ࡱ> ` 2bjbjss }$|;Sv$ BBBPjB.CL2#f2CC(CCCDDDfffffff$ghRj9f9DDDDD9fCC4rfTTTDCCfTDfTT_3aCzC ܹuBtL6`ff0f`jPRj 3aj3aDDTDDDDD9f9fPDDDfDDDD2#2#2#:d2#2#2#:"   APPENDIX Off-Duty Internet Use: Employers Perspectives John Houston Pope Epstein Becker & Green, P.C. New York, NY Introduction The internet is a unique democratizing medium unlike anything that has come before. The advent of the internet dramatically changed the nature of public discourse by allowing more and diverse people to engage in public debate. Unlike thirty years ago, when many citizens were barred from meaningful participation in public discourse by financial or status inequalities and a relatively small number of powerful speakers could dominate the marketplace of ideas the internet now allows anyone with a phone line to become a town crier with a voice that resonates farther than it could from any soapbox. Through the internet, speakers can bypass the mainstream media to speak directly to an audience larger and more diverse than any the Framers could have imagined. -- Doe v. Cahill, 884 A.2d 451, 453-54 (Del. 2005) (internal quotes and alterations omitted) [T]he Internet is not something that you just dump something on. It's not a big truck. It's a series of tubes. -- Senator Ted Stevens (R-Alaska), June 28, 2006 In the modern workplace the line between on duty and off duty frequently blurs. Many employees show up at a companys offices or worksite, work an eight hour shift, and head home. Other employees work long hours beyond the traditional eight hour work day and sometimes switch from performing their employers work to performing personal tasks while still at the office, still using company equipment. Still other groups of employees work from home offices, or otherwise telecommute, and may be using their own computers, but their work time and personal time intertwine. When an employee plainly is working on company time, or is using company equipment, an employers right to control the employees conduct generates comparatively little controversy. An employees activities off duty off the clock and away from the employers premises and equipment evoke a different response. One popular strain of thought views off-duty time as sacrosanct and argues that employers should not be permitted to discipline or terminate employees for what is said or done outside working hours. In reality, employers have many interests that can be infringed by employee off-duty conduct. These include an employers confidential information, its reputation, and its need to maintain morale and discipline in the workplace. Employers, of course, do not need to institute a totalitarian regime to govern employees outside of the workplace. Much of what happens outside of work matters not. Indeed, for perhaps as long as people have worked for other people, employees have talked about, complained about, and bragged about their work, at home and in every manner of social setting outside of the workplace. The ephemeral conversations rarely mattered precisely because they came and went without a trace. The internet changed things. The advent of weblogs, better known as blogs, created an entirely new form of interpersonal communication. Millions of people record their thoughts, observations, impressions and opinions on web pages that can be accessed from virtually anywhere in the world. Others choose to use the internet to relate to other people in different ways, through social networking sites (e.g., myspace.com), video and podcast postings (e.g., youtube.com), or virtual worlds where users can assume an identity and engage in a second life that parallels (or improves on) their own, albeit with such tweaks and revisions that make them feel better about themselves. Employers face the task of thoughtfully and prudently responding to what their employees elect to do in cyberspace. Blogging, in particular, is different from the cocktail party patter of an earlier era. A blogger sits down, composes entries, and posts them to a web page precisely so others often strangers can read them (and perhaps comment on or discuss them further). Those posts remain in cyberspace, ready to be discovered by wandering eyes that simply may have searched the internet on a topic that located a blog entry due to the presence of key words. In a flash, the fleeting complaints of yesteryear transform into a record that may be accessed by a competitor or government regulator, or read by a co-worker or manager who is the subject of criticism or ridicule, or considered by a recently interviewed candidate who is deciding whether to accept an offer of employment. Of course, many bloggers intend that their comments will be found and read, sometimes in anonymity and sometimes openly, with the purpose of venting their spleen over what they feel their employer does wrong. Blogs have grown into a significant medium. Millions blog, and the demographic of bloggers skews young; more interaction between blogging and the workforce can be expected as time goes by. With the growth of blogging, employers have responded sometimes wisely, sometimes not. Dooced The act of being firing for the contents of ones blog earned its own name: dooced. The online Urban Dictionary defines dooced as getting fired because of something you wrote in your weblog. The term derives from the name of a blog Dooce written by Heather Armstrong. She was terminated from her job as a web designer in 2002 when her employer discovered her blog. The number of employees dooced has grown over time. One website maintains a list enumerating more than seventy affected employees worldwide. Some illustrative doocings in the private sector include: Michael Hanscom, who blogged on Eclecticism, released from his position as a contract worker at