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Miller  HYPERLINK "mailto:tpm@u.arizona.edu" tpm@u.arizona.edu  HYPERLINK "http://www.gened.arizona.edu/tmiller/rsa.htm" http://www.gened.arizona.edu/tmiller/rsa.htm Discussions of how rhetoricians in English and communications can work more closely together have focused on shared areas of study. In considering such possibilities, it is important to look past prevailing models of disciplines as distinct areas of scholarship to examine the pragmatics of what practitioners do. The distinction between fields of study and fields of work is particularly important in considering the assumptions and purposes of rhetorical studies. On both sides of the modern divide between the arts and sciences, rhetoric is concerned with the pragmatics of discourse--with the situational constraints, collective purposes, and political assumptions that shape the conditions and consequences of ideas and practices, including those that define rhetoric itself. Assuming such a perspective can help us to reflect upon the potentials of work with rhetoric in communications and English studies. In one of the more notable attempts to foster collaborations between rhetoricians in communications and English departments, the Alliance of Rhetoric Societies’ Conference on the Status and Future of Rhetorical Studies, one of the four sets of questions set for the discussion concerned teaching: “What does it mean to teach rhetoric?  What does it mean to teach composition and performance seriously?  What is the relationship between rhetoric and composition?  Should they be distinguished?” ( HYPERLINK "http://www.comm.umn.edu/ARS/" http://www.comm.umn.edu/ARS/). A couple of points in these framing questions bear note: it is assumed that the parallel to composition in communications is “performance,” but that parallel is apparently not strong enough to support the following line of questioning, which focuses on only one of the two disciplinary points of reference. The responses of the participants from communications and English departments are interesting in a predictable way because those in communications tend to treat rhetoric as a theoretical and critical art, and the others largely identify rhetorical studies with the teaching of composition. Such tendencies arise from the disciplinary locations and locutions that shape what rhetoric has come to be about in communications and English departments. The two fields of work have historically defined each other in ways that bear note. On one side of the arts and sciences, rhetoric has been defined by the dominance of literary studies, and on the other by social science methodologies. The divisions run through the types of work done in the fields. In English, rhetoric’s identification with composition was marginalized when rhetoricians concerned with public address and journalism left the area, leaving composition and “creative writing” as polar opposites without journalistic genres and other forms of public discourse to mediate between them. In communications, the identification of rhetoric with speech came to be compounded by a tendency to define rhetorical theory by classical models. These tendencies have been called into question by the technological changes that have undermined the traditional functions of English departments as bastions of the culture of the book, and the interdisciplinary trends that are identified with cultural studies have opened up possibilities to redress institutional divisions. For that to occur, we need to attend to the differing functions and institutional dynamics in the two fields of work. Some of those differences can be noted by taking account of enrollments in the decades when rhetoric and composition were reestablished in English departments and the comparative graduate and undergraduate enrollments today: Degrees in English, Communications and Selected Disciplines Discipline  1970-1 BAs 1980-1 BAs 1990-1 BAs 2000-1 BAs 2000-1 Masters 2000-1 Doctorates Total...............839,730935,140 1,094,5381,244,171 542,01044,904Business....114,729198,983249,311265,746 116,4751180Communications...........10,32429,42851,65058,013 5,218368Communications technologies..................4781,8541,1231,050 5332Computer and info sciences ...................2,38815,12125,08341,954 16,038768Education ............176,307108,074110,807105,566 145,1046716English lang and lit/letters ....................64,34232,25451,84151,419 6,9411,506Psychology.............38,18741,06858,65573,534 15,196 4,659 Table drawn up from tables 252 and 257 from the U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System, ( HYPERLINK "http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d02/tables/dt252.asp" http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d02/tables/dt252.asp; and  HYPERLINK "http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d02/tables/dt257.asp" http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d02/tables/dt257.asp) What