ࡱ> ikh%` 9bjbj .v̟̟1 ppppppp   8DL"4@^yyy3"5"5"5"5"5"5"$#hP&Y"pyyY"ppn"K K K pp3"K 3"K K ppK 4 pr OvK D"0"K &(&K &pK yW K cyyyY"Y"^yyy" pppppp Slavery & Beyond INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.pbs.org/wnet/aaworld/reference/images/spacer.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET Slavery is the condition in which one human being is owned by another. A slave was considered by law as property (chattel) and was deprived of many of the rights ordinarily held by free persons. Slaves were objects of the law, not its subjects, like an ox or an axe. As a marginal individual or socially dead person the slaves rights to participate in political decision making and other social activities were fewer than those enjoyed by his owner. The product of a slave's labour could be claimed by someone else, who also frequently had the right to control slaves reproduction. Slaves had been owned in Africa throughout recorded history. In the second half of the C15th Europeans began to trade along the west coast of Africa, and by 1867 7 million - 10 million Africans had been shipped as slaves to the New World. Slaves were first brought to Virginia in 1619. Tobacco was initially the profitable crop that occupied most slaves in the Chesapeake, however, the invention of the cotton gin in 1793 changed this, and thereafter cotton created a huge demand for slaves. By 1850 nearly two-thirds of plantation slaves were engaged in the production of cotton. More than 36% of all the New World slaves in 1825 were in the southern United States. Like Rome had been in the Ancient World, the South was totally transformed by the presence of slavery. The process of becoming a slave in America was brutal. Africans were captured by other Africans in raids and then transported to the African coast. The captives, primarily adult males, were assembled on the coast and kept in holding pens until wholesaled to European ship captains. Once a ship was loaded, the trip, known as the Middle Passage, usually to Brazil or an island in the Caribbean, was a matter of a few weeks to several months. The slaves were then sold at auction. After the auction the slave was delivered to the new owner, who then put him to work. That also began the period of seasoning for the slave, the period of about a year or so when he either succumbed to the disease environment of the New World or survived it. In 1807 the British abolished the slave trade with their colonies. In America, the anti-slavery movement created immense hostility between the non-slave North, where most states had voluntarily abolished slavery by 1804, and the slaveholding South, where slavery was firmly entrenched because of the spread of cotton cultivation. However, it took the South's secession, the Civil War and Abraham Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation in 1863 to end slavery in America. Throughout history slaves have often been considered to be stupid, uneducable, childlike, lazy, untruthful, untrustworthy, prone to drunkenness, idle, boorish, lascivious, licentious, and cowardly. A major issue in the topic of attitudes toward slavery is that of race. In the South the owners were of northern European stock and the slaves of African stock. The degree of social isolation of, and dehumanising contempt for, slaves was extraordinary. Southern slaves were forbidden to engage in occupations that might demonstrate their capacities, inter-marriage almost never occurred, and manumission (the freeing of a slave) was almost unheard of, as the owners proclaimed that Blacks lacked any capacity to maintain themselves as free individuals. The institution of slavery usually tried to deny its victims their native cultural identity. Nonetheless, studies have shown that there were aspects of slave culture that differed from the master culture. Afro-Christian religions and rituals appeared nearly everywhere throughout the New World. Afro-American music and dance are known to have African roots, and they differed dramatically from the practices of the European master culture; the use of drum and banjo were especially significant. Songs and spirituals borrowed their strong call-and-response patterns from the West African style.  The American Civil War INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.pbs.org/wnet/aaworld/reference/images/spacer.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET The American Civil War was a four-year conflict (186165) between the federal government of the United States and 11 Southern states that asserted their right to secede from the Union (leave the union of the United States). The secession of the Southern states (in chronological order, South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, North Carolina) in 186061 and the outbreak of the Civil War were the result of decades of tension over the issue of slavery. This tension was caused by fundamental differences between the economies of the Northern and Southern states. The North had a growing manufacturing sector and small farms using free labour, while the South's economy was based on plantations using slave labour. By the 1850s, some Northerners had begun calling for the complete abolition of slavery, while several Southern states threatened to secede from the Union in order to protect their right to keep slaves. When Abraham Lincoln, the candidate of the anti-slavery Republican Party, was elected president in 1860, the Southern states carried out their threat and seceded from the Union. The seceded Southern States organized themselves as the Confederate States of America under President Jefferson Davis. They aimed to win a short war of independence. The Northern states of the federal Union, under President Abraham Lincoln, commanded more than twice the population of the Confederacy. War began in Charleston, South Carolina, with the firing of Confederate artillery on Fort Sumter on April 12 1861. The famous Ulysses S. Grant and General E. Lee played important roles in commanding the Union and Confederate forces respectively. During the period of the war, many slaves fled from the South along the Underground Railroad to the North and to freedom. Many freed slaves also joined the ranks of the Union Army. The North's victory in the American Civil War resulted in the preservation of the Union, the abolition of slavery and the granting of citizenship to the freed slaves. The war also marked the new economic and political superiority of the rapidly industrializing, increasingly urbanized states of the North. Reconstruction INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.pbs.org/wnet/aaworld/reference/images/spacer.