Microsoft in 2003, after he hoped to point out what he considered a gentle irony with his post of a photo of the companys receiving area at the main campus in Redmond, Washington, which showed Apple computers in use. Rob Smith, who blogged on Gut Rumbles, forced into early retirement in 2003 by Kerr-McGee because his blog contained many comments that the company viewed as inconsistent with his position as a manager, including rants against his ex-wife (who also worked for Kerr-McGee at the same facility), a comment that the n-word was sometimes deserved, and the statement that all [he] needed to deal with workplace violence was a three-foot piece of stainless pipe that he kept behind his desk. Ellen Simonetti, who blogged on Queen of the Sky, lost her job as a Delta Air Lines flight attendant in 2004 after she posted what Delta considered overly suggestive photographs of herself in her uniform aboard one of the companys planes. Mark Jen, who blogged on Ninetyninezeros, fired from Google in 2005, eleven days into his employment, after he posted his comments, based on nonpublic information, on the companys financial results and future products. Jessica Zenner, who blogged on Inexcusable Behavior, fired from her job as a technical recruiter at Nintendo, after she posted a deeply personal tirade against one of her bosses. Few dooced employees in America sue. (Several, however, have landed book deals.) Simonetti did, alleging sexual discrimination, but Delta filed for bankruptcy only seven weeks after she commenced her action, bringing it to a sudden halt. At-will employees in this country have little recourse when an employer takes exception to a blog, a topic discussed further below. Contrast the remedies potentially available in other countries. Catherine Sanderson, an English expatriate working in Paris, received 44,000 (roughly $60,000 at the time) in compensation from her employer after being fired (or, as the Brits would say,  sacked ) from her secretarial position in 2006 after her employer learned of her blog, Le Petit Anglais. Employer Interests & Concerns Many have the perception that private employer restrictions on blogging raise a free speech issue. The First Amendment, of course, does not apply to private sector employment decisions. Private employers normally are not held to the constitutionally imposed standards that protect free expression from government interference. Instead, private employers operate within common law and statutory confines. Employees either work under contract (including collective bargaining agreements) or at will. The more common arrangement, at will employment, permits an employer to terminate employment at any time and for any reason or no reason, with the exception that the reason may not be an illegal one, such as unlawful discrimination. At will employment in New York does not recognize any exception for discharges that allegedly violate public policy. Nor does New York recognize the tort of wrongful discharge. Employee bloggers may, wittingly or unwittingly, infringe a range of important employer interests that should or must prompt a response from their employers. For convenience, these interests will be grouped into three broad categories: protecting an employers confidences, protecting an employers reputation, and maintaining workplace morale and discipline. Protecting Confidences Employers seek to protect many confidences that they consider vital to their business operations: business plans, new product proposals, customer information, financial results, and so on. The list of important confidences often varies among industries and even among employers within an industry. Common to all employers, however, is the need to trust their employees with those confidences during their employment. An employees common law duty to loyalty to his or her employer includes the preservation of such confidences. Employee-bloggers pose a potential threat to the security of such confidences. An employee-blogger easily can let a secret slip and thus launch into the blogosphere information that his or her employer would prefer to keep confidential. An employer certainly can and should take steps to protect these confidences.  In two areas the threat of disclosure poses particular hazards. Information related to financial results, or potentially revealing future changes in those results (such as the progress of a potential new product), may create concerns under the regulatory regime for publicly traded companies. The unauthorized release of information may generate potential liability under the securities laws or force the company to issue an authorized statement prematurely. The strong reaction of a company such as Google to the blogging of its employee, Mark Jen, reflects, for example, this employer concern. Trade secrets also demand employer vigilance. Deciding when an employer confidence qualifies as a trade secret breeds fertile ground for litigation, but one constant in the controversy lies in the need for an employer to demonstrate that it has taken steps to guard the secrecy of the information at issue. Consistent with this crucial factor in trade secret protection, several courts have refused to confer protection on information when it has been released on to the internet. As one court observed: The court is troubled by the notion that any Internet user, ... can destroy valuable intellectual property rights by posting them over the Internet, especially given the fact that there is little opportunity to screen postings before they are made. Nonetheless, one of the Internets virtues, that it gives even the poorest individuals the power to publish to millions of readers, can also be a detriment to the value of intellectual property rights. The anonymous (or judgment proof) defendant can permanently destroy valuable trade secrets, leaving no one to hold liable for the misappropriation. Employers thus cannot ignore the risk posed by employee-bloggers, should they knowingly or accidentally reveal trade secrets in their postings. Protecting Reputation An employee-blogger can post material that the employer finds embarrassing or offensive. Blogger Michael Hanscom attributed his unemployment to this interest; a company does not have to tolerate an individual who announces an irony that the company does not wish to publicize. Likewise, the firing of Ellen Simonetti might be seen as a corporate decision to disassociate itself from the manner in which she chose to present herself on-line, particularly in her employers uniform. Could the employers have tolerated the approach these employee-bloggers took? Certainly. But they had no obligation to do so. An employers reputational interest extends beyond on-line activity that directly impugns the employers business. It is sufficient that an employee-blogger projects a persona with which the business does not want to associate. A federal court case in New Jersey, Wiegand v. Motiva Enterprise, LLC, illustrates this point vividly. An employee who managed the convenience store at a gasoline station also operated a website marketing quality Pro-White products and otherwise vigorously advocating a neo-Nazi point of view. When the employer learned that a newspaper article had been published linking the employee to the website (but not yet linking the employee to the employer), it fired him, despite his assertion that he did not himself subscribe to the views set forth on his website. The court observed: Plaintiff was a supervisor of the convenience store and was in constant contact with the consuming public. Defendants justifiably were concerned that if they allowed his employment to continue, the public would learn of the views expressed on his website and believe that defendants condoned such ideas. While the hate materials was not associated with defendants brand at the time of plaintiffs termination, defendants, as private employers, still had a very strong interest in regulating the speech of their convenience store supervisor to ensure that it personified their values of respect for all. As a cautionary tale, it should be noted that, despite this strong pro-employer statement, the employer did not obtain summary judgment on all claims. The employee successfully argued that a claim based on promissory estoppel should proceed to trial because, he contended, the employer initially had promised to continue his employment if he took steps to disassociate himself from the website business and to prevent further publicity. This result underscores the importance to an employer of focusing on its interests early and hewing to a course that best advances them. Employer reputational interests also can be implicated by the use of its trademarks, or similar other intellectual property, on an employee-bloggers site. The uncontrolled use of trademarks can create issues for future enforcement, including diminishment of claims for blurring or tarnishment of the mark by others. An employer should actively police the unauthorized use of its marks by bloggers, as it previously would do when others misappropriate such intellectual property. Maintaining Morale and Discipline The first two groups of interests address how the employer deals with the outside world; morale and discipline, however, must be maintained within an employers workplace. These interests can be threatened by employee-bloggers who use their forum to challenge the authority, competence or personal qualities of their managers, or who engage in expression that cannot be reconciled with their responsibilities within the organization. Jessica Zenners termination for her tirade against her boss fits the first category; the postings by Rob Smith that were inconsistent with his managerial role fall into the second. Both employee-bloggers ignored the potential impact of their postings on their future interactions in the workplace. A recent public employment case, Curran v. Cousins, drives home this point. The plaintiff, a corrections officer, posted extraordinarily inflammatory statements about his boss the Sheriff to a public discussion board website. The court upheld the termination of the plaintiffs employment, noting that [t]he statements here directly went to impairing discipline by superiors, disrupting harmony and creating friction in working relationships, undermining confidence in the administration, invoking oppositional personal loyalties, and interfering with the regular operation of the enterprise. These interests are hardly unique to public employers or to law enforcement agencies. Every employer can and should concern itself with internet postings that attack the cohesion of the workplace. These interests also coincide with an employers interest in maintaining a workplace free of discriminatory insult or ridicule. An employee-blogger, operating off duty, could use an internet forum to directly attack or disparage other employees in terms that would constitute illegal harassment if they occurred in the workplace. While those attacks should be insufficient by themselves to create employer liability, they certainly help to define a context for judging workplace behavior and, if called to an employers attention, could provide an argument for the affected co-workers that the employer ignored or condoned allegedly harassing behavior. Additionally, a managerial employee-blogger may reveal aspects of his or her attitudes or character that later could be used as evidence of illegal animus should that manager render an employment decision that is