are the purposes of studying english and communications? Selected Mission Statements: Lake Erie College WHAT IS THE COMMUNICATIONS MAJOR? This major provides students with courses both in writing processes and in the history and theory of different forms of communication. This double focus is based on the belief that the processes of oral and written communication must be grounded in substantive understanding of their theoretical and historical backgrounds. WHAT IS THE ENGLISH MAJOR? The major in English is directed towards the student who seeks a background in British and American literature as the basis of study in the liberal arts or who wishes to pursue graduate studies in this field. Students may also wish to combine courses in English with a major in another field such as History or Communications. ( HYPERLINK "http://www.lec.edu/academics/academ1.html" http://www.lec.edu/academics/academ1.html) Communication and Culture Department, Indiana University The Department of Communication and Culture (CMCL) advances the study of communication as a cultural practice, and teaches an array of perspectives that enable students to prepare broadly for a variety of careers. Requirements for the major and minor are flexible in order to promote individualized programs of study in three interrelated aspects of communication: rhetoric, media, and performance and ethnographic studies. Rhetorical studies orient students to the strategic dimension of human communication associated with deliberation, advocacy, and persuasion in a variety of social, political, and professional settings. Studies of media focus primarily on film and television, with additional emphasis on topics such as radio, recorded music, and interactive digital technologies. Performance and ethnographic studies explore an array of communicative practices, from the conversations and disputes of everyday life to artful performances at cultural events, which are the competencies essential for participation in social life. It also brings intercultural and transnational considerations into focus by examining how diversity and differences of various kinds are negotiated across boundaries. Together, these three dimensions examine linkages among corporate, social, and governmental organizations, ideology, and politics, showing how communication influences public cultures across the globe. They provide a strong grounding in the history, theory, production, and critique of communication that ranges from interpersonal dialogue, storytelling, and presentational speaking to film and television.  HYPERLINK "http://www.indiana.edu/~bulletin/iub/coas/comm.html#course" http://www.indiana.edu/~bulletin/iub/coas/comm.html#course Department of English, Appalachain State University The Department of English has as its most fundamental goal helping all students to develop literacy and analytical skills that will lead to life long learning. . . . [W]e strive to help students become literate, articulate, and open-minded, qualities that are the hallmarks of a liberal education. The study of literature and the exploration of language and writing – the primary activities in the Department of English – are critical elements to liberal education. One way the department contributes to the achievement of a liberal education is through its freshman writing and literature series, where we strive to help students understand the function and power of language and appreciate our shared literary heritage. . . . The Department of English serves those students who seek to become teachers of literature and writing as well as those who wish to enter graduate and professional education in literature and writing. We also serve those students who wish to develop their writing and other communication skills for career planning in business and industry. . . .  HYPERLINK "http://www.english.appstate.edu/mission.html" http://www.english.appstate.edu/mission.html Communications Program offered by Depts. of English and Art and Visual Culture, Centenary College Communicating successfully in our technology-infused world requires a combination of strong speaking and writing skills as well as an in-depth understanding of visual and interactive modes of expression such as photography, film and multimedia. Centenary communication majors explore all of these areas through a rich body of courses that approach human communication as a cultural and social phenomenon. Our project-oriented curriculum challenges students to draw on their broad liberal arts education and their own creativity to address the types of problems communication professionals face regularly. In writing and production courses such as Writing for the Mass Media, Video and Film Production, and Multimedia Design, professors work closely with students to help them learn skills and develop strategies necessary for producing