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET Reconstruction (1865 1877) was the period during and after the American Civil War when attempts were made to solve the political, social and economic problems which had been caused by the readmission to the Union of the 11 Confederate states that had seceded. As early as 1862 President Abraham Lincoln had appointed provisional military governors for Louisiana, Tennessee and North Carolina. The following year, steps were taken to re-establish governments in newly occupied states in which at least 10% of the voting population had taken the prescribed oath of allegiance. However, Radical Republicans in Congress were angry that the presidential plan did not consider social or economic reconstruction. After Lincoln's assassination in April 1865, President Andrew Johnson further alienated Congress by continuing Lincoln's moderate policies. The Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which defined national citizenship so that it included blacks, passed Congress in June 1866 despite rejection by most Southern states. The period known as Radical Reconstruction lasted ten years. It started with the Reconstruction Acts of 1867. Under these laws, the 10 remaining Southern states were divided into five military districts and, under supervision of the U.S. Army, were readmitted to the Union between 1868 and 1870. Each state had to accept the Fourteenth or, if readmitted after its passage, the Fifteenth Constitutional Amendment, intended to ensure civil rights of the freed Blacks. Newly created state governments were governed by political coalitions (groups) of blacks, carpetbaggers (anti-slavery Northerners who had gone into the South), and scalawags (anti-slavery Southerners who collaborated with the blacks). Southerners particularly resented the activities of the Freedmen's Bureau, which Congress had established to feed, protect and help educate the newly freed Blacks. Resentment over issues such as the Freedmens Bureau led to formation of secret terrorist organizations e.g. the Ku Klux Klan and the Knights of the White Camelia. At the turn of the C20th, many historians argued that Blacks were racially inferior. These orthodox historians also argued that the Reconstruction governments were corrupt, vindictive against the South and that they promoted the superiority of the North. However, revisionist historians since then have different opinions. These revisionist historians argue that the Reconstruction governments introduced many positive measures in the South, such as public school systems, feasible methods of taxation and improved judicial procedures.  The Great Migration INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.pbs.org/wnet/aaworld/reference/images/spacer.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET The Great Migration was the movement of thousands of African-Americans from the South to the North. African Americans were looking to escape the problems of racism in the South and felt they could seek out better jobs and an overall better life in the North. It is estimated that over 1 million African-Americans participated in this mass movement. In 1900 approximately 90% of all African-Americans still resided in the South. The Great Migration created the first large, urban black communities in the North. The North saw its black population rise about 20% between 1910 and 1930. Cities such as Chicago, Detroit, New York and Cleveland saw some of the biggest increases. Between 1940 and 1970 continued migration transformed the country's African-American population from a predominately southern, rural group to a northern, urban one. There were a range of reasons why so many Blacks moved from the South to the North. Thousands of African-Americans left the South to escape worsening economic conditions and the lynch mob. They sought higher wages, better homes and political rights in the North. World War I created a huge demand for labour in the North when millions of men left their jobs to join the Army. There were therefore more jobs available for Blacks in the North. In the South, a boll weevil infestation of the cotton crop which caused ruined harvests also caused many African-Americans to leave for the North. Railroad companies were so desperate for labour that they paid African-Americans' travel expenses to the North. With black labour leaving the South in large numbers, southern planters tried to prevent the outflow, but were ultimately unsuccessful. Some southern employers promised better pay and improved treatment. Others tried to intimidate Blacks, even going so far as to board Northbound trains and to attack men and women to try to force them into returning to the South. Despite the jobs and housing available in the North, the challenges of living in an urban environment were daunting for many of the new migrants. However, the stream of migrants continued until the Great Depression caused northern demand for workers to slacken.  The Harlem Renaissance INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.pbs.org/wnet/aaworld/reference/images/spacer.gif" \* MERGEFORMATINET The Harlem Renaissance was a period of outstanding literary vigour and creativity that took place in the 1920s, changing the character of African-American literature to sophisticated explorations of black life and culture that revealed a new confidence and racial pride. The movement was centred in the vast black ghetto of Harlem in New York City, where aspiring black artists, writers and musicians gathered. These artists shared their experiences and provided mutual encouragement. One of the leading figures of the period was James Weldon Johnson, author of the pioneering novel Autobiography Of An Ex-Coloured Man (1912), though he was perhaps best known for God's Trombones (1927). Claude McKay produced an impressive volume of verse, Harlem Shadows (1922), and a best-selling novel, Home to Harlem (1928), about a young Negro's return from World War I. Countee Cullen was another important black poet. Cullen helped bring more Harlem poets to the publics attention by editing An Anthology of Verse by Negro Poets in 1927. The Great Depression caused the Harlem group of writers to scatter. 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