challenged as discriminatory or retaliatory. Employers accordingly should be concerned when employee-bloggers speak directly about their colleagues and managers or about subjects that may reveal unlawful prejudices or intolerance. Statutory Limits On Private Employer Options Neither state nor federal governments have yet passed any law specifically addressing employee blogging. Several statutes, however, impose indirect limits on employee options. In New York, statutory protection for certain off-duty conduct might arguably provide protection to employee-bloggers, but no case has yet held as much and thus far courts have narrowly interpreted the statute. At the federal level, the primary statutory constraints lie in the National Labor Relations Act, if the blogging qualifies as concerted activity, and the anti-discrimination statutes, if the employers response to the blogging involves differential treatment based on a protected class or can be characterized as retaliatory for the bloggers opposition to discriminatory practices or participation in certain proceedings related to a charge of discrimination. At the state level, the New York Human Rights Law contains comparable anti-discrimination and anti-retaliation protections and Labor Law Section 201-d, the off-duty conduct statute, protects certain legal activities outside of working hours, off of the employers premises, and without the use of the employers equipment or other property. Whistleblower statutes also exist at the federal and state level, but they generally protect the reports of alleged wrongdoing only if the reports follow established channels, such as to a supervisor or a public body like a regulatory agency. Section 7 of the NLRA protects concerted activity by employees related to union organizing. Use of the internet to facilitate union organizing activities, including criticism of the employer, may receive protection under Section 7. Because internet communications such as blogs communicate with third parties (potentially, the rest of the wired world), employee communications will be considered protected if they pass a two-part test: (1) the communications are related to an ongoing labor dispute; and (2) the communications are not reckless or maliciously untrue, or are not detrimentally disloyal to the employer. Thus, while an employer must accord considerable leeway to labor-related blogging, action may be taken if the blog devolves into disparaging attacks on the quality of an employers products or services and its business policies. The anti-discrimination laws do not oppose any unique burdens on employers with respect to blogging. As with other employment policies and decisions, the employer simply must refrain from making a decision based on a protected class characteristic, such as sex or race. Differential treatment may invite a claim of discrimination. The anti-retaliation protections likewise do not impose new or unique burdens on employers with respect to blogging, with one exception. Consider the case of an employee who has a complaint about discrimination, or files suit against his or her employer, then blogs about it. Can the employer take action designed to stop the blogging, or is it protected activity that would support a claim of retaliation? If blogging about the job otherwise is categorically prohibited, the employee-blogger should not be insulated from discipline simply because an accusation has been made or a charge is pending. The protection against retaliation does not enlarge the employees rights in the workplace; it merely ensures equality of treatment. Another important consideration, if the blogging otherwise is permissible, would be the content of the posts. Inappropriate or unreasonable content, even if part of an employees alleged opposition to discrimination, is not protected. While these precepts have has yet to be tested in the courts in this context, it would seem that an employer need not tolerate blogging that includes scurrilous personal attacks or the revelation of confidential business information. State law holds the potentially most important limitation on blogging, although no cases have tested the law in this area. Labor Law Section 201-d bans [d]iscrimination against the engagement in certain activities that occur away from the workplace and outside working hours. The statute, enacted into law in 1992 after Governor Cuomo vetoed two predecessor bills in prior years, represents an example of lifestyle discrimination legislation that an unusual coalition of civil libertarians, tobacco companies, and others have advocated in recent years. New York is one of four states that have comprehensive lifestyle discrimination laws. The treatment of bloggers by employers now is an important part of the lobbying effort on behalf of such legislation. New Yorks law provides protection to political activities, union membership, legal use of consumable products, and legal recreational activities when the employee engages in the activity outside of working hours, off of the employers premises, and without the use of the employers equipment or other property. These activities are not absolutely protected; an employer can take action against an employee if the employees activities fall within one of the laws exemptions. Illegal lifestyle discrimination, however, can be the subject of an enforcement action by the State or an action by an aggrieved individual for equitable relief and damages. Defined terms take on great significance in judging the scope of the law. Political activities focuses on support for candidates, with the exception that participation in fund-raising activities for a political party or a political advocacy group receives protection. It would appear that a blogger who