creative, effective media texts. Similarly, professors in courses such as History of Photography and Cyberculture provide opportunities for students to investigate the relationship between media and culture; in so doing, student develop analytical skills crucial to understanding how media texts influence and are, in turn, influences by society. The major culminates in the Senior Seminar in which students prepare for their job or graduate school search by creating electronic portfolios that feature the best examples from the communication projects begun in their courses, internships, community service, and campus media work. The communication curriculum is designed to give students experience with a wide range of media while also allowing them to concentrate their major coursework in the medium that best corresponds to their personal and professional goals. After getting a broad introduction to communication studies students pursue one of three tracks: professional writing, film/television/video, or new media.  HYPERLINK "http://www.centenary.edu/majors/communication/" http://www.centenary.edu/majors/communication/ What is an english major about, besides literature? Undergraduate English programs were surveyed by MLA in 1984, and over five hundred institutions were surveyed in 1991. Two thirds of all undergraduate courses were in writing, half were in composition, and one quarter were in literature. While the percentages were higher in public than in private institutions (67% vs. 49%), 60% of all respondents said that computers were used in at least some writing classes. Most departments reported English education offerings, with almost twenty percent hoping to expand them, and another quarter that English education received little support. Requirements and majors varied by types of institutions. Many large institutions (more than 15,000) had more wide-ranging requirements, but such departments were less likely than either mid-sized public institutions or departments with joint programs to require linguistics, the history of language, rhetoric, and general or advanced writing courses. Huber speculates that this pattern may be due to the fact that these courses were required in English education majors, and there clearly was a broad concern for raising the disciplinary base of education majors. The following statistics are based on a sample of over 300 departments: Percentages of Majors Requiring Writing and Language Courses by type of departments Joint Programs Depts. Separate English Depts.Midsized Public Small Private Very Large Writing 45.3 33.8 23.3  26.9 Lang, ling, and rhetoric 32.8 30.8 10.0  17.9 Adv. Comp or writing 58.3 57.4 29.6  34.2 History of English or comparative grammar 62.5 48.5 23.2  35.4  Bettina Huber. “Undergraduate English Programs: Findings from an MLA Survey of the 1991-1992 Year.” ADE Bulletin 115 (Winter 1996): 34-73 While most departments (56%) offered concentrations in more than literature, the percentages increase with the size of the institution, with 71.1% of institutions of more than 15,000 having other majors, 58.6% of institutions with 2,000 to 15,000, and 38.9% of those with fewer than 2,000 students. Percentage of Departments Offering Courses in 1989-91Courses Offered 2 Yr 4 Yr All Composition 97.4 95.6 96.2 Creative Wrtg74.4 89.6 84.5 Develop English 88.5 63.2 70.6 Prof/ tech wrtg 57.7 65.4 63.2 Upper-level Comp/rhet 0.0 79.7 55.5 Journalism 52.6 36.5 41.4 Rhet/comp theory 9.0 40.1 30.9 Am lit survey 81.4 86.8 85.1 Brit lit survey 71.8 81.9 78.8 World lit survey 60.3 60.7 60.9 Shakespeare 37.2 97.3 78.8 Chaucer 0.6 72.5 50.8 Milton 0.0 56.6 39.3 Other single- or dual author 2.6 45.9 32.6 Genre courses 48.1 82.4 71.6 Period courses14.1 75.8 57.1 Lit crit/ theory 1.3 74.2 52.1 History Engl lang 3.2 69.0 49.0 Lit analysis 0.6 27.7 19.5 Women writers 33.3 71.2 59.4 Ethnic/minority lit24.4 69.0 55.3 Film or film &lit 40.4 61.5 55.2 Linguistics 5.8 50.0 36.6 Myth/folklore 23.7 42.3 36.5 Speech 51.3 23.4 32.1 Comparative grammar 3.8 34.9 25.4   Number of depts. 156 364 524 Percentages of Concentrations in Departments Offering Concentrations Area of Concentration 1991-92 1884-85 Literature (general) 72.2  Creative writing 54.6 56.9 Writing (e.g., professional, technical) 45.9 29.2 English education 42.8 57.4 American literature 31.4  Communications (e.g., journalism, speech, drama) 20.1 25.2 Linguistics 13.4 19.3   For related research and analysis, see “What’s going on with English majors?” at  HYPERLINK "http://www.gened.arizona.edu/tmiller/ccc.htm" http://www.gened.arizona.edu/tmiller/ccc.htm What is a communications major? Comparatively less research has been done on communications majors, which vary much more As defined by the Department of Education, Communications studies “modes and behavioral aspects of human communications and the formal means by which society organizes communication.” widely than programs of study in