the poor) - can be subject, complement, object, prepositional complement - do not have plural inflection or genitive case - refer to certain well-established classes of persons: the brave, the innocent, the elderly, the weak, etc. - we can distinguish 3 types: adj. which can premodify personal nouns (e.g. the young people the young) have plural and generic reference: e.g. The poor are causing the nations leaders great concern. The extremely old need a great deal of attention. The young in spirit enjoy life. - instead of the, which is the most common, possessives are also possible: e.g. It is the duty of the Government to care for our poor, our unemployed. b) adj. denoting nationalities ending in -ish (e.g. British, Spanish, Welsh), -ch (Dutch, French), -ese (Chinese, Japanese) and the adj. Swiss e.g. The industrious Dutch are admired by their neighbours. You French and we British ought to be allies. c) adj. with abstract reference (unlike a) and b), these have singular concord!) e.g. The best is yet to come. - this category is restricted to certain fixed expressions: the unknown, the unreal, the exotic, the supernatural Note: - there are some set expressions in which the adj. with abstract reference is the complement of a preposition: e.g. He left for good. (= for ever) in short in common out of the ordinary He enjoyed it to the full. 5) Verbless clauses - adjectives can function as the sole realization of a verbless clause: e.g. The man, quietly assertive, spoke to the assembled workers. Unhappy with the result, she returned to work. Long and untidy, his hair played in the breeze. 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