engages in pure issue advocacy, without regard to supporting a candidate or raising funds for a political party or cause, would not warrant the laws protections. Legal recreational activities potentially broadens the reach of the law considerably. The term is defined as any lawful, leisure-time activity, for which the employee receives no compensation and which is generally engaged in for recreational purposes which potentially could cover many activities, including blogging, in many cases with the additional phrase including but not limited to sports, games, hobbies, exercise, reading and the viewing of television, movies and similar material. It has been suggested that this list of specific activities should be viewed as illustrative and not be construed to narrow the scope of the statutory protection, but the currently controlling case law instead applies the doctrine of noscitur a sociis to use them as limiting the scope of the law to activities that resemble those listed. An argument certainly could be made to group blogging with the enumerated examples; blogging also can be distinguished from the list inasmuch as reading and watching television or movies are receipt of information activities, not the dissemination of information, with its attendant risks, like blogging. The New York Court of Appeals, however, has not weighed in, and, if presented with the issue, could place a broader interpretation on the term recreational activities than thus far conferred by other courts. Were Section 201-d extended to protect blogging, employers certainly would not be without rights to deal with employee-bloggers. The statute exempts activity that otherwise fits within the definition of protected conduct but which creates a material conflict of interest related to the employers trade secrets, proprietary information, or business interest. This exemption was among the important changes to previous, vetoed bills that persuaded Governor Cuomo to approve the current law in 1992. The exemption has not been much construed in the courts and little guidance can be gleaned from the reported cases. The language of the exemption, however, clearly tracks one category of an employers interests in regulating employee blogging. It should not be difficult for prudent employers to develop a legitimate basis to fit within this exemption. Another exemption refuses to protect activity that violates a collective bargaining agreement or a certified or licensed professionals contractual obligation to devote his or her entire compensated working hours to a single employer, provided the professional receives compensation equivalent to $50,000 per year in 1992, as adjusted by the consumer price index in subsequent years. The statute further authorizes employers to take employment actions based on their belief that the individuals actions were deemed by an employer or previous employer to be illegal or to constitute habitually poor performance, incompetency or misconduct or that the employers actions were required by statute, regulation, ordinance or other governmental mandate. These belief immunities would seem to embrace an employers need to take action when an employee-blogger posts entries that might, for example, constitute insubordination or increase the employers exposure under the anti-discrimination statutes. In the end, it appears that a prudent and careful employer can protect itself from liability under Labor Law Section 201-d if it acts against an employee-blogger for one of the reasons described as an employer interest in regulating blogging. The statute may have some impact in deterring more arbitrary reasons to employee blogging or internet use, but it does not erect a substantial barrier in the main. Means & Strategies To Address Off-Duty Conduct Employers face different challenges depending upon whether an employee blogs openly, providing an easy means to identify someone who has overstepped his or her bounds, or an employee acts anonymously or pseudonymously, concealing his or her real identity. Open blogging should be addressed with a clear policy and active enforcement. Anonymous blogging imposes additional burdens and, in some cases, may escape an employers pursuit. Employers should set forth their expectation and regulations regarding employee off-duty internet use through an appropriate policy. Such a policy may be part of a broader technology-use policy that addresses all media (email, instant messaging, internet browsing, etc.) at work and off duty, or it can stand alone as a policy focused on blogging or off-duty conduct. The elements of a policy on blogging should include: (1) A clear statement of what is prohibited, such as: - disclosure of confidential or proprietary information - use of the employers intellectual property (e.g., trademarks) - infringement on the intellectual property rights of others - statements adversely affecting the employers interests or reputation - criticism of customers or other important business partners - statements supporting competitors - defamatory, harassing or disparaging content - content that violates the law, such as obscenity - content that would constitute a violation of any other policies, rules, standards of content, or requirements applied by the employer to its employees (2) A clear statement of what is permitted or required, such as disclaimers of affiliation or endorsement by the company, if it is mentioned or otherwise identifiable (3) Descriptions, with examples as necessary, of inappropriate content. The policy can and should express the employers preference about blogging, if any. Some firms in the technology field, or that are particularly savvy in the internet area, may want to encourage employee blogging, as, for example, Sun Microsystems