English. While English majors have begun to expand beyond traditional conceptions of literature, in part as a result of the influence of cultural studies, communications do not have a traditional set of core concerns and vary from media studies or mass communications through communication skills programs to departments and colleges stressing journalism, broadcasting, or the performing arts. Many such disciplinary configurations may have rhetorical sources or associations, but very few foreground them as a shared background for the programs of study. The most detailed study of communications curricula that I know of is June H. Smith and Patricia H. Turner’s “Survey of Communication Department Curriculum in Four-Year Colleges and Universities” in the Journal of Association for Communication Administration (1993) 1: 34-49, which surveyed the course catalogues of 856 respondents (for a response rate of 50% of the1712 institutions they identified). Smith and Turner set out to survey curricula and then use the results to assess how well students were being prepared for the skills that they would need in the jobs that communications graduates typically enter in business, education, and health and social science work. From prior studies, Smith and Turner set out a skills inventory for communications majors: “interpersonal communication, small group meetings, interviewing, understanding of theory, organizational communication patterns, persuasion, and public speaking” (35). Smith and Turner’s study of the curricula of 856 institutions found that 79.6% of the institutions have a communications studies department, which in 67% of the cases used communications rather than speech to identify the discipline. Departments in institutions with more than 10,000 students were far less likely to give multiple degrees, with less than 17% offering multiple degrees, as compared to 40% of those with enrollments between 1,000 and 5,000, which according to Smith and Turner tend to be “multi-disciplinary departments offering the most diverse degree options” (45). Speech and “communications arts” departments were also less likely to have multiple majors than those designated communications departments. The 682 departments in Smith and Turner’s sample also gave degrees in Drama 35%, Radio/TV 41%, Journalism 33%, Public Relations 26%, Advertising 24%, and others. The most offered courses: Public Speaking 81%, Intro to Broadcasting 67%, Interpersonal Com. 67%, Survey 66%, Practicum 66%, Oral Interpretation 60%, Debate 57%, TV/Production 57% Organizational Com 53%, Communication Theory 53%, Public Relations 53%, Radio/Production 50%, Rhetoric/Public Address 48%, Broadcasting News 47%, Persuasion 42%, and Group Communications 42%. Another survey of course offerings is provided by William Wardrope’s “Reflections on Undergraduate Communication Education: A Curricular Profile of U.S. Communications Departments” in Communication Education (1999): 256-9. Using the National Communications Association directory of 420 departments, Wardope studied 148 responding departments (35%). Perhaps because of the vagaries of characterizing courses, or because of evolving trends, Wardrope found these to be the most commonly offered courses: Interpersonal Com 71.6% Group Discussion 68.2% Communication Theory 66.2% Organizational Communication 66.2% Public Speaking 64.1% Persuasion 64.1% Argumentation and Debate 60.8% Multicultural Communication 54.7% Communication Research Methods 50% Rhetorical Criticism 47.9% Business and Professional Speaking 45.9% Curricula in one of the most dynamic areas of collaboration between English and communications departments are surveyed in Earl McDowell’s “A Curricular Profile of United States Technical Communications Departments at the Beginning of the 21st Century,” Annual Meeting of the National Communication Association, Atlanta, 2001 (ERIC # ED 461 140). McDowell reports a five hundred percent increase in technical communications programs in the last twenty years. Of the 60 programs studied from the Society for Technical Communications’ listings of 148 programs, 40% required coursework in rhetoric. How rhetorical are english and communications majors? A survey of majors in a stratified sample of 100 four-year institutions % of offerings by type of institutionBAA n=4BAG n=22BAL n=15MA2 n=8MA1 n=34DI n=7DE n=10% institutions with rhetoric course25%36%7%50%45%29%80%% with > 2 rhetoric crs000091440% with Engl majors100100938897100100% with com majors100865363828690% of English majors with rhetoric crs2520713242930% of com majors with rhetoric crs0303860434367% institutions with English department2560863885100100% with com dept.0455325828690% with joint depts.5027038900% with other depts2500133010*45% of surveyed institutions include a rhetoric course. 8% include more than two rhetoric courses. 96% include English majors. 82% include communications majors. 20% of English majors have at least one rhetoric course. 40% of Communications majors include rhetoric. The most common rhetoric courses (A course such as Theories of Rhetorical Criticism is listed in more than one category) Communications 24 Rhetorical Theory 13 Rhetorical Criticism 12 Rhetoric and Public Address 5 History of Rhetoric 2 Classical Rhetoric English 16 Rhetoric and Composition 5 Rhetoric and Composition Theory 2 History of Rhetoric 2 Political Rhetorics These Carnegie Foundation categories were used to draw up the stratified sample of the 1478 four-year institutions in the US:  HYPERLINK "http://www.gened.arizona.edu/tmiller/a_hundred_english_majors.htm" \l "Baccalaureate and Associate Colleges#Baccalaureate and Associate Colleges" BA/AA Colleges (4%) (at least 10% BA degrees) 321   HYPERLINK "http://www.gened.arizona.edu/tmiller/a_hundred_english_majors.htm" \l "Baccalaureate Colleges, General#Baccalaureate Colleges, General" BA Colleges,General  (22%) (<50% degrees in liberal arts) 228   HYPERLINK "http://www.gened.arizona.edu/tmiller/a_hundred_english_majors.htm" \l "Liberal Arts Baccalaureate Colleges (15%)#Liberal Arts Baccalaureate Colleges (15%)" BA Colleges—Liberal Arts (15%) (>50% in liberal arts) 115  HYPERLINK "http://www.gened.arizona.edu/tmiller/a_hundred_english_majors.htm" \l "Masters Colleges and Universities#Masters Colleges and Universities" MA Colleges and Universities 2 (8%) (>20 MAs offered annually) 496   HYPERLINK "http://www.gened.arizona.edu/tmiller/a_hundred_english_majors.htm" \l "ma 1#ma 1"   HYPERLINK "http://www.gened.arizona.edu/tmiller/a_hundred_english_majors.htm" \l "ma 1#ma 1" MA Colleges and Universities 1 (34%) (>40 MAs annually in >3 areas) 110  HYPERLINK "http://www.gened.arizona.edu/tmiller/a_hundred_english_majors.htm" \l "Doctoral/Research University, Intensive (7%)#Doctoral/Research University, Intensive (7%)" Doctoral/Research—Intensive (7%) (>10 doctorates in >3 areas) 151  HYPERLINK "http://www.gened.arizona.edu/tmiller/a_hundred_english_majors.htm" \l "Doctoral/Research University, Extensive (10%)#Doctoral/Research University, Extensive (10%)"   HYPERLINK "http://www.gened.arizona.edu/tmiller/a_hundred_english_majors.htm" \l "Doctoral/Research University, Extensive (10%)#Doctoral/Research University, Extensive (10%)" Doctoral/Research—Extensive (10%) (>50 doctoral degrees >15 areas)  HYPERLINK "http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/Classification/CIHE2000/PartIfiles/partI.htm" http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/Classification/CIHE2000/PartIfiles/partI.htm (for full listing, see website) This survey only includes courses that havee rhetoric in the course title. If a course emphasizes political debates or the art of persuasion but does not include rhetoric in its title, it is not included. Most rhetoric courses in English pair the study with composition, while in communications rhetoric is associated with criticism or is defined as a theoretical study, often identified with classical sources, as in this example: COM 4111. Theory and Criticism of Rhetorical Communication Study of the classical foundation of rhetorical theory with emphasis on Greek and Roman contributions and theorists. A study of methodologies of rhetorical criticism including those of the classical-traditional, experiential, new rhetoric and contemporary. Application of rhetorical theory and criticism to actual rhetorical events and situations. Appalachain State University  HYPERLINK "http://www.appstate.edu/www_docs/catalogs/undergrad/com_subj.html" http://www.appstate.edu/www_docs/catalogs/undergrad/com_subj.html Sometimes the rhetorical tradition is cited to characterize a program of study, and yet no rhetoric course is included, as in the Applied Communications major at Gonzaga University: The Applied Communication Studies major combines the classical liberal arts tradition of rhetoric with contemporary trends in Speech Communication with special emphasis on organizational studies and leadership. The major is founded on the Jesuit ideal of producing leaders who excell in "Ars eloquentiae," - the ability to communicate effectively in professional settings. More specifically, the program serves students who plan to pursue a career in public service, non-profit administration, teaching, government, business or law. Experienced faculty provide foundational major is a blend of the academic and the practical since it is designed to make students better communicators, not merely by developing interpersonal and public speaking skills but by having them understand the centrality of communication in the development of thought and culture.  