has done in its policy. If that preference is expressed, the employer should understand that it will expose itself to arguments along the line of the promissory estoppel claim asserted in Wiegand, should it try to turn a sharp corner to curtail blogs that may not clearly violate its policy. Whether such arguments prevail is an entirely different matter; the risk simply increases when the employer appears to encourage behavior that it later decides to end or curtail. Any policy will face difficulty in curtailing anonymous blogging and anonymous contributions to the blogs of others. Piercing the veil of anonymity can present a high hurdle to clear. Courts have taken the view that anonymous speech on the internet constitutes a continuation of the American traditions that lie at the heart of the First Amendment. While tortious speech does not itself merit protection, courts will not force disclosure of the identity of an anonymous critic without being convinced that a meritorious claim drives the attempt to unmask the critic. A consensus seems to be forming that requires proof akin to a showing that the moving party would be able to obtain summary judgment on its claims (insofar as proof is within its ability to obtain at the outset of a litigation) in order to obtain an order compelling disclosure of the identity of an anonymous internet speaker. Additionally, if the information sought is not the identity of an anonymous blogger but rather the identity of an unnamed source who provided information to a blogger or internet publication, state laws governing the privilege of journalists to protect sources may come into play. An employers reaction to employee blogging, it should be remembered, demands business judgment, not merely as a legal basis to act. Too strong of a response may generate unwanted and bad publicity. An aggressive pursuit of an anonymous blogger, or a bloggers anonymous sources, likewise may sully a companys reputation. Conclusion Employers have many legitimate interests that are implicated by employee off-duty blogging and internet use. Legal restrictions at the present do not pose significant barriers to protection of those interests, although advocates of lifestyle discrimination protections lobby to improve employee statutory protections. Employers best serve their interests by developing and enforcing clear policies to apprise employees of the dos and donts of blogging, and by exercising sound judgment in enforcing those policies when problems arise.  See, e.g., Gates v. Caterpillar, Inc., __ F.3d. __, 2008 WL 141814 at *4 (7th Cir. Jan. 16, 2008) (employees excessive personal use of telephone and internet on company time constituted legitimate basis for termination); Twymon v. Wells Fargo & Co., Inc., 462 F.3d 925, 935 (8th Cir. 2006) (violation of company policies on excessive personal use of the internet and email, and receipt, storage or dissemination of obscene materials); but see Guard Publishing Co., 351 NLRB No. 70 (Dec. 16, 2007) (3-2 Board decision in which majority and dissent debate whether union should be given access to company email system).  See, e.g., OGrady v. Superior Court, 139 Cal. App. 4th 1423, 1445, 44 Cal. Rptr. 3d 72, 88 (2006) (contrasting the availability of a trail tracing the disclosure of trade secrets in a digital age to the lack of such evidence when conversations left no such trail).  David Sifry reported in April 2006 that Technorati, an internet search engine for searching blogs, tracked 35.3 million weblogs over 60 times the number of only 3 years earlier with 75,000 new ones created each day. Nearly 20 million bloggers are still posting three months after they start. See Sifrys Alerts, State of the Blogosphere, April 2006 Part 1: On Blogosphere Growth, Apr. 17, 2006 (http://www.sifry.com/alerts/archives/000432.html). Wired Magazines website places the current number of blogs at over 100 million. Jenna Wortham, After 10 Years of Blogs, the Future's Brighter Than Ever, Wired (http://www.wired.com/entertainment/theweb/news/2007/12/blog_anniversary).  See Bruce Barry, Speechless: The Erosion of Free Expression in the American Workplace, at 176-79 (2007).  http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=dooced.  Amy J. Traub, Dooced, N.Y. Empl. L. Letter, vol. 14, no. 1, p. 1 (Jan. 2007).  At Morpheme Tales (http://morphemetales.wordpress.com/2006/10/19/statistics-on-fired-blogger), blogger/journalist Curt Hopkins compiles an ongoing list of bloggers who have been fired, disciplined or dropped from consideration for jobs because of their blogs.  Jeffrey S. Klein & Nicholas S. Pappas, When Private Sector Employer Fires Worker For Blogging, N.Y. L.J., Feb. 5, 2007.  See Simonetti v. Delta Air Lines, Inc., Case No. 1:05-cv-2321 (N.D. Ga.).  English blogger wins wrongful dismissal case, The Telegraph, Mar. 30, 2007; Online Bridget Jones diary gets secretary sacked, Daily Mail, July 19, 2006.  See, e.g., Bijal J. Patel, Comment, Myspace or Yours: The Abridgment Of The Blogosphere At The Hands Of At-Will Employment, 44 Hous. L. Rev. 777 (2007) (arguing for use of First Amendment to create a public policy exception to private sector at-will employment).  See, e.g., Myron v. Consolidated Rail Corp., 752 F.2d 50, 54 (2d Cir. 1985); Henderson v. Center for Community Alternatives, 911 F. Supp. 689, 707 (S.D.N.Y. 1996); Engstrom v. Kinney System, Inc., 241 A.D.2d 420, 424, 661 N.Y.S.2d 610, 614 (1st Dept 1997). The exception, of course, is when a private employers conduct is able to satisfy the test for state action and thereby become fairly attributable to the state. Further discussion of this topic is beyond the scope of this presentation.  