HYPERLINK "http://www.gonzaga.edu/Academics/Colleges+and+Schools/College+of+Arts+and+Sciences/Communication+Arts/Applied+Communication+Studies/default.htm" http://www.gonzaga.edu/Academics/Colleges+and+Schools/College+of+Arts+and+Sciences/Communication+Arts/Applied+Communication+Studies/default.htm What is studied in the more rhetorically-oriented majors in the sample? Rhetorical and Applied English major, Selected Courses, St Cloud University 191. Introduction to Rhetorical and Analytical Writing Analytical reading, writing, and critical reasoning in various rhetorical situations. Argumentative research project comprising analysis and interpretation of information, texts, and perspectives. 300. Introduction to English Studies English as a field of study with emphasis on literary and rhetorical analysis. Strategies by which we interpret and create texts, including poetry, fiction, drama, and essay. 310. Early American Literature Through 1830 Studies in American authors and literary and rhetorical traditions from the beginning to 1830. 311. American Literature: 1830-1900 Studies in American literary and rhetorical traditions and movements from the early nineteenth-century to 1900. 315. Advanced Studies in American Indian Literature In-depth study of some aspect or genre of American Indian literature such as rhetorical or popular prose, poetry, short fiction, the novel, or the autobiography. 331. Advanced Expository Writing Exploration of principles and practices of essay and expository writing. May include investigation, interpretation, analysis, or reflection. Focus on disinterested "exposition." 332. Writing in the Professions Study and practice in the writing required in business, industry, and government: may include proposals, abstracts, resumes, business and administrative letters and memos, and technical reports. 333. Advanced Rhetorical Writing A rhetorical approach to writing and to the evaluation of various forms of written discourse. 403/503. Computers and English Impact of computers in humanities and English studies: history, theory, and practice of electronically mediated communication; print and electronic literacies; modes of discourse and theories of language, community, and self. 431/531. The Rhetoric of Style Historical and conceptual study of written style both sentence and extended discourse levels from perspective of rhetorical effectiveness. Extensive practice in developing stylistic competence and strategies with a focus on technical skills. 432/532. Specialized Professional Writing Advanced study and practice of writing in selected areas. Variable content may include technical and scientific writing, proposal writing, government report writing, and administrative writing. 433. Theories of Rhetoric and Writing Investigation of rhetorical theories and concepts from both historical and contemporary perspectives and how they shape practices of literacy and writing. Focus on writing as theoretical construct. 490. Senior Seminar Capstone experience for English BA majors. Students will assemble a portfolio demonstrating integration of knowledge, skills, and concepts from their major program. Research project and a paper. 497. Internship Department approved and directed field experience with an approved agency. Learning contract required. In the Rhetorical and Applied Writing major.  HYPERLINK "http://bulletin.stcloudstate.edu/courses.asp?deptCode=engl" http://bulletin.stcloudstate.edu/courses.asp?deptCode=engl Communications Major University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee Undergraduate coursework is divided into these four areas: Applied Communication Area Interpersonal/Intercultural Communication Area Organizational Communication Area Rhetorical/Public Communication Area Rhetorical and Public Communication: 264 Persuasive Speaking. Designed specifically to increase students' understanding of and proficiency in various techniques and modes of persuasive speaking. 313 Human Communication and Technology. Examination of the actual and potential role of technology in facilitating satisfying communication relationships. 362 Argumentation and Debate. The theory and practice of argumentation with emphasis on critical thinking, argument analysis, and preparation of policy and evaluative arguments. 435 Rhetoric in Western Thought. A survey of rhetorical theory in western thinking since ancient Greece. 436 Recent Rhetorical Theory. Recent American and European theories of rhetoric as a dimension of human communication. 440 Contemporary Problems in Freedom of Speech. The rationale and development of the First Amendment as applied to current problems of speech communication. 462 Communication in the Legal Process. Theory and research in argumentation and persuasion and application in the legal process. 464 Theory and Practice of Persuasion. Consideration of principles and methods of persuasion, with practice in the analysis and preparation of persuasive messages. 651 Current Topics in Rhetorical/Public Communication: (Subtitled). Research-oriented approaches to rhetorical/public communication. Specific topics announced in timetables when course is offered. 667 Great American Speakers and Issues. Selected great speakers and their speeches on major issues in American history. 672 Communication and Social Order. The role of communication in both maintaining and challenging social structures and hierarchies.  HYPERLINK "http://www.uwm.edu/ugbulletin/SC/D_LS_245.html" http://www.uwm.edu/ugbulletin/SC/D_LS_245.html Other interdisciplinary alternatives for rhetorical studies? Writing, Rhetoric and American Cultures Department, Michigan State University Professional Writing Major WRA 202 Introduction to Professional Writing Basic principles of rhetoric and composition applied to professional writing. Topics include page design, field definition, research tools and practices, genres and conventions, and professional style. WRA 210 Introduction to Web Authoring Reading, analyzing, evaluating, and authoring Web sites. Principles of design rhetoric. Practices of Web accessibility. WRA 260 Rhetorics of American Popular Culture Rhetorical analysis of consumer, corporate, organizational, and popular cultures appropriate to professional settings. WRA 308 Invention in Writing Theory and practice of invention in writing. Strategies and theories of generating and exploring thought in civic and professional writing contexts. WRA 320 Technical Writing Principles and practices of effective writing in the workplace, with special emphasis on technical, scientific, and electronic-mediated writing. Includes audience and organizational needs, visual rhetoric, information design, electronic publication, ethics, technical style, usability testing, and team writing. WRA 331 Writing in the Public Interest Various forms of public writing and rhetoric and their roles in democracy and public culture. Practice in modes of public and civic discourse, including deliberative strategies and a range of public literacies. WRA 341 Writing Nature and the Nature of Writing Writing- and reading-intensive course focusing on the language of scientists, poets, essayists, naturalists, environmentalists, and biologists, and on their various responses to and representations of the natural environment. WRA 355 Writing for Publication Workshop Develop and hone skills in revision and editing using a rhetorical approach. Develop to publishable level at least two major pieces of work and submit them for print, web, performance or other publication. WRA 360 Visual Rhetoric for Professional Writers Writing- and design-intensive. Visual literacy, design, and rhetoric and the effects elements in print and online documents have on audience, such as typography, page size, paper type, alignment, graphics. WRA 361 Rhetoric, Persuasion, and Argument Traditional and contemporary approaches to rhetoric, persuasion, and argument both in text and visuals and relating to a wide variety of approaches (e.g., feminist, digital/electric, political, postmodern). WRA 370 Editing and Style in Professional Writing Theories, practice, and processes of editing in professional writing contexts. Focus on rhetoric and style. WRA 410 Advanced Web Authoring Developing and maintaining large-scale, interactive web sites. Emphasis on visual design, usability, audio and video integration, ongoing site management, and web accessibility. WRA 415 Digital Rhetoric Exploration of the rhetorical, social, political, economic, and ethical dimensions of electronic writing and publishing. Focus on the rhetorical dynamics of computer-mediated writing spaces such as the Internet, World Wide Web, email, and synchronous chat. WRA 417 Multimedia Writing Visual rhetoric and design theories applied to digital short subjects. Write, direct, critique, and produce motion-based digital compositions that include multiple media. WRA 420 Advanced Technical Writing Applied theory and specialized practices. Topics such as user-centered design, project and document management, information and interface design, issues in digital writing, technical editing, and writing for scientific and technical journals. WRA 444 Writing in American Cultures Analysis of rhetorical practices in selected American disciplines, communities, and public cultures. WRA 446 American Indian Rhetorics Theoretical approaches to Native rhetorics. Historical and contemporary debates about the production and reception of visual and written Native texts. WRA 453 Grant and Proposal Writing Researching and writing grants and proposals for corporations, nonprofit organizations, businesses, and government agencies. WRA 455 Portfolio Seminar Workshop for students preparing professional document portfolios, in print and digital formats, including application materials for career, graduate study, and professional positions. WRA 493E Internship in Professional Writing Supervised work as writers and editors in a corporate or organizational setting, with classroom component. Internship assignment must be arranged with instructor prior to semester.  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