See, e.g., State Div. of Hum. Rts. ex rel. Cottongim v. County of Onondaga Sherrifs Dept, 71 N.Y.2d 623, 630, 528 N.Y.S.2d 802 (1988); OConnor v. Eastman Kodak Co., 65 N.Y.2d 724, 725, 492 N.Y.S.2d 9 (1985); Murphy v. American Home Products Corp., 58 N.Y.2d 293, 300, 461 N.Y.S.2d 232 (1983).  See, e.g., Lobosco v. New York Tel. Co./NYNEX, 96 N.Y.2d 312, 316, 727 N.Y.S.2d 383 (2001); Murphy, 58 N.Y.2d at 301.  See, e.g., Chimarev v. TD Waterhouse Inv. Servs., Inc., 99 Fed. Appx. 259, 262 (2d Cir. 2004); Lobosco, 96 N.Y.2d at 316.  See, e.g., Ivy Mar Co. v. C.R. Seasons, Ltd., 907 F. Supp. 547, 556 (E.D.N.Y. 1995).  Cf. In re Claim of Gilbert, 254 A.D.2d 661, 679 N.Y.S.2d 452 (3d Dept 1998) (upholding disqualification of employee from unemployment benefits because employees carelessness in violating employers confidentiality policy by divulging information about a prospective client that was overheard by a third party).  See, e.g., Ashland Mgmt. Inc. v. Janien, 82 N.Y.2d 395, 407, 604 N.Y.S.2d 912 (1993) (looking to Restatement of Torts, 757, cmt. b and its six factor test to measure the protectability of a putative trade secret, which includes the extent of measures taken by [the business] to guard the secrecy of the information); accord Softel, Inc. v. Dragon Med. Sci. Commcns, Inc., 118 F.3d 955, 968 (2d Cir. 1997).  See, e.g., Roman Chariot, LLC v. JMRL Sales & Serv., Inc., 2006 WL 4483165, at *6 (D.N.J. July 11, 2006); Hired Connectors, Inc. v. United States, 2006 WL 3618011, at **10-11 (C.D. Cal. Jan. 25, 2006); DVD Copy Control Assn, Inc. v. Brunner, 116 Cal. App. 4th 241, 254-55, 10 Cal. Rptr. 3d 185, 194-96 (2004).  Religious Tech. Ctr. v. NETCOM On-Line Commcn Servs., Inc., 923 F. Supp. 1231, 1256 (N.D. Cal. 1995).  See, e.g., City of San Diego v. Roe, 543 U.S. 77, 81 (2004) (male police officers off-duty business of selling sexually explicit materials over the internet in which he appeared in his uniform, brought the mission of the employer and the professionalism of its officers into disrepute); St. Croix v. Univ. of Colo. Health Servs. Ctr., 166 P.3d 230, (Colo. App. 2007) (hospital terminated female medical resident after discovery on sexually explicit website of pornographic photos for which she posed before she was hired because of its concern for its reputation, the risk of losing the confidence of its patients, and its assessment of the prospects of improving [her] performance as a surgical resident); City of Memphis v. Civil Service Commn, 216 S.W. 2d 311, 317 (Tenn. 2007) (police officers off-duty, sexually explicit internet relationship with minor reflect[ed] adversely on the City and its police department); Mapp v. Burnham, 23 A.D. 3d 37, 53, 800 N.Y.S. 137, 149 (1st Dept 2005) (Friedman, J., dissenting) (arguing that public agencys vital interest in maintaining its reputation for integrity justified termination of employees), revd, 8 N.Y. 3d 999, 839 N.Y.S. 2d 439 (2007).  295 F. Supp. 2d 465 (D.N.J. 2003).  Id. at 477.  Id. at 479-80.  509 F.3d 36 (1st Cir. 2007).  Id. at 50.  See, e.g., Niscosia v. Township of Belleville, 2005 WL 762161, at *4 (N.J. Adm. Mar. 2, 2005) (municipal employee posted comments on internet forum urging the killing of police officers; although off duty conduct, it had a tendency to disrupt morale and good working relationships among the public servants of Belleville), affd, 2007 WL 1437428 (N.J. Super. May 17, 2007).  Cf. Captain v. Mississippi Empl. Sec. Commn, 817 So. 2d 634, 636-38 (Miss. App. 2002) (employer concerned that mangers off-duty emails and phone calls to female employees were harassment).  The New Jersey Supreme Court alluded to such a linkage where attacks occurred on the employers electronic bulletin board. See Blakely v. Continental Airlines, Inc., 164 N.J. 38, 751 A.2d 538 (2000).  See N.Y. Lab. Law 201-d(2)(a), (c).  See N.Y. Lab. Law 740(2); see also Marsh v. Delta Air Lines, Inc.. 952 F. Supp. 1458, 1463 (D. Colo. 1997) (refusing to treat employees letter to newspaper as whistleblowing because he did not utilize companys internal complaint procedure).  29 U.S.C. 157.  See, e.g., Konop v. Hawaiian Airlines, Inc., 302 F.3d 868, 882 (9th Cir. 2002) (applying NLRA precedents to Railway Labor Act case to conclude that employees website could receive protection); see also Eastex, Inc. v. NLRB, 437 U.S. 556, 566-67 (1978) (establishing principle that employees can advance their interests through channels outside the immediate employee-employer relationship).  See NLRB v. Electrical Workers Local 1229 (Jefferson Standard), 346 U.S. 464, 471-72 (1953); Endicott Interconnect Technologies, Inc. v. NLRB, 453 F.3d 532, 537 (D.C. Cir. 2006).  See Endicott Interconnect Tech., 453 F.3d at 537-38.  Ellen Simonetti, for example, claimed that Delta did not discipline or discharge male employees who appeared in photographs on the internet dressed in their uniforms.  See, e.g., Brown v. Ralston Purina Co., 557 F.2d 570, 572 (6th Cir. 1977).  Of course, the opposition to discrimination must involve practices prohibited by Title VII or other anti-discrimination statutes. See, e.g., EEOC v. Omni Hotels Mgmt. Corp., 516 F. Supp. 2d 678, 705 (N.D. Tex. 2007) (Muslim employee expressing generalized concern in local media interviews that his faith was under attack after the 9/11 attack did not engage in protected activity; [v]ague concerns and even vague assertions of discrimination are not sufficient to constitute opposition to an unlawful employment practice).  See, e.g., Cruz v. Coach Stores, Inc., 202 F.3d 560, 566 (2d Cir. 2000) (slapping a supervisor in response to alleged sexual harassment is not protected activity); Rollins v. Florida Dept of Law Enforcement, 868 F.2d 397, 401 (11th Cir. 1989) (complaints about discrimination must be presented in a reasonable manner and by a reasonable method).  California, Colorado and North Dakota are the other three. Although some similarities exist among the statutes, textual differences advise caution when using cases from these jurisdictions to try to resolve questions in New Yorks law. For broader discussions of these laws, including those implications for blogging, see Rafael Gely & Leonard Bierma, Workplace Blogs And Workers Privacy, 66 La. L. Rev. 1079 (2006); Stephen D. Lichtenstein & Jonathan J. Darrow, Employment Termination For Employee Blogging: Number One Tech Trend For 2005 And Beyond, Or A Recipe For Getting Dooced?, 2006 UCLA J.L. & Tech. 4; Marisa Anne Pagnattar, What Do You When You Are Not At Work? Limiting The Use Of Off-Duty Conduct As The Basis For Adverse Employment Actions, 6 U. Pa. J. Lab. & Emp. L. 625 (2004); Stephen D. Sugarman, Lifestyle Discrimination In Employment, 24 Berkeley J. of Emp. & Lab. L. 101 (2003); Shelbie J. Byers, Note, Untangling The Worldwide Weblog: A Proposal For Blogging, Employment-At-Will, And Lifestyle Discrimination Statutes, 42 Val. U. L. Rev. 245 (2007); John S. Hong, Comment, Can Blogging And Employment Co-Exist?, 41 USF L. Rev. 445 (2007); Aaron Kirkland, Note, You Got Fired? On Your Day Off?!: Challenging Termination For Personal Blogging Practices, 75 UMKC L. Rev. 545 (2006); Tracey Watson & Elisabeth Piro, Note, Bloggers Beware: A Cautionary Tale Of Blogging And The Doctrine Of At-Will Employment, 24 Hofstra Lab. & Empl. L.J. 333 (2007).  National Workrights Institute, Lifestyle Discrimination: Employer control of legal off duty employee activities (undated).  See N.Y. Lab. Law 201-d(2).  See id., 201-d(3).  See id., 201-d(6).  See id., 201-d(7).  See id., 201-d(1)(a).  See id., 201-d(1)(b).  The receives no compensation qualifier would appear to exclude any employee-blogger who generates revenue through advertising or who markets goods and services such as the plaintiff in Wiegand. See, e.g., Cheng v. New York Tel. Co., 64 F. Supp. 2d 280, 285 n.2 (S.D.N.Y. 1999) (excoriating the plaintiff for offering the patently frivolous argument that the statute protected him from discharge when his off-duty conduct was installation of telephone equipment for personal profit).  See N.Y. Lab. Law 201-d(1)(b).  See, e.g., Pasch v. Katz Media Corp., 10 IER Cas. (BNA) 1574, 1995 WL 469710, at **2-5 (S.D.N.Y. Aug. 8, 1995).  See McCavitt v. Swiss Reins. Am. Corp., 237 F.3d 166, 168 (2d Cir. 2001); State of New York v. Wal-Mart Stores Inc., 207 A.D.2d 150, 152, 621 N.Y.S.2d 158, 160 (3d Dept 1995).  See McCavitt, 237 F.3d at 169 (McLaughlin, J., concurring) (urging the New York Court of Appeals to broaden the statutes scope to include dating as protected activity).  See N.Y. Lab. Law 201-d(3)(a). Conflict of interest is not further defined. In other settings, the term usually implies some form of personal gain. See, e.g., Coppola v. Polan, 177 A.D. 2d 398, 399, 576 N.Y.S. 2d 141, 142 (1st Dept 1991); see also Reese v. AIDS Inst. NYS Dept of Health, 112 F.3d 505, 1996 WL 560750, at *1-2 (2d Cir. 1996) (unpublished opinion); Fatland v. Quaker State Corp., 62 F.3d 1070, 1073 (8th Cir. 1995); Marsh, 952 F. Supp. At 1464.  See Pasch, 1995 WL 469710, at **4-5.  See Berg v. German Natl Tourist Office, 248 A.D.2d 297, 298, 670 N.Y.S.2d 90 (1st Dept 1998) (stating in conclusory fashion that it would still be clear, as a matter of law, that the exemption applied).  The statute does not articulate where the burdens of proof lie. Employers should expect that, as an exemption to statutory protections, the courts may place the burden on them to demonstrate the materiality of the conflict and the legitimacy of the business interests, trade secrets, or proprietary information. See Aquilone v. Republic Natl Bank of N.Y., 1998 WL 872425, at *6 n.3 (S.D.N.Y. Dec. 15, 1998) (suggesting that defendants would have to prove the existence of material conflict of interest).  See N.Y. Lab. Law 201-d(3)(e). In 2007 dollars, the figure would be approximately $74,000. See U.S. Dept of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Inflation Calculation (www.bis.gov/cpi).  See id. 201-d(4)(iii).  See id., 201-d(4)(i).  In a case under Colorados law, a federal district court concluded that a letter to the editor at a newspaper of an insubordinate nature violated the employees duty of loyalty to his employer and this was not protected by Colorados off-duty conduct statute. Marsh, 952 F. Supp. at 1464.  IBM recently promulgated a policy specifically addressing employee conduct in virtual worlds, known as the Virtual World Guidelines. Essentially, IBM instructs its employees to follow its policies, particularly its Business Conduct Guidelines, when engaged in virtual world interactions. The guidelines can be found at http://domino.research.ibm.com/comm/research-projects.nsf/pages/ virtualworlds.IBMVirtualWorldGuidelines.html.  www.sun.com/aboutsun/media/blogs/policy.html.  See, e.g., Sony Music Ent., Inc. v. Does, 326 F. Supp. 2d 556, 562-63 (S.D.N.Y. 2004); Doe v. Cahill, 884 A.2d 451, 455-56 (Del. 2005); Greenbaum v. Google, Inc., 18 Misc.3d 185, 845 N.Y.S.2d 695, 698 (Sup. Ct. N.Y. Cty. 2007).  McMann v. Doe, 460 F. Supp. 2d 259, 266-67 (D. Mass. 2006); Best Western Intl, Inc. v. Doe, 2006 WL 2091695, at **4-5 (D. Ariz. July 25, 2006); Sony Music, 326 F. Supp. 2d at 564-66; Cahill, 884 A.2d at 462-63; Dendrite Intl., Inc. v. Doe, 775 A.2d 756, 760 (N.J. App. Div. 2001).  See, e.g., OGrady v. Superior Court, 139 Cal. App. 4th 1423, 1456-79 44 cal. Rptr. 3d 72, 96-115 (2006).  Apple, for example, got characterized as a bully for its dogged pursuit of leaked secrets. 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See Blogger and Apple settle lawsuit, L.A. Times, Dec. 21, 2007.      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